972992

research-article2020
PED0010.1177/1757975920972992Original ArticleS. Barmania and M. J. Reiss

Original Article

Health promotion perspectives on the COVID-19 pandemic:

The importance of religion
Sima Barmania and Michael J. Reiss

Abstract: In this article we examine the importance of religion for COVID-19 health promotion. We
advance three main arguments. First, religion plays an important role in affecting how likely it is that
people will become infected with COVID-19. Second, religion should not be seen as a ‘problem’ with
regards to COVID-19 but as an important part of the worldview and lifestyle of many people. Third,
there are valuable health promotion lessons we can learn not only from the intersection of religion
and other infectious diseases, but also from approaches taken within science education. Contentious
science topics such as evolution and vaccine hesitancy have been effectively communicated to those
with a religious faith who are disposed to reject them by reframing and considering religion as a
worldview and treating those who do not accept standard scientific theories sensitively. Religion has
much to contribute to health promotion, including introducing perspectives on life’s meaning and on
death that can differ from those held by many without religious faith. Furthermore, religious leaders
are important gatekeepers to their communities and can therefore play a vital role in policy
implementation, even when that policy makes no overt reference to religion. Our contention is that
by working with those of faith in the context of COVID-19, health promotion can be enhanced.

Keywords: religion, COVID-19, public health, health promotion, complexity theory, sensitivity.

Introduction However, such understandings alone are not

sufficient to respond to the epidemic in ways that
Since the first identified case of COVID-19 was are both effective and efficient. There are benefits
discovered in Wuhan, China at the end of 2019 (1) to a more holistic approach to understanding
there has been an unprecedented interest in public health behaviours and the social and cultural
health across all sectors. In an extraordinarily settings which mitigate or exacerbate health
short timeframe, there has been an outpouring of interventions and the multifaceted nature in which
scientific research on the disease’s origins, such interventions take place (4). There would also
zoonotics, pathophysiology and clinical outcomes be benefits from those working in public health
(2). Epidemiological research and modelling have rooting their work within a framework that
revealed important findings, such as incubation recognises the importance and context of social
period and infectivity patterns, which have become settings. Given the utility of a more holistic
cornerstones in public health policies to mitigate the approach that acknowledges the significance of
spread of COVID-19. Physical distancing, face masks context, a principal argument of this article is that
and regular handwashing are practices that have all the importance of religion for COVID-19 is
been employed to decrease the risk. Within individual currently underappreciated. Although Dahlgren
nations there have been studies to identify which and Whitehead’s (5) model on the social
specific groups are disproportionately affected (3). determinants of health does include economic

UCL Institute of Education, London, United Kingdom.

Correspondence to: Sima Barmania, UCL Institute of Education, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1H 0AL, United Kingdom.
Email: [email protected]

(This manuscript was submitted on 31 July 2020. Following blind peer review, it was accepted for publication on 19
October 2020.)
Global Health Promotion 1757-9759; Vol 28(1): 15­ –22; 972992 Copyright © The Author(s) 2020, Reprints and permissions:
http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav https://doi.
DOI:org/10. 10.1177/1757975920972992
1177/1757975920972992 journals.sagepub.com/home/ghp
https://doi.org/
16 S. Barmania and M. J. Reiss

factors, ethnicity and culture, it makes no reference or travelling, often internationally, on a pilgrimage.
to religion. This is despite the fact that, to a greater Such meetings are often intergenerational and place
or lesser degree, religion around the globe affects people in close proximity, making them a particular
the large majority of people’s daily lives and social focus of spread (12). Other religious assemblies
activities – often influencing their health, either may centre around pivotal life events or rites of
directly or indirectly (6). Likewise, other health passage including births, marriages and deaths, and
models often do not mention religion or traditional distinctive religious celebrations such as baptism,
beliefs. Cohn and colleagues’ (7) model, with its confirmation and first communion in Christian
description of complexity as ‘a dynamic and churches.
constantly emerging set of processes and objects Religious assemblies such as funerals were
that not only interact with each other, but come to temporarily banned for COVID-19 reasons, yet
be defined by those interactions’ (p.42), is large numbers of individuals were reported to have
particularly applicable to the current COVID-19 gathered for mourning at Hasidic Jewish funerals
situation; religion certainly contributes to this in New York and London in the spring of 2020
complexity. (13). Given the importance of gatherings, including
In this article we therefore examine how religion is for the purposes of worship, to religious believers
important for COVID-19 health promotion by first and the fact that in the UK, Muslims and those of
looking at how religion plays an important role in some other faiths are over-represented in areas of
determining how likely it is that someone will get material deprivation, it is not surprising that in
infected with COVID-19, and then consider how the UK a number of religious communities have
religion is often depicted as a problem for health been disproportionately affected by COVID-19.
promotion. We then draw on both complexity theory Data taken from the 2011 UK Census (the most
and approaches to dealing with religion in science recent available), alongside those of registered
education to suggest how religious leaders can help deaths due to COVID-19, show that the ‘highest
in the ‘fight’ against COVID-19, and conclude with a age-standardised mortality rates (ASMRs) of
wider discussion around religion and health deaths involving COVID-19 were in the Muslim
promotion within the context of COVID-19. religious group with 198.9 deaths per 100,000
males and 98.2 deaths per 100,000 females (p.3);
people who identified as Jewish, Hindu or Sikh
Religion and COVID-19 infection
also showed higher mortality rates than other
Religion was first brought to public notice in groups’ (14).
relation to COVID-19 at the start of 2020 when a In the same report, those who reported ‘no religion’
number of cases erupted amongst those who visited had the lowest rate of death involving COVID-19,
Iran’s Shia Muslim holy sites of Qom and Mashhad with 80.7 deaths per 100,000 males and 47.9 deaths
in February, and who subsequently travelled within per 100,000 females. The report explained that, for
the Middle East (8). In South Korea, the origin of the most part, these elevated risks for certain religious
thousands of cases of COVID-19 is thought to have groups can be explained by ‘geographical, socio-
been the Shincheonji Church of Jesus (9). In economic and demographic factors and increased
Southeast Asia, a 14,000 strong delegation of risks associated with ethnicity’ (14, p. 9). For
Islamic Tablighi-Jamaat in Kuala Lumpur was example, in the UK, Southeast Asians are more prone
widely considered to be the cause of the second to having type 2 diabetes, a risk factor for mortality
wave of the pandemic in Malaysia, with attendees from COVID-19, and are more likely to live in
from the event travelling to Brunei, Cambodia and large, intergenerational families, which increases the
Indonesia and later testing positive (10). likelihood of COVID-19 transmission (14). It is
The significance of religious congregation is important to emphasise that in general, religious
advocated within both Abrahamic and non- faith is associated with enhanced health, principally
Abrahamic religions (11). Such congregation may as a result of the social support mechanisms provided
entail regular attendance at a local place of worship by religious groupings (15).

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021

 Original Article 17

Religion should not necessarily be seen as a more recent history of scepticism about religious
a problem involvement in healthcare and public health due to
the overt role religion has played in influencing
During the COVID-19 pandemic, religion has certain health policies, such as in the case of PEPFAR
frequently been depicted as a problem. There is a (The President’s Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief).
narrative that sometimes implies (or even states) Here, conservative Christians in the US ensured
that religion is either directly harming public health that funds from the programme were tied to
or indirectly undermining the public health response initiatives such as abstinence-only sex education and
to COVID-19. Noteworthy media headlines have could not be used for abortion counselling (22). In
included: ‘The road to coronavirus hell was paved addition, some scholars have suggested that religion
by evangelicals’ from The New York Times (16); ‘US is seen as an ‘anti-development force’ (23) and has
churches and pastors ignoring “stay-at-home” had an overall negative contribution to health and
orders’ from The Guardian (17) and ‘Fears of spike development (24). Nevertheless, while religion can
in coronavirus during Ramadan’ from The Metro often be seen as a problem, both in general and with
(18). In the case of the Hasidic Jewish funeral in regards to COVID-19, there are examples of the
New York mentioned above, the large group of positive contribution that religion has made in health
mourners gathered for the funeral at a time when in the recent past.
the city was under lockdown and any gatherings
were prohibited due to COVID-19 prevention
Valuable health promotion lessons from
efforts. The New York City mayor Bill de Blasio
publicly complained about the congregation (13) religion
and the crowd was dispersed by the New York Religion has been used as an important tool to
Police Department, using water cannons. tackle and help reduce the spread of infectious
Some faith communities have experienced immense diseases including polio, HIV and Ebola. Obregón
discrimination. Anti-Semitism, Islamophobia and and colleagues analysed attempts at eradicating
structural racism can lead communities to feel polio in India and Pakistan. Here, most polio cases
alienated, even persecuted. Such feelings do not were amongst young children in predominantly
bode well for state–community engagement in poor Muslim communities and vaccine hesitancy
public health, nor for trust in local health officials. was an issue (25). Some misconceptions about the
Crucially at this watershed moment, following the vaccine were that it was ineffective, harmful to
murder of George Floyd in the United States of children, caused infertility and represented a
America (19) and the growth of the Black Lives deliberate plan to reduce the Muslim population.
Matter movement (20), the impact of persistent, Muslim religious leaders were asked to participate
long-term structural and institutional racism as a in the campaign to eradicate polio and, as a
determinant of health, including the health of BAME consequence, vaccine coverage increased.
(Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) individuals and In the case of HIV, there have also been examples
communities, should be recognised. Such inequalities of working with religious leaders to reduce
affect the communities that have fought long and stigmatisation of those with HIV and utilising
hard in the battle for social justice. This historical religious doctrines to justify a health policy and
context therefore provides a justification as to why engage with faith-based organisations. For example,
representatives of such groups should be involved in in Malaysia, religious leaders were trained to
community engagement and health policy decisions. educate other religious leaders and congregants to
In the Western secular world, religion in its broader increase compassion for those living with HIV and
sense is often seen as hypocritical, corrupt and the given practical guidance on how to perform Islamic
underlying cause of many of today’s conflicts (21). burials for those who had died from AIDS, at a time
The role of religion in health and development is when some mosques had refused to bury the
often seen as fraught with tensions and problematic, deceased due to mistaken fears of contracting the
in part due to the narratives of missionaries who virus (26). In South Africa, Ethiopia and Uganda,
came to serve but also to proselytise, often with a religious leaders who were themselves living with
background of colonialism and racism. There is also HIV set up faith-based organisations aimed at

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021

18 S. Barmania and M. J. Reiss

reducing stigmatisation, increasing awareness and health promotion examine the multifaceted ways in
promoting safer behaviour practices (27). which religion may impact health.
A recent example of health promotion benefiting In science education, it has been argued that
from religion was in stopping the Ebola epidemic in contentious topics such as evolution and vaccine
West Africa. It became apparent that new Ebola hesitancy can be more effectively communicated
infections were largely due to exposure during to individuals who are disposed to reject them by
funerals and burials. A concerted effort was therefore reframing and considering such positions as world­
made to engage with community-based organisations views, rather than as manifesting misconceptions,
to understand the local context, including religious and by treating such individuals sensitively (32). The
and cultural aspects that had previously been attempt is not to ‘convert’ a student who comes
overlooked (28). Involving Muslim and Christian from a family and/or community background that
religious leaders and thereby changing religiously rejects evolution or the use of vaccines into a
inspired funeral and burial practices proved critical. student who now accepts them. Rather, it is for a
This example may be particularly relevant to science teacher to realise more sensitively the
COVID-19, given reports of its spread in some parts ecosystem within which the learner sits (not just
of South Africa due to funerals (29) and of cadavers the science classroom) and for the learner to come
being stolen in hospitals in Indonesia (30) due to to an understanding of currently accepted scientific
fears that the deceased will not be buried in theories.
accordance to Islamic protocol. What we therefore advocate, by way of
In general, and particularly in health emergencies, operationalisation, is that health promotion
working with religious communities is often incorporates religion within existing (albeit as yet
undertaken by working through religious leaders. rarely used) frameworks that draw on complexity
Nevertheless, there is great value in working directly theory (31), and does so in a way that treats religious
with individuals at all levels of communities (23). In considerations sensitively. One way forward is to
addition to empowering individuals, this can help acknowledge that religions may be understood as
embed change. worldviews (33), where one person’s worldview
may be different from another’s and yet we all want
and need to live together in a single world, whether
Incorporating religion within public
that world is affected by COVID-19 or not.
health
If religion is to be taken seriously within public
Religion for public health
health, both in relation to COVID-19 and more
generally, there are two frameworks which may be Religion is therefore an important factor to take
useful. The first is complexity theory, which is into account in health. Religion is intertwined in
already being increasingly used in health promotion complex ways with individual health behaviour,
and the sciences more broadly. The second consists service delivery, health policies, process and power,
of educational approaches that advocate sensitivity and also social norms, beliefs and worldviews, all of
as a means of reducing the chances of conflict when which affect health outcomes, either directly or
seeking to work with people who hold very different indirectly (6). In a number of countries, especially in
views. the West, religiosity, as typically measured by
Complexity theory can be understood in a number attendance at worship, is in decline (34). At the same
of ways (31). Its utility for the medical sciences is time, the countries in the world where religiosity is
that it sees systems as open with ‘fuzzy’ boundaries. increasing tend to be the ones with the highest rates
It takes reflexivity seriously in those objects and of population growth rate. The projection of the
processes are seen as being defined through their Pew Research Center is that the percentage of the
interactions, and in appreciating both turbulence world’s population who are religious will increase
and unpredictability it is more likely to draw on slightly from 84% in 2015 to 87.5% in 2060 (35).
lessons from mixed-methods case studies than rely Furthermore, there is some evidence that in countries
on randomised controlled trials alone. These features where religion is in decline, more people report that
make it easier to incorporate religion and help they are ‘spiritual’ (34).
IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021
 Original Article 19

Religious beliefs often manifest as powerful and prohibitions, for example, on drinking alcohol,
coherent forces that are embedded within every aspect gambling, drug taking, gluttony and suicide, are
of believers’ lives. Religious beliefs influence what is influenced by beliefs about the importance of the
believed to be of ultimate value, what is eaten and human body (seen as a temple of the Holy Spirit in
drunk, what clothes are worn, how days are structured, Christianity) and life in general (11). While a more
what work is undertaken, who is married and how pathogenetic focus on disease is predominant in
children are raised (26). Those who are vulnerable are medicine and even public health, religion could be
often more likely to manifest religious beliefs or used to advocate for a shift in focus to a more
practices. For example, the onset of the COVID-19 ‘salutogenic’ (40), health-promoting approach. For
pandemic was associated, in the UK, with 5% of adults example, ideas of physical purity and cleanliness, with
saying they had started to pray during the lockdown ‘Cleanliness is next to Godliness’ (a phrase popularised
but didn’t pray before, increasing the figure of adults by the Methodist leader John Wesley in the late
who said that they prayed regularly (at least once a eighteenth century (41)), could promote handwashing,
month) from 21% to 26% (36). a key strategy in the defence against COVID-19.
Faith-based organisations make a substantial In many places, individual religious leaders have a
contribution to health services worldwide, especially in pivotal role acting as‘gatekeepers’.They may disseminate
low-income countries, with some estimates of their health information, or allow health professionals to
input reaching 50% (37). Churches have a long history come into places of worship and deliver such information
of involvement in building hospitals and schools and in a sermon or address. These religious leaders can
providing health services. However, there is also a often reach those who are marginalised, such as
panoply of lesser-known organisations that are migrants, those who cannot readily access health
religiously motivated, such as the Tzu Chi Buddhist information though conventional routes, because of
organisation that operates internationally (38). language barriers, and the elderly. Furthermore,
Religion can often influence health policy in countries they can directly disseminate information from the
where there are strong religious affiliations (37). ‘pulpit’ to their congregants and can promptly
Religious conceptions of health – for example, seeing address misinformation regarding, for example,
good health as a gift from God – frequently influence erroneous conspiracy theories that COVID-19 is a hoax,
health practices and behaviours (6). Religious or that vaccines are a weapon of colonialism. They are
organisations and religious leaders often influence able to communicate messages in a way that does not
health policy, and religious groups can have significant cause harm, always important when trust in science is
lobbying power on governments. At a more grass- weak, but imperative during a pandemic (42).
roots level, religious leaders individually often play Religion is often seen as an important coping
vital roles and exercise moral authority within mechanism, especially during times of stress and
communities. They can hold a great wealth of local anxiety. It can offer perspective, hope and meaning
knowledge, have extensive networks and be trusted in uncertain times, which can act as an anchor for
(something that is hard to quantify), and are important those predisposed to mental health issues. During
sources of pastoral support and guidance (26). the COVID-19 pandemic, because many places of
The African Religious Health Assets Programme worship were required to close, many religious
(39) attempted systematically to map out the many bodies adapted their patterns of worship and moved
valuable assets that religions may be able to contribute from face-to-face to online services (43). Religious
in the religion–health field. It concluded that many of groups can make decisions regarding whether
these could be leveraged for better health and pilgrimages or other events should take place. For
development. Tangible assets include places of example, in Saudi Arabia, the 2020 Hajj has, to all
worship, other facilities and general infrastructure. intents and purposes, been cancelled, except to a
Other assets include a religion’s ability to motivate and small number of Saudi residents (44). Religious
mobilise communities in shared causes and to engender leaders can sometimes make decisions more
compassion, purpose and hope. expeditiously than governments. Religious leaders
Most religions promote well-being and health in can also facilitate the implementation of health
their scriptures and other teaching, and place a high policy. For example, after attendants at a religious
priority on the sanctity of life. In fact, many religious gathering in Malaysia failed to come forward to be

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021

20 S. Barmania and M. J. Reiss

tested, the Minister for Religious Affairs issued a recommendation, yet treating people sensitively is a
statement saying that it was a religious obligation to key part of listening to them and appreciating that
be tested (45). the way they see the world (their worldviews) may
Van den Broucke (46) succinctly articulated how be different from one’s own. One’s own viewpoint is
‘Enabling people to increase control over their health not necessarily superior and, anyway, one’s own
and its determinants is at the core of health promotion’ way of understanding reality may not translate to
(p.181). Drawing on Brownson et al. (47), Van den the contexts in which others find themselves.
Broucke goes on to argue that health promotion can Complexity theory takes reflexivity seriously and
address COVID-19 at three levels: the downstream objects and processes are seen as being defined through
level, focussing on individual behaviour change and their interactions. Religion and health can be
disease management; the midstream level, through understood in this way – not only do they interact but,
interventions that operate on organisations and to a believer, conventional measures of good health
communities; and the upstream level, through changing may not always be what is most important. For
policies that affect whole populations. As the examples instance, those with a religious faith may understand
in this section show, religion can influence all three the physical health risks of meeting with others but still
levels and so contribute to the management of COVID- wish to attend communal worship on a regular basis.
19. Marston et al. (48) demonstrated that pandemic We can learn from past successes and failures in public
responses have traditionally been top-down, with health and understand how attempts were made to
governments imposing policies on communities, and deal with health issues and what mechanisms were
therefore allowing little or no input from these employed. It is also possible to analyse how possible
communities. However, such top-down approaches conflicts were anticipated and sometimes managed
represent a wasted resource. Communities are not successfully. For example, in some countries in the
only knowledgeable about on-the-ground realities, East, the HPV vaccine has avoided the parental
they may be able to identify solutions, insights and hesitancy and reluctance which have been apparent in
potential barriers and co-design effective responses. some countries in the West by reframing the inoculation
This is particularly important for unpopular as a ‘cancer-preventing vaccine’. Such reframing has
measures that risk low compliance. Religious increased buy-in and engagement with communities,
organisations are well placed to offer services which within cultural and religious beliefs, and led to greater
address the indirect effects of COVID-19, such as vaccination uptake in schools (49).
deteriorating mental health, isolation and a rise in the Understanding religion within the context of the
frequency of domestic violence, given the pastoral societal norms that operate within communities can
nature of religious duties. help us to be mindful of the power dynamics and
better understand health behaviours. Michie and
colleagues explain the importance of understanding
Discussion
health behaviour in order to slow down COVID-19
There are a number of overarching issues that and offer a five-point plan: creating a mental model;
follow from our analysis which are important creating social norms; creating the right level and
for moving forward with the COVID-19 response type of emotion; replacing one behaviour with
internationally. There should be a greater appreciation another; and making the behaviour easy (50).
of the role of religion and belief in public health, Mitchie et al. pointed out that replacing a behaviour
particularly when attempting to understand social with another behaviour is often more effective than
determinants of health in their contexts. Health simply telling people to stop the offending behaviour.
professionals are encouraged to ensure that With regards to COVID-19, this means, for instance,
communication with the public is culturally and that it may be helpful to advise people to keep their
religiously sensitive, is appropriately targeted at hands beneath shoulder level, rather than simply
specific communities, and does not apportion blame. telling them not to touch their face.
While health systems are complex, particularly Mitchie et al.’s approach to COVID-19 prevention
when trying to take account of religious sensitivities could be enhanced with religious-informed additions.
in a pluralist world, health promotion is possible at For example, in the case of mask-wearing, the wearing
a range of levels. This may appear a rather modest of masks can be made easier by supplying them at

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021

 Original Article 21

places of worship if people forget to bring their own. coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020; 395:
Creating the right level and type of emotion can be 497–506.
2. Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important
facilitated by explicitly addressing religious beliefs lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
about fatalism or protection. New behaviours can be outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases
embedded within existing routines that are rooted in from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and
religious practice, such as the washing of hands. Prevention. JAMA. 2020; 323: 1239–1242.
Prominent influencers in the community, such as 3. Pan D, Sze S, Minhas JS, Bangash MN, Pareek N,
Divall P, et al. The impact of ethnicity on clinical
religious leaders, can wear masks themselves and urge outcomes in COVID-19: a systematic review.
congregants to wear them, so that this becomes the EClinicalMedicine. 2020; 23: 100404.
new social norm. Hong and Handal (51) argue that 4. Van den Broucke S. Why health promotion matters to
given the current crisis there is a need to engage the COVID-19 pandemic, and vice versa. Health
Promot Int. 2020; 35: 181–118.
different institutions, religious groups, civil society and 5. Dahlgren G, Whitehead M. Layered Influence on
the government. Furthermore, measures should not Health. New York: WHO; 1992.
simply be imposed on faith groups; rather, faith groups 6. Oman D (ed.). Why Religion and Spirituality Matter
should be involved in decision making from the start for Public Health: Evidence, Implications and
as bone fide stakeholders, as recommended in the Resources. Cham: Springer; 2018.
7. CohnS,ClinchM,BunnC,StrongeP.Entangledcomplexity:
Public Health England report on the disparities in the why complex interventions are just not complicated
risk and outcomes of COVID-19 (52). enough. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2013; 18: 40–43.
Overall, attempts at controlling infectious diseases 8. Al-Rousan N, Al-Najjar H. Is visiting Qom spread
have not always made best use of lessons from health CoVID-19 epidemic in the Middle East? Eur Rev
Med Pharmacol Sci. 2020; 24: 5813–5818.
promotion, with its rich theoretical underpinnings in 9. Channel News Asia (CNA). Church at centre of South
both medicine and the social sciences (53). In so far as Korea COVID-19 sits silent as infections surge [Internet].
COVID-19 goes, we simply do not have the luxury to Channel News Asia, 2020 [cited 2020 February 21].
not take advantage of all that we know about human Available from: https://www.channelnewsasia.com/
behaviour in tackling disease. If religions are treated news/asia/coronavirus-covid19-church-south-korea-
empty-12458786
sensitively, with an acknowledgement of the 10. Che Mat NF, Edinur HA, Abdul Razab MKA, Safuan
complexities of the issues and the need for solutions at S. A single mass gathering resulted in massive
a number of levels, there is a good chance that some transmission of COVID-19 infections in Malaysia
of the worst predictions of the consequences of with further international spread. J Travel Med.
2020; 27: taaa037.
COVID-19 may not come to pass. But if religions are 11. Smart N. The World’s Religions: Old Traditions and
ignored or belittled (54), COVID-19 could continue Modern Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge
unabated in some religious communities, thereby University Press; 1989.
broadening the impact of this global pandemic. 12. Quadri SA. COVID-19 and religious congregations:
implications for spread of novel pathogens. Int J
Infect Dis. 2020; 96: 219–221.
Declaration of conflicting interests 13. Evelyn K. New York mayor criticized for tweet about
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with packed Jewish funeral. The Guardian, 2020; April 29.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of 14. Office of National Statistics. Coronavirus (COVID-
this article. 19) Related Deaths by Religious Group, England and
Wales: 2 March to 15 May. London: Office of
National Statistics; 2020.
Funding
15. Briggs A, Reiss MJ. Human Flourishing: Scientific
The authors received no financial support for the research, Insight and Spiritual Wisdom in Uncertain Times.
authorship, and/or publication of this article. Oxford: Oxford University Press; in press.
16. Stewart K. The road to coronavirus hell was paved by
ORCID iD evangelicals. New York Times, 2020; March 27.
17. Luscombe R. The US churches and pastors ignoring
Sima Barmania https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1621- ‘stay-at-home’ orders. The Guardian, 2020; April 5.
5586 18. Corbishley S. Fears of spike in coronavirus during
Ramadan. Metro, 2020; April 13.
19. BBC. George Floyd: what happened in the final
References moments of his life [Internet]. BBC, 2020 [cited 2020
1. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. July 16]. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/
Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel news/world-us-canada-52861726

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021

22 S. Barmania and M. J. Reiss

20. Black Lives Matter. Seven years of growth: BLM’s 37. Buse K, Mays N, Walt G. Making Health Policy.
co-founder and incoming Executive Director reflects Maidenhead: Open University Press; 2005.
on the movement [Internet]. Black Lives Matter, 2020 38. Tzu Chi [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 November 19].
[cited 2020 September 11]. Available from: https:// Available from: https://www.tzuchi.org.tw/en/
blacklivesmatter.com/seven-years-of-growth-blms-co- 39. African Religious Health Assets Programme.
founder-and-incoming-executive-director-reflects-on- Appreciating Assets: The Contribution of Religion to
the-movement/ Universal Access in Africa. Cape Town: ARHAP;
21. Dawkins R. The God Delusion. London: Bantam 2007.
Press; 2006. 40. Antonovsky A. The salutogenic model as a theory to
22. Adhikari R. US “global gag rule” on abortion is guide health promotion, Health Promot Int. 1996: 11:
limiting family planning choices for women in Nepal. 11–18.
BMJ. 2019; 366: l5354. 41. Callahan RJ, Lofton K, Seales CE. Allegories of
23. Tyndale W. Idealism and practicality: the role of progress: industrial religion in the United States. J Am
religion in development. J Int Dev. 2003; 46: 22–28. Acad Relig. 2010; 78: 1–39.
24. Flannigan ST. For the Love of God: NGOs and 42. Saitz R, Schwitzer G. Communicating science in the
Religious Identity in a Violent World. Vermont: time of a pandemic. JAMA. 2020; 324: 443–444.
Kumarian Press; 2010. 43. Norman Z, Reiss MJ. Risk and sacrament: being
25. Obregón R, Chitnis K, Morry C, Feek W, Bates J, human in a COVID-19 world. Zygon. 2020; 55:
Galway M, et al. Achieving polio eradication: a 577–590.
review of health communication evidence and lessons 44. Hughes D. Is Hajj 2020 cancelled? Saudi Arabia
learned in India and Pakistan. Bull World Health introduces drastic curbs to Mecca pilgrimage amid
Organ. 2009; 87: 624–630. coronavirus fears [Internet]. inews, 2020 [cited 2020
26. Barmania S, Reiss MJ. Islam and Health Policies July 13]. Available from: https://inews.co.uk/news/
Related to HIV Prevention in Malaysia. Dordrecht: world/hajj-2020-cancelled-saudi-arabia-pilgrimage-
Springer; 2018. mecca-explained-453838
27. Byamugisha G. Church Communities Confronting 45. Bernama [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 November 19].
HIV & AIDS. London: SPCK; 2010. Available from: https://www.bernama.com/en/videos/
28. Funk S, Ciglenecki I, Tiffany A, Gignoux E, Camacho index.php?v=56544
A, Eggo R, et al. The impact of control strategies and 46. Van den Broucke S. Why health promotion matters to
behavioural changes on the elimination of Ebola the COVID-19 pandemic, and vice versa, Health
from Lofa County, Liberia. Phil Trans R Soc B. 2017; Promot Int. 2020; 35: 181–186.
372: 1–11. 47. Brownson RC, Seiler R, Eyler AA. Measuring the
29. Jaja IF, Madubuike U, Jaja I. Social distancing: how impact of public health policies. Prev Chronic Dis.
religion, culture and burial ceremony undermine the 2010; 7: 1–7.
effort to curb COVID-19 in South Africa. Emerg 48. Marston C, Renedo A, Miles S. Community
Microbes Infec. 2020; 9: 1077–1079. participation is crucial in a pandemic. Lancet. 2020;
30. Karmini N, Milko V. Burial Traditions Clash with 395: 1676–1678.
Coronavirus Safety in Indonesia [Internet]. 49. Muhamad N, Buang S, Jaafar N, Muhamad A, Buang
Associated Press. 2020 [cited 2020 July 9]. Available SN, Jaafar S, et al. Achieving high uptake of human
from: https://apnews.com/22764fc02d1974e78c84 papillomavirus vaccination in Malaysia through
4605a5170df1 school-based vaccination programme. BMC Public
31. Greenhalgh T, Papoutsi C. Studying complexity in Health. 2018; 18: 1402.
health services research: desperately seeking an 50. Michie S, West R, Amlot R, Rubin J. Slowing down
overdue paradigm shift. BMC Med. 2018; 16: 95. the covid-19 outbreak: changing behaviour by
32. Reiss MJ. Evolution education: treating evolution as understanding it [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 March
a sensitive rather than a controversial issue. Ethics 11]. Available from: https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2020/03/
Educ. 2019; 14: 351–366. 11/slowing-down-the-covid-19-outbreak-changing-
33. Reiss MJ. How should creationism and intelligent behaviour-by-understanding-it/
design be dealt with in the classroom? J Philos Educ. 51. Hong BA, Handal PJ. Science, religion, government,
2011; 45: 399–415. and SARS-CoV-2: a time for synergy. J Relig Health.
34. Woodhead L, Catto R (eds). Religion and Change in 2020; 1–6.
Modern Britain. London: Routledge; 2012. 52. Public Health England. Beyond the Data: Under-
35. Pew Research Center. The changing global religious standing the Impact of COVID 19 on BAME Groups.
landscape. [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2020 April 3]. London: Public Health England; 2020.
Available from: https://www.pewforum.org/2017/ 53. McQueen D. Health promotion applied to infectious
04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/ disease. Glob Health Promot. 2015; 22: 3–4.
pf-04-05-2017_-projectionsupdate-00-07/ 54. Barmania S, Reiss MJ. How religion can aid public
36. Tearfund. Many Brits look to faith during lockdown health messaging during a pandemic [Internet].
[Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 November 19]. Nature India, 2020 [cited 2020 May 20]. Available
h t t p s : / / w w w. t e a r f u n d . o r g / e n / m e d i a / p r e s s _ from: https://www.natureasia.com/en/nindia/article/
releases/many_brits_look_to_faith_during_lockdown/. 10.1038/nindia.2020.87

IUHPE – Global Health Promotion Vol. 28, No. 1 2021