CHAPTER#2

PHYSIOLOICAL BASIS OF MEMORY AND LEARNING

BNS-II

BS-V ( by Qarsam Munawar)

 CHAPTER#2

MEMORY AND LEARNING:

MEMORY:

Memory is the mental capacity to store, recall (remember) or recognize (identify) the events.

OR

Memory refers to the capacity of the brain to store, retain, and retrieve information. It is the process
by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain, and it is crucial for many
cognitive processes, including learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Significance of Memory

Memory is essential for our everyday lives as it enables us to learn, make decisions, and interact with
the world around us. Here are some of the reasons why memory is important:

 Learning: Memory plays a critical role in the learning process. It allows us to acquire and
retain knowledge and skills over time, which we can then apply in new situations.
 Problem-solving: Memory helps us to solve problems by allowing us to draw on past
experiences and knowledge to find solutions to new problems.
 Decision-making: Memory allows us to make decisions based on past experiences and
outcomes, enabling us to avoid repeating past mistakes and make more informed choices.
 Personal identity: Memory plays a crucial role in shaping our personal identity by preserving
our past experiences and allowing us to recall them when necessary.
 Relationships: Memory is essential for building and maintaining relationships as it enables us
to remember important details about others, such as their likes and dislikes, which helps us to
connect with them on a deeper level.
 Safety: Memory helps us to stay safe by allowing us to remember dangerous situations and
avoid them in the future.
 Creativity: Memory is also essential for creativity, as it allows us to recall past experiences
and apply them in new and innovative ways.
 The term remembering is used to mean either retaining experiences or recalling them.
 Without memory we can’t get profit from any experience or training. E.g how to get dressed,
recognize objects, shut off the alarm, won’t be able to communicate, our likes, dislikes, who
we are?
 Remembering tasks: Memory helps us to remember the tasks we need to complete throughout
the day, such as appointments, meetings, and deadlines.
 Memory is not like a photo album or documentary film, because they are not the exact copies
of our experiences. (selective perception)
 All learning implies memory. If we remember nothing from our experiences we could learn
nothing.
 Our memory is the library of our personal history.
  What we remember is influenced by many factors, some factors operating at the time of
original event, others operating during storage, still others at the time of recall.

In summary, memory is a fundamental cognitive process that underlies many of our everyday
activities and experiences. It allows us to learn, make decisions, build relationships, and shape our
personal identity, among other things.

Memory Process

Memory process refers to the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the
brain. There are three main stages of the memory process:

1. Encoding: This is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in
memory. Encoding involves the processing of sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory,
tactile) and the conversion of this information into a neural code that can be stored in the
brain.
 Attention
 Automatic
 Various codes
2. Storage: This refers to the process of maintaining information in memory over time. There
are three main types of memory storage: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information for a very brief period of time, while
short-term memory holds information for a few seconds to a minute. Long-term memory
holds information for longer periods of time, sometimes indefinitely.
 Duration: many psychologists believe that stored information is held forever in memory. Not
all info is retained, some of it is lost. The more often some bit of info is rehearsed or practices
the more likely it is to be retained.
 Storage Process: Researchers are uncovering the neurophysiological changes in certain
synapses and other biochemical processes that are associated with information storage. Like
libraries, minds must rely upon proper encoding and systematic storage. When we read for
fun we make no special effort to organize the ideas for later retrieval.
3. Retrieval: This is the process of accessing stored information when it is needed. Retrieval
can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the strength of the memory, the context in
which the memory was encoded, and the cues available to trigger the memory.
 Ebbinghaus identified four different forms of retrieval. 1.recall; 2. Recognition 3.
reconstruction 4.relearning

Overall, the memory process is a complex and dynamic process that is influenced by a variety of
internal and external factors.

Stages of Memory

• Atkinson and Shiffrin ( 1968) suggested three kinds of memory storage system.

• These store houses vary in terms of their functions, length of time the information is retained.
1. Sensory Memory: It preserves ( maintain) fleeting ( short) impressions of sensory stimuli, sight,
smell, sound etc but for a second or two. Its main function is to hold the info long enough so that
it can be processed further. This maintenance is done by sensory register, and there is a separate
register for each of the five sensory modalities. Sensory memory is the briefest form of memory
and holds sensory information for a very short time, typically only a few seconds. Sensory
memory allows us to retain an image of a visual scene, sound, or other sensory input for a brief
period of time, allowing us to recognize and react to stimuli in our environment. Sensory memory
is divided into two types: iconic memory (visual sensory memory) and echoic memory (auditory
sensory memory).

2. Short Term Memory: A stimulus that has been recognized or attended is likely to be transferred
to short term memory ( STM). Short-term memory is the type of memory that holds information
for a short period of time, typically several seconds to a minute. Short-term memory allows us to
hold and manipulate information in our minds, such as a phone number we are trying to
remember before dialing. Short-term memory is also known as working memory and is believed
to be limited in capacity. Rehearsal, Storage and Duration of STM (The total limit is 7 items or
take 2 (7 plus minus 2 ).

3. Long Term Memory: It constitutes a person’s total knowledge. LTM is the store house of all the
experienced events, information, emotions, skills, words etc. It can retain info for brief time as
well as long as lifetime. Long-term memory is the type of memory that holds information for a
longer period of time, sometimes indefinitely. Long-term memory can be divided into two types:
explicit memory (also known as declarative memory) and implicit memory (also known as non-
declarative memory). Explicit memory is the conscious recollection of past events, facts, and
experiences, while implicit memory is the unconscious memory of skills, habits, and conditioned
responses. Long-term memory is believed to have an unlimited capacity. Meaningful
connections, Use of Mnemonics, organization , Storage Capacity

Factors of Memory:

• Learning: Basic aspect of memory without which it can’t be formed. It is learning that enables
an individual to convert temporary into permanent memory by practice & repetition.

• Retention: the storing of the experiences, events and learning material acquired by the individual
is called retention. It preserves the learnt material.

• Recall: recollecting and bringing back to the mind the learnt material. It enables us to describe
past events in detail.

• Recognition: identifying the learnt material

Forgetting:

• The inability to retrieve previously stored info.

• The loss of already encoded and stored info is called forgetting.

 • Forgetting is a blessing too. It discards the clutter of useless info. Like where we parked our car
yesterday, details of last shopping etc.

• We would be haunted by the junk heap of memories. So we can say a good memory is helpful,
but so is the ability to forget.

• The info might be stored and retained, but for some reason, un retrievable when needed, it is
available but not accessible

Reasons of Forgetting:

• Psychologists believe that learning sets up physiological traces in the brain. Forgetting is seen
when the traces are not available at the time of recall.

• Sometimes interfering cues are also present and block memory. The traces are still in the brain,
but the cues are not appropriate for getting at the traces.

• State Dependent Learning: phenomenon of state dependent learning can also help to avoid
forgetting. If the state of learner will be changed, then forgetting occurs.

• Context Dependent Learning: context refers to one’s surroundings at the time of learning.
Memory will be better if subject has to recall in same context as of learning, otherwise forgetting
occurs.

• Reed’s Explanation: Reed ( 1992) explains either of two processes can be responsible for
forgetting. Decay ---- gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus and
interference ----- where one piece of info gradually displaces other information, pushing it out of
memory.

• Inadequate Retrieval: retrieval will not help if we didn’t store the material properly, just as the
book not listed in the card catalog will not be retrievable in the library, even if it is on a shelf.
Stimuli that help people retrieve information from LTM are called retrieval cues.

• Aging: Memory gets worse as we get older.

• Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia: unable to remember things that have happened in the
past is known as retrograde amnesia. Often brain diseases or injury can result in anterograde
amnesia. When we cant form new memories.

Theories of Forgetting:

• Decay Theory: Decay theory postulates a process by which stored info wears out or decays
overtime.The theory states that forgetting is due to a process that breaks down stored
memories.Reed (1992) also quoted decay as a major cause of forgetting.We remember
yesterday’s event much better than that of last week. Memories are lost or become dim or
incomplete over time.

• Interference Theory of Forgetting: Best developed theory of forgetting is based on the notion
of interference.Reed ( 1992) agrees that interference might be the cause of forgetting along with
 decay. Interference occurs either because one piece of info actually displaces other info, pushing
it out of memory, or one piece of info makes storing or recalling other info more difficult.As
STM can take only a limited no. of items, when additional items are included the old ones
disappear. Failure to recall a particular item is attributed to the influence of other, usually similar
items of stored info.

 Retroactive Inhibition : retroactive comes from Latin word meaning backward. Here new
material interferes with recall of previous learning.

 Proactive Inhibition: Pro is a latin word meaning Forward. When prior learning interferes with
recall of the new learning

• Theory of Motivated Forgetting: Sometimes we forget because we don’t want to remember.We

push certain memories out of conscious awareness because they are too frightening, too painful,
or too personality disregarding.We all forget some ideas we don’t want to recognize as part of us,
appointments we don’t want to keep, names of people we don’t like and past events that threaten
us.Freud gave the label repression to the mental process by which a person supposedly protects
himself from remembering unacceptable or painful info by pushing it out of consciousness.Freud
explained in defense mechanism that our memory system is self censoring, to minimize anxiety,
we may repress painful memories.

• Consolidation Theory : Every experience sets up some kind of trace. The trace may be thought
of a small electrical circuit formed in the brain, which is involved in coding that experience.
According to the theory, the circuit must consolidate in order for the experience to be
permanently stored. Before the completion of consolidation, circuit can easily be destroyed. But
if consolidated properly it gets stored in LTM and is difficult to destroy. According to the theory,
a major function of forgetting is that memory is partly destroyed before it is consolidated.
Memory failure is due to inadequate storage. Consolidation is the process of laying down a
permanent memory, so if consolidation could be facilitated, memory would be facilitated.

Amnesia:

• Amnesia is a loss of memory. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including physical trauma,
such as a head injury, or psychological trauma, such as extreme stress or depression. Amnesia can
also be caused by certain medications or medical conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease or
stroke.

• There are two main types of amnesia: anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia. Anterograde
amnesia is the inability to create new memories, while retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall
past memories.

• Symptoms of amnesia may include difficulty forming new memories, forgetting previously
learned information, and disorientation.

• Treatment for amnesia may involve therapy, medications, or other interventions, depending on
the cause of the memory loss.
 Alzeihmer’s disease:

• Alzheimer's disease is a progressive brain disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It
is the most common cause of dementia in older adults.

• Symptoms of Alzheimer's disease usually develop slowly and get worse over time, progressing
from mild memory loss to severe cognitive impairment (when a person has trouble
remembering, learning new things, concentrating, or making decisions that affect their
everyday life). Early symptoms may include forgetting recent events or conversations, difficulty
completing familiar tasks, and losing track of time or place. As the disease progresses, symptoms
may include severe memory loss, confusion, mood swings, and difficulty speaking, swallowing,
and walking.

• There is currently no cure for Alzheimer's disease, but there are treatments that can help manage
symptoms and improve quality of life. These may include medications to improve cognition and
behavior, as well as non-pharmacological interventions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy,
occupational therapy, and caregiver support.

• The exact cause of Alzheimer's disease is unknown, but it is believed to be caused by a

combination of environmental, genetic and lifestyle factors. Research suggests that a combination
of genetic, lifestyle and environmental factors may influence the development of the disease.
Genetic risk factors include a family history of Alzheimer's, mutations in the genes known to
cause Alzheimer's, and other genetic variations that may increase the risk of developing the
disease. Lifestyle factors such as diet, physical activity and social interaction may also play a
role. Environmental factors such as exposure to certain chemicals and toxins have also been
implicated.

Korsakoffs syndrome:

• Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis or amnesic syndrome, is a brain

disorder that is characterized by memory loss and other cognitive problems. It is typically caused
by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1), which can be due to chronic alcohol abuse or
malnutrition.

• Symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome may include difficulty forming new memories, forgetting
previously learned information, confusion, and difficulty with problem-solving and decision-
making. People with Korsakoff's syndrome may also have problems with balance and
coordination, and may experience hallucinations.

• Treatment for Korsakoff's syndrome typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the
thiamine deficiency, such as alcohol abuse or malnutrition. This may involve abstaining from
alcohol, following a balanced diet, and taking thiamine supplements. In some cases, additional
medications or therapies may be needed to manage symptoms.
 Learning

• Relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.

• Learning can take place only through experience.

• It is involved in mastering a new skill or academic subject as well as emotional development ,

social interaction and personality development ( what to love, to fear, how to be polite etc).

• Knowledge is usually thought to be acquired through experience and skill through practice

Types of Learning

• Learning by Observation: When we observe and imitate other’s behaviors that’s called learning
by observation/ modeling.

• Bandura believes that much of our learning takes place through observation.

• Learning by Cognition/ Insight: Tolman underlined the importance of cognitive processes

( using thought processes) in learning. Experiment on a chimpanzee (Sultan).

• Learning by Trial and Error: Edward Lee Thorndike advanced a mechanistic objective learning
theory that focused on overt behavior. Based on repetition of response tendencies that lead to
success. ( Law of effect and exercise).

• Learning by Conditioning: Learning by association is called conditioning learning. Two types

of conditioning learning

 Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning (Developed an entire philosophy of behavior

known as Functional analysis (examines the causes and consequences of behavior. This classic A-
B-C Functional Analysis worksheet can be used to collect information about what came before a
behavior (antecedents), the behavior itself, and the consequences of the behavior.)

• Humans and animals utilize these methods according to the need and their capacity.

• We can apply more than one method at a time.

Learning Disabilities:

• Learning disabilities are neurological disorders that can affect an individual's ability to learn,
process, and use information.

• They can be present from birth or may develop later in life as a result of injury or other factors.

• Learning disabilities can affect an individual's ability to read, write, speak, spell, and do math, as
well as their ability to process information and solve problems.

• There are many different types of learning disabilities, including

• Auditory processing disorder is a learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand
language. People with auditory processing disorder may have difficulty understanding what is
said to them, even if the words are spoken clearly.

• Nonverbal learning disorder is a learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand
nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and body language. People with nonverbal learning
disorder may also have difficulty with social skills, motor coordination, etc.

• Language-based learning disorder is a learning disability that affects a person's ability to

understand and use language. People with language-based learning disorder may have difficulty
with reading, writing, and speaking.

• Learning disabilities can vary in severity and may impact an individual's academic performance
and daily functioning.

• If an individual has a learning disability, they may benefit from specialized education and support
services, such as accommodations in the classroom, assistive technology, and tutoring.

• With the appropriate support, individuals with learning disabilities can often succeed
academically and in their personal and professional lives.

• Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects reading. It is characterized by difficulty with accurate
and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.

• Dyscalculia is a learning disability that affects math. It is characterized by difficulty

understanding numbers and mathematical concepts, and by poor performance in math-related
tasks.

• Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing. It is characterized by difficulty with the
physical act of writing, such as poor handwriting and difficulty with spelling.

• These conditions can be managed with the help of specialised tutors, educational therapists, and
other professionals who are trained in helping individuals with learning disabilities.

• In addition, there are a variety of assistive technologies available to help people with these
conditions.

(Note: you have thorough details on important language disorders in other chapters as well,
take help from them)

Physiology of learning:

• The physiology of learning involves the biological and neurological processes that allow us to
acquire, store, and recall information. These processes include the activity of neurons,
neurotransmitters, and hormones, as well as changes in brain structure.

• Neuronal plasticity: Neuronal plasticity refers to the ability of neurons to change their structure
and function in response to experiences. This process is fundamental to learning and memory, as
it involves changes in the strength and number of connections between neurons, and can result in
 the formation of new synapses or the strengthening of existing ones. Two main types of neuronal
plasticity are long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). LTP involves the
strengthening of synapses between neurons, while LTD involves the weakening of synapses.
Both LTP and LTD are thought to be involved in the formation and consolidation of memories.

• Learning is an active process that requires the coordination of multiple parts of the brain,
including the hippocampus, which is responsible for memory formation, and the prefrontal
cortex, which is important for executive functions like decision making. Neurotransmitters
like dopamine and serotonin also play a role in regulating our motivation and attention, which
are essential for learning.

• Neurotransmitters help neurons communicate with each other and hormones can influence the
release and use of neurotransmitters. They are chemical messengers that transmit signals between
neurons. Different neurotransmitters are involved in different types of learning and memory. For
example, acetylcholine is important for the formation of new memories, while dopamine is
involved in the reinforcement of reward-based learning. Serotonin is also involved in learning
and memory, as well as mood regulation.

• One key neurotransmitter involved in learning is acetylcholine, which is involved in the process
of long-term potentiation (LTP). LTP is a persistent increase in the strength of a synapse, and is
thought to be a fundamental mechanism underlying learning and memory.

• Another neurotransmitter involved in learning is dopamine, which is involved in reward-based

learning. When we encounter a pleasurable or rewarding stimulus, dopamine is released in the
brain, which can strengthen the connections between neurons and enhance learning.

• Hormones: Hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline can affect learning and memory by
modulating the activity of the hippocampus, a brain region involved in the formation and
consolidation of memories. Cortisol, which is released in response to stress, can impair memory
by interfering with the function of the hippocampus and is associated with stress, can also affect
learning. Adrenaline, on the other hand, can enhance memory by increasing the activity of the
amygdala, a brain region involved in emotional processing.

• The physiology of learning involves both the physical and the mental processes that occur when a
person learns. It involves both the physical and mental aspects of the learning process.

• Learning also involves the activation of regions of the brain.

• Additionally, the basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in the learning of motor skills.

• Sleep: Sleep is important for learning and memory consolidation, as it allows for the replay and
strengthening of memories during a process called memory consolidation. During sleep, the brain
replays and strengthens newly formed memories, which can improve their retention and
integration into long-term memory.
• Learning involves changes in the structure and function of neurons and synapses in the brain.
These changes are thought to be mediated by various neurotransmitters and signaling pathways
that regulate the strength of synapses.

• There are also several signaling pathways that are involved in the process of learning, including
the cyclic AMP pathway, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, and the protein
kinase A (PKA) pathway. These pathways help to regulate the strength of synapses and facilitate
the process of learning.

• Overall, the physiology of learning involves the complex interaction of various neurotransmitters,
signaling pathways, and structural changes in neurons and synapses, which together allow the
brain to adapt and change in response to new experiences.

Physiology of Memory:

• Memory is the process by which the brain stores and retrieves information. It is a complex
process that involves multiple brain regions and systems, and is mediated by various
neurotransmitters and signaling pathways.

• The physiology of memory involves the understanding of the various physiological processes that
take place in the brain in order to encode, store, and retrieve memories.

• Memory involves the processing of sensory information and its conversion into a form that can be
stored. This involves the use of networks of neurons located in various areas of the brain.

• The hippocampus is an area of the brain that is associated with encoding and storage of
memory. It plays an important role in the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term
memory.

• The prefrontal cortex is involved in the retrieval of memories, as well as the regulation of
emotions.

• The amygdala is responsible for the formation of emotional memories.

• Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, also play an important role in the
formation and retrieval of memories

• One key neurotransmitter involved in memory is acetylcholine, which plays a role in the process
of long-term potentiation (LTP). LTP is a persistent increase in the strength of a synapse, and is
thought to be a fundamental mechanism underlying learning and memory.

• Another neurotransmitter involved in memory is dopamine, which is involved in reward-based

learning and the consolidation of memories. When we encounter a pleasurable or rewarding
stimulus, dopamine is released in the brain, which can strengthen the connections between
neurons and enhance memory.

• There are also several signaling pathways that are involved in the process of memory, including
the cyclic AMP pathway, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, and the protein
 kinase A (PKA) pathway. These pathways help to regulate the strength of synapses and facilitate
the consolidation of memories.

• The cyclic AMP pathway is activated by the neurotransmitter dopamine and helps to regulate the
strength of connections between neurons. The MAPK pathway is activated by glutamate, a
neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory, and helps to regulate the expression of genes
involved in memory. Finally, the PKA pathway is activated by calcium and helps to regulate the
strength of connections between neurons and the expression of genes involved in memory.

• Structurally, memory involves the modification of existing neural connections and the formation
of new ones.

• Overall, the physiology of memory involves the complex interaction of various neurotransmitters,
signaling pathways, and structural changes in the brain, which together allow us to store and
retrieve information.

Neuroanatomy of Object Recognition

• Object recognition is the ability to identify and understand the meaning of objects in our
environment. It is a complex process that involves multiple brain regions and systems.

• One key brain region involved in object recognition is the occipital lobe, which is responsible for
processing visual information. The occipital lobe receives input from the retina and is
responsible for early stages of visual processing, including the identification of basic features
such as lines and edges.

• Another important brain region for object recognition is the temporal lobe, which is involved in
the recognition of more complex visual stimuli, including objects and faces. The temporal lobe
contains an area called the fusiform gyrus, which is specifically involved in the recognition of
faces.

• The prefrontal cortex, a region of the brain located at the front of the brain, is also involved in
object recognition. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher-level processing, including
the integration of information from multiple senses and the formulation of appropriate
responses.

• The neuroanatomy of object recognition is complex and involves a range of brain structures. The
process of object recognition involves the integration of sensory information from different
modalities (e.g. vision, hearing, touch) and a range of cortical and subcortical structures.

• The primary visual cortex (V1) is the first area of the brain to process visual information and is
involved in the process of object recognition. This region is located in the occipital lobe and
receives input from the eyes. It is responsible for analyzing basic features such as color, shape,
and size.

• The fusiform gyrus is involved in the recognition of objects. This region is located in the
temporal lobe and contains neurons that are specialized in recognizing faces and other objects.
• The parahippocampal gyrus is also important for object recognition. This region is responsible
for recognizing objects in context, such as their location in a particular scene.

• The amygdala and hippocampus are important for the recognition and recall of objects. The
amygdala is involved in the processing of emotionally salient information, while the
hippocampus is responsible for the formation of new memories.

• The inferior temporal cortex is an area of the brain responsible for the recognition of objects,
faces, and scenes. It is located in the temporal lobe and is involved in the integration of visual
information from the primary visual cortex and other areas of the brain.

• Finally, the basal ganglia are involved in the selection of objects. This region is responsible for
the selection of motor responses to objects and the modulation of attention.

• In summary, the neuroanatomy of object recognition is complex and involves a range of brain
structures. The primary visual cortex, fusiform gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, amygdala,
hippocampus, inferior temporal cortex, and basal ganglia are all involved in the process of object
recognition

Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory

• The process of learning and memory involves changes in the structure and function of synapses,
which are the specialized connections between neurons.

• When we learn something new, the strength of the connections between neurons can be modified
through a process called synaptic plasticity. This can involve the formation of new synapses, the
strengthening or weakening of existing synapses, or the removal of synapses.

• There are several mechanisms that underlie these changes in synaptic strength, including changes
in the number of neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, changes in the release of
neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron, and changes in the structure of the synapse itself.

• One well-known mechanism of learning and memory is long-term potentiation (LTP), which is a
persistent increase in the strength of a synapse. LTP is thought to play a role in the formation of
memories, as it allows neurons to communicate more efficiently with one another. This process is
thought to underlie the formation of long-term memories. During LTP, there is an increase in the
release of the neurotransmitter glutamate from the presynaptic neuron, which activates the
NMDA receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This leads to the influx of calcium ions into the
postsynaptic neuron, which triggers a cascade of molecular events that ultimately result in the
strengthening of the synapse.

• Another important mechanism is long-term depression (LTD), which is a persistent decrease in

the strength of a synapse. LTD is thought to play a role in the forgetting of memories, as it can
weaken the connections between neurons. LTD is thought to be involved in the forgetting of
information that is no longer relevant. During LTD, there is a decrease in the release of glutamate
from the presynaptic neuron, which leads to a decrease in the activation of the NMDA receptors
 on the postsynaptic neuron. This results in the removal of AMPA receptors from the postsynaptic
neuron, which weakens the synapse.

• In addition to LTP and LTD, other synaptic mechanisms that contribute to learning and memory
include synaptic pruning, which is the elimination of unnecessary synapses during development,
and structural changes to synapses, such as the growth of new dendritic spines or the modification
of existing ones.

• Overall, the mechanisms of learning and memory involve complex changes in the structure and
function of synapses, which allow the brain to adapt and change in response to new experiences

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