Mass-1 Lectures

Introduction
It is a term given to a group of unit operations in chemical
engineering intended to change the composition of solutions
and mixtures by methods that do not necessarily lead to a
chemical reaction. These operations are used to separate the
components of the mixture one from the other.

So mass transfer processes are summarized in moving the

particles of the substance to be separated from one of the
homogeneous phases into another due to the difference in the
physical properties of that substance from other substances.

Example:-

There is a difference in

1. The vapor pressure.

2. Solubility.
3. Diffusivity.

Classification of mass transfer operation.

1- Gas-liquid operations
2- Gas-Solid operations
3- Liquid-liquid operations
Firstly:-

Gas-liquid processes:
Separation processes are called in this case when all the
components of the system are distributed between the two
phases and in a state of equilibrium, for example, the distillation
process, that is, the gaseous phase can be created from a liquid
by applying heat and vice versa, for example:
In the case of a liquid solution of acetic acid and water and
vaporizing it partially by heating, it can be discovered that the
new vapor state that was created and the liquid phase that
remained after evaporation contain quantities of acetic acid and
water, but in proportions different from the two phases that were
created from the original liquid ball.
(A,B)
Ga
There is another technique called gas absorption, and it also
occurs when passing, for example: -
a mixture of ammonia and air in contact with water in an
absorption column. We will find that a large part of the
ammonia will dissolve in water, and there is another type of gas-
liquid phase process called humidification, which is contact with
dry air With liquid water by evaporation or any other means that
transfers water to air.

secondly:-

Gas-Solid operations:

An example of this is the partial evaporation of a solid solution

without the emergence of an intermediate liquid state, so a new
vapor phase is formed and the remaining solid is called
sublimation. There is another process called drying, for example
drying clothes while exposing them to air.
Third:-

Liquid-liquid processes:

It is the separation of a liquid phase into two

heterogeneous and insoluble substances. An example of this is
fluid extraction processes. When a solution of acetone and water
is mixed with carbon tetrachloride (CCLR) in an extraction
tower, we find that a large part of the acetone will be with
carbon tetrachloride, and thus it is separated from the water. All
the operations that have been mentioned are done in their own
equipment.
 Fundamentals of mass transfer

Mass transfer can be classified into two types:

1. Mass Transfer in the same phase:-

 Molecular diffusion in a statistic medium.

 Molecular diffusion in flowing fluids in laminar form

 In turbulently flowing fluids, there is added to this the

mass transfer resulting from eddy currents and currents..
2. Mass transfer between two phases:-

This happens through a separator or intermediate medium, and

this happens in most mass separation processes, and the
separating factor here is mass or energy.

Mass separation processes deal only with a physical change.

Here we provide a classification of some important mass
separation processes:
 1. Separator Factor : Energy

operation feeding separator products principle of Practical

line factor separation example
process

evaporation LIQUID heat liquid difference concentrati

+ in boiling on of
vapor point solutions

distillation LIQUID heat liquid Vapour Partial

& + pressure distillation
steam vapor of crude
oil

crystal Solid cooling liquid difference Production

and + in ability to of sugar
wet solid freeze from sugar
cane

drying heat solid + Evaporation Food

wet of water drying
steam
energy
 2. Separator Factor : mass:

operation feeding separator products principle of Practical

line factor separation example
process

Absorption LIQUID Non- liquid solubility Get rid of

+ volatile H2S
+
Gas liquid vapor
in the
extraction LIQUID immiscible Tow solubility Removal
liquid liquids of some of salts in
substances
in the two crude oil
liquid
phases

liquid Solid liquid The Removal of

adsorption difference pollutants
or adsorbent +
vapor solid is in the from
adsorption drinking
ability water using
activated
carbon
Molecular diffusion:-

The movement of molecules through a particular substance in

view of the thermal energy that these molecules carry, and we
will call the diffusion rate the following name:

Molar flux: It represents the molar velocity of diffusion per unit

area.

Definitions:-

We consider the existence of a mixture of many components,

and since (j) represents one of these components, we provide the
following some definitions:

1. Mass concentration

2. Molar conc.

3. Mass fraction

𝜌
𝜌
Mole fraction:

The meaning of that mixture consisting of (A, B)

𝜌 𝜌 𝜌
𝜌
𝜌

𝜌
𝜌

𝜌
𝜌
Diffusing mixture

The components move at different speeds:

V = Component i velocity relative to fixed axes.

A mixture consisting of n components, we give the

following definitions:-

1. Mass average velocity

∑
∑

= mass flux
2. Molar average velocity

∑
∑

= molar flux
And where we want to change from the transfer of component
(i) for the positional movement of the fluid stream of (v,v *) and
not for fixed coordinate axes, we provide the following
definitions:

Diffusion speed of component (i) for V

= V - Vi

Diffusion speed of component (i) for V*

= V* - Vi

Mass and molar diffusion rate:

The positional rate of mass or moles for

component i, through unit cross sectional area As
shown in Figure (4). This form is a box divided
into two parts by the piece (c). In section (I)
there is a quantity of substance (i) and section
(B) there is a quantity of substance (II), and
when the piece (C) is removed, then diffusion
occurs, then it stops after a certain time where
the equilibrium takes place.
If the direction is taken to the right, then the flux
is Ni, and it is flux of matter (i) It is the positive
direction.
The flux (Nj) is the flux of matter j relative to
position c, It is the negative, so when the steady
state occurs, the total flux Ni + Nj

Where I = CH3OH, J = H2O

As the diffusion is in the positive direction, This means that

methanol (I) diffuses towards water (J).
 for a moving fluid For fixed
coordinate
axes
For (V*) For (V)

mass diffusion rate

= ρi (Vi – V*) Ji = ρi (Vi – V) Ni = ρi x Vi of component (i)

molar diffusion rate

= Ci (Vi – V*) Ji = Ci (Vi – V) N = Ci x Vi of component (i)

The relationship between (Ni , J)

J*= Ci (Vi – V*)

= C i . V i – Ci . V *

∑
* +
∑
In the case of a mixture components of (A, B)
i = A, j = B

[ ]

Where:-

[ ]

𝐽𝐴 𝑁𝐴 𝑋𝐴 [𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 ]

Where:- 𝑁𝐴 𝐽𝐴 [𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 ]

NA = The total molar diffusion rate of component A with

respect to fixed coordinate axes.

= The molar diffusion rate of component A due to partial

diffusion with respect to a moving fluid.

XA(NA + NB) = The molar diffusion rate of component A

due to the fluid's compact motion.
The molar diffusion rate of component B is given similarly to
the above by the following relationship:-
 [ ]

[ ]

[ ] [ ]

𝐽𝑖

In a mixture consisting of many components, the sum of the

molar diffusion rates of the components relative to a moving
fluid, i.e. with respect to the velocity v* is zero.

Therefore, in a mixture of two components (A,B) the molar

diffusion rate have the same value, but they are opposite
in direction. This represents the case of the opposite and
molecularly balanced diffusion:

𝐽𝐴 𝐽𝐵
 Similarities between transfer processes: -
Movement / Heat / Mass

Partial transfer can be expressed by the following

1- Movement Transfer.

It is caused by velocity gradient.

Newton's Law of viscosity:

z
Shear stress

n=1

𝑑𝑣𝑥
Shear Rate
𝑑𝑧
Where:-

= momentum flax.

* +

μ – viscosity of fluids (kg/m.sec).

z = Direction of motion Transfer.

X = Direction of movement.

2- Heat transfer. It is caused by a temperature gradient

Forbes's law of heat transfer by conduction:

[ ]

whereas:

(Heat flux).

( *

K = (thermal conductivity)
 3- Mass transfer:- Similarly, mass transfer occurs due to a
concentration gradient or molar fraction, and partial mass
transfer can be expressed by the following relation:

A sign (-) confirms that component A is transmitted or diffused

in the direction of decreasing concentration or molar fraction:

( * ( * ( *

y X

If the diffusion occurs in one direction:

( * ( ) ( *

( *
whereas:

The molar diffusion rate of component A of the Z axis,

due to molecular diffusion, is expressed in the following units:

( *

Molecular diffusivity of component A in B (m2/s), which

is the diffusivity of A in B while , which is the diffusivity of B
in A.

Example:-

Consider a mixture consisting of component A and component

B in the case of a partially balanced counter-diffusion. prove
this relationship:

( *

( *

in the case of molecularly balanced counter-diffusion.

( * ( *
We know that:-

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Equivalent formulas in Fick's first law:-

The total molar diffusion rate for component A can be

expressed as:-

In the case of diffusion in the direction of one axis, for example,

in the direction of the Z axis only:

( *

( *
In a similar way to component B:

( )

Note: In the case of a partially balanced counter-diffusion:

 Molecular diffusion in steady state gases:

Let's study the ideal gas system:

Suppose we have a gas mixture (A,B) where (A,B) are ideal

gases.

( )

( *

And also

Whereas:-

CA = Molar concentration of component A

PA = Partial pressure of component A

C=

Pt = Total pressure

YA = The molar fraction of component A (in the gases phase).

 Reverse and balanced partial diffusion
Let's study the case of a gas (A,B) that are diffusing at two equal
and opposite speeds.

The two gases are present at constant total pressure (PT) in

two chambers (1,2) connected by a tube in which molecular
diffusion takes place in a steady state.

GAS A GAS B
Z
PA1+PB1=PT PA2+PB2=PT

1 2

PT

PA1
PB2

PB1 PA2

1 2

PA = Partial pressure of component A. PA1 PA2 (CA1 CA2)

PB = Partial pressure of component B. PB1 > PB2 (CB1 > CB2)

PT = Total pressure: PT = PA + PB
And in steady state (i.e. when NA and NB are constant) The
molecules of gas A diffuse in the opposite direction so that:

The speeds of the molar diffusion rates are equal in value and
opposite in direction:-

( *

( *

( *

( * ( *( *

( )( )---------

( *
Considering that DAB is constant, the integration of this
relationship between positions 1-2 gives:

∫ ( *∫

whereas

(1) The beginning of the passage in which diffusion takes place

(2) The beginning of the passage in which diffusion takes place

= Z2 – Z1

( *

( *

And in a similar way

( *
Example – 1

Ammonia gas (A) diffuses through a homogeneous tube of 0.1

m length containing inside it nitrogen gas (B) at a pressure of

1.0132x105 and a temperature of 298 , based on the

following data:

At point (1) 1.0132x104 pa

At point (2) 0.507x104 pa

molecular diffusivity DAB = 0.23x10-4 m2/s

 Calculate the molar diffusion rate at steady state.

 Recalculate for

Pt = 1.0132x105 pa

Z = 0.1 m

T = 298 ,

As the diffusion process is opposite and molecularly balanced.

( *

( )
If we return the calculations for gas (B)

( *

A sign (-) means that gas (B) diffuses from (2) to (1).

The rate of molar diffusion for the two gases (A and B) are equal in value
and opposite in direction, meaning that Partially balanced counter
diffusion.
EXAMPL-2

The molar composition of air was given for its main components, which
are oxygen and nitrogen, (O2 = 21%, N2 = 78%), so if the temperature is
20 , the pressure is 1 atm, and the molecular weights are

(O2 = 32, N2 = 28) ( kg / kmol)

a) Calculate the mass fraction of each (O2, N2).

b) Calculate the molecular weight of air.

Answer-

Mass fraction of O2:-

( *

( *

Mass fraction of N2:-

( *

( *
the molecular weight of air =

M.W of air = 0.21 x32 + 0.79 x 28 =

Molecular diffusion within a constant gas (study state)

(1)

NA NB= 0
Z2 = Z 1

(2)

‫ماء‬

The process of absorbing ammonia gas (A) from air (B).

The surface of water is impenetrable by air (B) due to the

insolubility of air in water, And if we neglect the amount of
water evaporation, then there is only diffusion of ammonia (A).
 ( *

( * ( *( *

( *( * ( *

This equation can be arranged as:

( * ( *( *

This equation can be integrated between (1) and (2).

∫ ( * ∫ ( *

( * ( *
Whereas:

Using the logarithmic mean value,

( )
( )

[ ]
[ ( )
]
(( ))

Thus, the final form of the equation becomes *

( *
Example-3;-

A narrow metal tube containing an amount of water (A) at the

bottom. This water evaporates and diffuses in a layer of dry air
(B), at steady state trough a distance of 0.1524 m, and this
system is at a pressure of 1 atm, and its temperature is 20 °C.

If the partial diffusivity of water vapor in the air is 0.250 x 10-4

(m2/s) At a temperature of 20 °C and a pressure of 1 atm.

 Calculate the rate of evaporation of water at steady

state, in units k.mol / m2.sec

Answer:-

Dry air
(1)
NA

(2)

water
Pt = 1 atm 1.0132 x 105 pa

Z = 0.1524 m

T = 20 °C 20 +273 = 293 k

DAB = 0.250 x 10-4 m2/s., R = 8312 Pa.m3/Kmol.0K

Since the air (B) is in study state and only the water (A) is a
diffusion, meaning NA = 0.

The rate at which water evaporates or diffuses into the air at

study state.

( *( *

Where ( )

At point (1)

At a temperature of 20°C and a total pressure of 1 atm, the

vapor pressure of water (PA1) = ?, This represents the partial
pressure of water vapor at point (1).

meaning Vapor pressure

using the water vapor table:-

T© Vapor pressure Kpa

18 2.0640
20 ?
21 2.487
100 101.325

P
2.487

P*

2.0640

18 20 21 T©
By linear interpolation can be found ( p*) at 20°C

( * ( *

P* = 2.34 kpa = 2.34 x 103 pa

PA1 = 2.34 x 103 PA

PB1 = Pt - PA1
PB1 = 1.0132 x 105 – 2.34 x 103 = 98.98 x 103 pa
PB1 = 98.98 x 103 pa
At point (2)
PA2 = 0, Because at point 2 there is only dry air.
PB2 = Pt - PA2
= 1.0132 x 105 – 0 = 1.0132 x 105 pa

( *

( ) ( )

PBM = 1.001 x 105 pa

 ( *

( )( )

NA = 1.595 x 10-7 (Kmol A /m2. Sec)

Ex-4
Oxygen gas (A) diffuses into carbon monoxide gas (B) in
study state. The total pressure is 1x105Pa and
temperature is 0 OC. If the partial pressure of oxygen is
at two levels or locations separated by a distance of
2 mm. 13x103 pa and 6.5x103 respectively and
molecular diffusivity of the gas mixture 1.87x10-5

 Calculate the rate of diffusion of oxygen between

the two phases.
Solution:-
NB = 0

( *( *

PT = 1x105 Pa, t = 273 ok, Z = 2x10-3m

DAB = 1.87x10-5 m2/sec
PA1 = 13x103 Pa
PB1 = Pt – PA1, PB1 = 1x103 - 13x103
PB1 = 87x103 Pa
PA2 = 6.5x103 Pa , PB2 = Pt – PA2 = 1x105 – 6.5x103
PB2 = 93.5x103Pa , PBM = 90.211x103 Pa

NA = 2.97x10-5 KmolA/m2..sec
Ex-5 We have a layer of gasoline (A) 1 mm thick at the
bottom of an open tank and it has diameter 5 m, and
this gasoline spreads in a layer of stagnant, still air (B) 3
mm thick.

The tank temperature is 295 oK. At this temperature, the

diffusivity of gasoline in the air is (8X10-6m2/sec) if the
vapor pressure of gasoline in the tank is 13.3X103 pa.

1. Calculate the rate of transfer of benzene in air

2. Calculate the mass or weight of gasoline
evaporated in the air.

Consider that the density of gasoline = 880kg/m3 and its

molecular weight is 78 kg/kg mol
 (B)

R = 8314 pa.m3/kmol.ok or N.m/kgmol.ok or J/kmol.ok

Mw(B) = 78 kg/kmol
𝜌

=
Pt = 1.0132X105pa, PA2 = 0
 ,

( )
( )

Volume = area x hight

-3
Volume = 19.6 x1x10 = 19.6x10-3m3
Mass = 𝜌
 Determine the diffusivity of binary gas mixtures

The diffusivity of any gas or vapor generally depends on:-

 temperature.
 Pressure.
 gas nature

There are some tables that give us values for the diffusivity D of
a gas in another gas experimentally, and for that many
attempts were made to express D in terms of other physical
properties, and these attempts led to the development of the
following empirical relationship.

√
𝜌

A mixture of two gases (A, B) at low or medium pressure up to 15 atm:-

DAB = diffusivity.

T = absolute temperature.

)m.w)A = molecular weight of A.

)m.w)B = molecular weight of B

P = Total pressure.

ϭAB = collision diameter. (m)

Ω = Diffusion collision.

( *

Whereas:-

K = Boltzmann constant.

A measure of the attraction energy between gas molecules

To find out the values of Ω, you can refer to their figures and
tables. ϬAB , values can be calculated by using the
following relationships:-

√( *( *
Calculate the diffusivity of ammonia (A) in nitrogen (B)

at 258 , 258 kpa, and compare the answer to the

experimental value of 2.5910-5 m2/sec. Lennard Jones
Parameters number, and the molecular weight is given as
follows

m.w
(kg/kgmol)
Ammonia (A) 5.83 17 0.6
Nitrogen (B) 71.4 28

Data:-

Pt = 200 Kpa , T = 358 , , ,

(m.w) of A = 17, (m.w) of B = 28

√
𝜌
 𝜌

Verify the DAB value using density information

DAB = 9.21x10-5 m2/sec

Mistake percentage

Mistake percentage = -0.7187 = 7 %

 Molecular diffusion in liquids at steady state

It is known that the rate of diffusion in liquids is slower than in

gases, and in general, the rate of diffusion in gases is about 100
times faster than in liquids.

Diffusion in liquids differs from that in gases as follows:

1. Diffusivity in liquids directly depends on the concentration

of the diffusing component.

2. In liquids

 Molecularly counter-diffusion

The molar diffusion rate of component A can generally be

expressed as follows:

( *

IN the case of molecularly balanced counter-diffusion:

( *
It can be considered that

Integrating this relationship between two positions (1) and (2)

gives us the following:

∫ ∫
Let us now know the average total concentration of a binary
mixture consisting of components A and B between positions
(1) and (2):-

𝜌 𝜌
𝜌
(* + )

Where:-

𝜌 𝜌 The average density of the solution or binary mixture

at two positions (1) and (2), respectively. (Kg/m2)

m1, m2 = The average molecular weight of the solution or

binary mixture at two positions (1) and (2),

respectively. (Kg/mol)
Thus we can write:-

CA1 = Cav * XA1 , CA2 = Cav * XA2

This relationship expresses the rate of molar diffusion speed of

component A (Kmol/m2.s)
 Diffusion within a static fluid
This condition is considered the most important at the
degree of diffusion in liquids, especially in solutions,
where the dissolved substance (solute A) spreads within
a stagnant, non-diffusing solvent (solvent B), and so on:

NB = 0
NA = Constant

whereas
CA = Cav* XA
Considering that Cav is constant:
By integrating this relationship between two positions
(1) and (2)

∫ ∫

At position 1
XA1 + XB1 = 1 , XB1 = 1 - XA1

At position 2
XA2 + XB2 = 1 , XB2 = 1 - XA2
Using the following logarithmic mean value:

Thus, the final form of the molar diffusion rate/velocity

equation for the component A becomes as follows:

)
 CALCULATION

EX- Calculate the rate of diffusion of acetic acid A in a

layer of stagnant water B with a thickness of 1 ml at a
temperature of 17 °C. Consider that the concentration
of the acid at both ends of the layer 9 is a wt, and the
diffusivity of the acid in water = 0.95X10-9, also
considering the density of the solution at the two ends
of the layer in which diffusion occurs to be equal to
(1012 and 1003.2) kg/m3 respectively.

9 wt % 3 wt %
𝜌 𝜌
Kg/m3 Kg/m3
Solute = Acetic acid (A)
Solvent = water (B)
Z = 1X10-3 m
DAB = 0.95X10-9 m2/s

Since water does not spread, NB = 0

At position (1)
M.t = 60.03 (kg/kgmol) Acetic acid
M.t = 18.02 (kg/kgmol) Water

Concentration of the substance (A) 9 wt %

𝜌 Kg/m3

Take 100 kg from solution as (Basis)

9 kg A = (9/60.03) = 0.1499 k mol A
91 kg B = (91/18.02) = 5.0499 k mol B
Thus, the molecular weight of the solution at point 1 can be
calculated as follows:

At point 2
Concentration of substance A = 3 wt %
Density of solution = 𝜌 =1003.2 kg/m3
Take 100kg from solution (Basis)
Thus, the molecular weight of the solution at point 2 can
be calculated as follows:

Thus we can get Cav

𝜌 𝜌
[ ]

Since A and XB1, XB2 are close together, it is better to

calculate the arithmetic mean

Thus, the diffusion rate of component A becomes

NA = 1.017X10-6 kg molA