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 THERMAL SCIENCE (25% Max Weightage)
(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
Thermal Science (Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer & IC Engine) has
maximum weightage (25%) in General Engineering Science part of paper

Analysis Thermal Science

Subjects Qn Topics
Fluid Mech 11 Bernoulli Eq, Turbines, Centrifugal Pump, Laminar & Turbulent flow in pipes,
Cavitation, Stream lines Path lines Streak lines, Viscosity, Pipes flow, Venturi meter
Thermodynamics 6 Thermodynamic Processes, Laws, First Law Equation
Heat Transfer 5 Modes of HT, Stefan Boltzmann, Conductivity,
IC Engine 2 Diesel & Otto Cycles

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THERMAL SCIENCE (25% Max Weightage)
(FM, Thermo, HT, IC Engine)

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The heat taken from a sink in a thermodynamic process is based on the second law of thermodynamics.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

This law states that in any energy transfer, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings always
increases. In the context of heat transfer between a hot reservoir (source) and a cold reservoir (sink),
the second law dictates that:

• Heat spontaneously flows from the hot body to the cold body.
• No process is possible in which heat flows from a colder body to a hotter body without external
work being done.

When heat is taken from the sink, it's part of a process that must adhere to the second law, ensuring
that the overall entropy of the system and surroundings increases or remains constant in an ideal
(reversible) case.

Key Concept:

• In a refrigeration cycle (or any heat pump cycle), heat is extracted from the cold sink (cold
reservoir) and transferred to the hot reservoir (hot sink) with the help of external work. This
is in line with the second law, which allows this process to occur under non-spontaneous
conditions.
• So, the process of heat extraction from a sink is related to the second law of thermodynamics,
as it ensures that entropy increases while maintaining the directionality of heat flow.

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 Free Expansion

A free expansion is a thermodynamic process where a gas expands rapidly into a vacuum without any
external pressure or heat interaction. It's considered an adiabatic process because no heat is
exchanged, and it's irreversible due to the lack of equilibrium during the expansion.

Free Expansion Case:

In a free expansion process, a gas expands into a vacuum without performing any work and without
any heat exchange with the surroundings. This is a type of irreversible process. It is adiabatic process
in which no heat interaction takes place between system and surroundings. It is very fast process.

In the case of free expansion, even though the gas expands, since there is no heat exchange and no
work done, the internal energy remains constant. For ideal gases, this is directly tied to the fact that
their internal energy depends solely on temperature and not on volume in an isothermal process.

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 Adiabatic Process
An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic
process in which no heat is exchanged between
the system and its surroundings. In other words,
the system is isolated from any heat transfer
(either absorption or rejection of heat) during
the process. The heat transfer, Q, is zero.
It occurs if the process happens very quickly or if
the system is well-insulated.

Key Characteristics of an Adiabatic Process:

• No Heat Transfer: The defining feature is
that there is no exchange of heat
between the system and its
surroundings (Q = 0).
• Work-Related Changes: Any change in
the system's internal energy is solely due
to the work done on or by the system.
• Ideal Gas Example: In an ideal gas, an
adiabatic process is characterized by a
relationship between pressure and
volume, PVγ = constant, where γ is the
adiabatic index.

• Reversible or Irreversible: Adiabatic processes can be either reversible (ideal) or irreversible

(non-ideal).

Examples of Adiabatic Processes:

• Rapid Compression/Expansion:
Quick compression or expansion of a gas (like in a piston-cylinder system) can be approximated
as adiabatic if there's not enough time for heat to transfer.
• Adiabatic Cooling:
In an adiabatic expansion, the gas does work and its internal energy decreases, leading to a
decrease in temperature (cooling).
• Atmospheric Processes:
The rapid ascent or descent of air parcels in the atmosphere often approximates adiabatic
conditions.
• Thermally Insulated Systems:
Processes occurring in well-insulated containers (like a thermos bottle) can be considered
adiabatic if heat transfer is minimized.

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 Diesel Cycle

In the Diesel cycle, heat is added to the working fluid (typically air) at constant pressure during the
combustion process. Heat addition in Otto cycle (Petrol or gasoline engine) is at constant volume as
shown. Hence first choice is NOT correct.

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 Otto Cycle
Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is an ideal cycle for spark-ignition internal

combustion engines like petrol engines. It consists of two
constant volume heat transfer processes and two adiabatic
work transfer processes.

Joule Cycle: The Joule cycle, also known as the Brayton cycle, is an ideal cycle for gas turbines. It's not
the cycle used in petrol engines.

Bell-Coleman Cycle: The Bell-Coleman cycle is an ideal cycle for refrigeration systems. It's not used in
petrol engines.

Brayton Cycle: The Brayton cycle, also known as the Joule cycle, is used in gas turbines, not petrol
engines.

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 First Law of Thermodynamics

• The First Law of Thermodynamics is a

fundamental principle of physics that
deals with the relationship between heat,
work, and energy.

• It is a statement of the conservation of

energy, which means that energy cannot
be created or destroyed, only transferred
or converted from one form to another.

Equation of the First Law of Thermodynamics:

ΔU = Change in internal energy of the system

Q = Heat added to the system (positive if heat is added, negative if heat is removed)
W = Work done by the system (positive if the system does work on the surroundings, negative if work
is done on the system)
So, in this question W=10J
• Internal Energy (U): This represents the total energy contained within the system, including
both kinetic and potential energy at the molecular level. It includes the energy associated with
the random motion of molecules (temperature), energy in the form of intermolecular forces
(potential energy), and other forms of energy within the system.
• Heat (Q): Heat is the energy transferred to the system from the surroundings due to a
temperature difference. When heat is added to the system, the internal energy increases, and
when heat is lost, the internal energy decreases.
• Work (W): Work is the energy transferred when a force is applied to move an object or to
cause a change in the system's volume (such as in expansion or compression of gases). The
work done by the system is positive when the system expands, and negative when the system
is compressed.

Key Concepts:

• The First Law of Thermodynamics essentially says that the total energy of an isolated system
is constant. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from one
form to another.
• The change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is determined by the heat added to the
system and the work done by the system on its surroundings (or vice versa).
• This law lays the foundation for understanding the relationships between different types of
energy, such as thermal energy, mechanical energy, and chemical energy.

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 Thermal Boundary Layer
In a thermal boundary layer, the fluid
temperature is most affected by (C), Heating or
Cooling from the surface wall.
A thermal boundary layer is a region of fluid near
a solid surface where the fluid temperature is
influenced by the heat transfer between the
surface and the fluid.
This means the temperature gradient is steepest
near the surface and gradually decreases as the
fluid moves away.

The primary factor determining the rate of heat transfer and thus the temperature distribution within
the thermal boundary layer is the temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding
fluid.

It's the thin layer of fluid near a surface where significant temperature changes occur due to heat
transfer. Its thickness and characteristics directly influence the rate of heat transfer between the
surface and the surrounding fluid. Understanding and controlling the thermal boundary layer is
essential in various engineering applications, especially in areas like cooling systems and heat
exchangers.

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 Work-Energy Theorem

The Work-Energy Theorem states that the work done

on a particle by the net force acting on it is equal to
the change in its kinetic energy.

Mathematically:

• Answer is all types of forces

Application of the Work-Energy Theorem

The Work-Energy Theorem is valid for any type of force, provided that the net force acting on the
object is considered. The forces acting on an object can be classified into different types:

• Conservative Forces (e.g., gravitational force, spring force):

For conservative forces, the work done depends only on the initial and final positions of the
object and is independent of the path taken. The total mechanical energy (kinetic + potential)
is conserved.
• Non-Conservative Forces (e.g., friction, air resistance):
For non-conservative forces, the work done depends on the path taken and leads to a change
in the total mechanical energy (i.e., some of the energy is dissipated as heat or other forms).
• External Forces:
The Work-Energy Theorem applies when the external forces (the net force including both
conservative and non-conservative) are considered. It gives the change in kinetic energy
regardless of whether the forces are conservative or non-conservative.
• Internal Forces:
The theorem does not apply to internal forces alone because the work done by internal forces
cancels out when considering the total work done on the system. The network is determined
by the forces that act on the system as a whole, not by the forces that act within the system.

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 Stefan Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law describes the
relationship between the temperature of an object
and the total energy it radiates.
Specifically, it states that the total energy radiated
per unit surface area of a black body in a unit of time
is directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
This law is fundamental in understanding blackbody
radiation and plays a crucial role in various fields like
astrophysics, climate science, and engineering.

Formula: The law can be expressed

mathematically as E = σT⁴, where E is the
energy radiated per unit area, T is the
absolute temperature, and σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant.

Blackbody: A blackbody is an idealized

object that absorbs all electromagnetic
radiation that falls on it and emits radiation
perfectly.

Absolute Temperature: The temperature is measured on the Kelvin scale, where 0 Kelvin is the
lowest possible temperature.

Fourth Power: The law states that the amount of energy radiated is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the temperature. This means that a small increase in temperature can lead to a very
large increase in the radiated energy.

Stefan-Boltzmann Constant: The proportionality constant in the law is called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant (σ), which is approximately 5.670 x 10⁻⁸ W m⁻² K⁻⁴

In essence, the Stefan-Boltzmann law provides a powerful tool for predicting and understanding the
radiative properties of objects based on their temperature, particularly for blackbodies.

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 Conduction, Convection, Radiation
If the process of transfer of heat is slow, the
correct option is:
(B) Conduction or radiation

Convection is faster than conduction due to the

movement of fluids. While radiation is the
fastest, it's still faster than conduction.

Explanation:
• Conduction is typically slow, especially in insulators, because heat travels through direct
contact between particles.
• Radiation is also a relatively slow process unless the temperature is extremely high (e.g., from
the Sun). It does not require a medium and transfers heat via electromagnetic waves.
• Convection, on the other hand, is generally faster than conduction because it involves the bulk
movement of fluid particles, especially in liquids and gases.
• These vibrations pass from atom to atom, transferring heat energy as they do. This process
happens in all solids when heated but is a slow process.
• Convective heat transfer is faster than conduction. Radiation heat transfer is the fastest of all.

Heat transfer, the movement of heat from one place to another, occurs through three primary
mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of heat through
direct contact, convection through the movement of fluids, and radiation through electromagnetic
waves.
1. Conduction:
• Definition: Heat transfer via direct contact between objects or within a material.
• Mechanism: Molecules in the warmer object vibrate more rapidly, transferring energy to
adjacent molecules through collisions.
• Example: Feeling heat from a hot metal pan when you touch it.
• Materials: Conductors (like metals) transfer heat more efficiently than insulators (like wood).
2. Convection:
Definition: Heat transfer by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas).
Mechanism: Warmer, less dense fluid rises, cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a cycle that carries heat.
Example: Heating water in a pot on a stove, warmer water at the bottom rises and cooler water sinks.
Types: Natural convection (driven by temperature differences) & forced convection (by a fan or pump).
3. Radiation:
Definition: Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves without requiring a medium.
Mechanism: Objects emit electromagnetic radiation, including infrared radiation, which carries energy
away from the object.
Example: Feeling the warmth from a fire or a distant heater.
Key Points: Radiation can occur in a vacuum, unlike conduction and convection.

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 Thermal Conductivity
Diamond has highest Thermal Conductivity among
the substances provided.

Thermal conductivity, a material property, describes

the rate at which heat flows through it. It is
measured in Watts per meter-Kelvin (W/mK) in the
International System of Units (SI).

Diamond has an extremely high thermal

conductivity due to its strong covalent bonding and
well-ordered crystal lattice. Despite being a non-
metal, it surpasses even the best metals (like silver)
in thermal conductivity.

Thermal Conductivity Materials with top Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is measured in Watts • Diamond (2200 W/mK) Diamond has

the highest thermal conductivity,
per meter per Kelvin (W/mK).
which is 5 times that of copper
The formula for heat transfer involving • Silver (429 W/mK)
thermal conductivity is Q = k * A * (ΔT / L), • Copper (398 W/mK)
where Q is the heat transfer rate, k is the • Gold (315 W/mK)
thermal conductivity, A is the area, ΔT is the • Aluminum Nitride (310 W/mK)
temperature difference, and L is the • Silicon Carbide (270 W/mK)
thickness or length. • Aluminum (247 W/mK)

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 Venturi meter
A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow
rate of fluid through a pipe. It operates based on the
principle of Bernoulli’s equation, which relates the
pressure, velocity, and height in a flowing fluid:

Working Principle:

• When fluid flows through a narrower section of the venturi meter (called the throat), the
velocity increases and the pressure decreases.
• A venturi meter measures fluid flow rate by measuring the pressure difference between a wide
section and a constricted section (the "throat").
• The difference in pressure between the wider and narrower sections is used to calculate the
flow rate.
• This pressure-velocity relationship is precisely what Bernoulli’s principle describes.

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 Reynolds Number
The Reynolds Number (Re) is a
dimensionless number that helps predict
flow patterns in different fluid flow
situations.
It indicates whether the flow is laminar,
transitional, or turbulent.

Where:
• ρ = fluid density (kg/m³)
• v = average velocity of fluid (m/s)
• D = diameter of pipe (m)
• μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
• ν=μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity (m²/s)

Flow Regimes in Pipe Flow:

Applications:
• In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth, parallel layers.
• In turbulent flow, fluid motion is chaotic and involves eddies and vortices.
• Transitional flow is unstable and can shift to turbulence under disturbances.

Reynolds Number (Re) is key in classifying flow behavior in pipes.

Critical values:
• Laminar: Re < 2000
• Transitional: 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000
• Turbulent: Re > 4000

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 Emissivity
Emissivity (e) is a measure of how effectively
a surface emits thermal radiation compared
to a black body at the same temperature.
A black body is an idealized object that
absorbs and emits 100% of incident
radiation, So, for a black body: e = 1
Real objects (non-black bodies) do not emit
radiation as efficiently as a black body, so
their emissivity is lesser than 1.

• Therefore, for any object other than a black body, Emissivity lies between 0 and 1
• (D) 0 < e < 1. Answer is d

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 Bernoulli Equation

Ans: B
Differential Form of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli Equation

This is the most common form used in fluid mechanics

for steady, incompressible, and non-viscous (ideal)
flow along a streamline

Assumptions Behind Bernoulli’s Equation:

• Fluid is incompressible
• Flow is steady
• Fluid is non-viscous (ideal)
• Flow is along a streamline
• No energy added or removed (e.g., by pump or turbine)

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 Cavitation
The correct answer is:
(A) The suction pressure should be high

Cavitation occurs in a centrifugal pump

when the pressure at the suction side
(inlet) of the pump falls below the vapor
pressure of the liquid. This causes the
formation of vapor bubbles, which collapse
violently when they move to higher-
pressure regions, potentially damaging the
pump impeller and reducing efficiency.

To Avoid Cavitation:
• Ensure the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) available is greater than the NPSH required.
• This can be achieved by:
➢ Increasing suction pressure
➢ Reducing suction lift
➢ Avoiding high fluid temperatures (which increase vapor pressure)

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Boundary Layer in Pipe Flow
The correct answer is: (A) R
In internal flow through a circular pipe, the
boundary layer develops along the pipe wall and
grows inward toward the center of the pipe.
The boundary layer starts at the pipe wall and
thickens as we move downstream.
It reaches its maximum thickness at the center of
the pipe, where the effects of viscosity are felt
throughout the cross-section.

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Pelton Wheel
The correct answer is:
(A) 1.8 d
In a Pelton wheel, the bucket depth is a critical
design parameter that ensures:
• Efficient energy transfer from the jet to the
wheel
• Proper deflection of the water jet (ideally
160°–170°)
• Avoidance of water spillage or interference
between successive buckets

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 Skin Drag Friction in Turbulent Flow
Correct Answer is B) Pressure
Skin friction drags, is the frictional force
exerted on an object moving through a fluid
due to the viscosity of the fluid. In turbulent
flow, this drag is significantly greater than in
laminar flow due to the increased interaction
between the fluid and the surface.

Darcy–Weisbach Equation:

This equation is used to calculate frictional

drags in laminar & turbulent flows

Determining the Friction Factor f:

In turbulent flow, the friction factor depends on:
For Turbulent Pipe flow

Why Pressure Is Not a Factor:

• Frictional resistance arises from shear stress due to viscosity and turbulent eddies.
• Static pressure does not directly cause friction — it’s the flow characteristics (like speed and
surface texture) that matter.
• In contrast, velocity, density, and roughness directly influence the Reynolds number and
friction factor.

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 Francis Turbine
The correct answer is:
(B) 0.15 to 0.30

In the context of Francis turbines, the flow ratio is a

dimensionless parameter defined as:

For Francis turbines, typical design data shows:

• The flow ratio usually lies between 0.15 and 0.30
• It is lower than that of impulse turbines (like Pelton), which typically have higher flow ratios

A Francis turbine is a type of hydropower

turbine that efficiently converts water's
kinetic energy into mechanical power. It's a
reaction turbine, meaning it uses both the
pressure and velocity of the water to rotate its
blades.

The water flows inwards towards the center of

the turbine (radial flow) and then exits axially
(axial flow). This design allows Franci’s
turbines to operate efficiently across a wide
range of water head and flow conditions,
making them suitable for medium-head
applications.

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 Laminar Pipe Flow

The correct answer is: (B) 2

The kinetic energy correction factor (α) is used

to account for the non-uniform velocity
distribution across a pipe cross-section when
calculating kinetic energy in fluid flow.

It is defined as:

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 Stream Lines, Path Lines, Streak Lines
The correct answer is: (C) Stream line
Streamline:
An imaginary line in a fluid flow field such that the
tangent to the line at any point gives the direction of
the velocity vector of the fluid particle at that point.
In fluid dynamics, streamlines represent the
instantaneous path a fluid particle would follow,
streak lines trace the path of fluid particles that have
passed through a specific point, and path lines show
the actual trajectory of a single fluid particle as it
moves through time.

Streamlines

Streamlines are imaginary curves that are

tangential to the instantaneous velocity vector
of a fluid particle at any point in time.
They provide a snapshot of the flow direction at
a given moment.
In steady flow (where the velocity is constant
over time), streamlines, streaklines, and
pathlines all coincide.

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 Streaklines

Streaklines trace the path of all fluid particles

that have passed through a specific point in the
past.
They can be visualized by injecting dye into the
fluid at a fixed point and following the dye's
path.
Streaklines can change direction over time as the
fluid flow changes, especially in unsteady flows.

Pathlines

Pathlines are the actual trajectories of

individual fluid particles as they move through
space over time.
They represent the complete history of a fluid
particle's movement.
In steady flow, pathlines are identical to
streamlines, but in unsteady flow, they can
deviate from the streamlines.

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 Reciprocating Pumps

The correct answer is: (C) Reciprocating pump

Reciprocating pumps are designed for small

discharge and high heads due to their unique
mechanism involving pistons that create high
pressure by pushing fluid through a confined
space.

Reciprocating Pump:

• Type: Positive displacement pump

• Best suited for: Small discharge (low flow rate) and high heads (high pressure)
• It works by suction and delivery strokes, displacing a fixed amount of fluid per cycle.
• Used in applications where accurate, low-volume, high-pressure delivery is required (e.g.,
boiler feed, hydraulic systems).

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