Table of Contents

General Mathematics……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1

Pre Calculus……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

Earth Science……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13

General Biology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23

21st Century……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34

Oral Communication………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………43

Komunikasyon…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48

ICT……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………60

Physical Education…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..69
 General Mathematics

Relation - any set of ordered pairs. The

set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs is called the domain of the relation,
and the set of all second elements is
called the range.
Piecewise Functions - a function in which
Function - is a relation or rule of more than one formula is used to define
correspondence between two elements the output. Each formula has its own
(domain and range) such that each domain, and the domain of the function
element in the domain corresponds to is the union of all these smaller domains.
exactly one element in the range.

Function can be represented in

different ways
● Table of Values/Mapping Evaluating Functions - the process of
● Ordered Pairs determining the value of the function at
● Graphing the number assigned to a given variable.
To evaluate functions:
Vertical Line Test - A graph of a relation 1. Replace each letter in the
is a function if any vertical line drawn expression with the assigned value.
passing through the graph intersects it at 2. Perform the operations in the
exactly one point. expression using the correct order
of operations.

Types of Functions
1. Constant Function - a function that
has the same output value no
matter what your input value is (ex.
y = 7)

2. Identity Function - a function

The Function Machine - Function can be
which returns the same value,
illustrated as a machine where there is
which was used as its argument
the input and the output.
[f(x) = x]
a. Input - independent variable,
abscissa, x-coordinate
3. Polynomial Function - A polynomial
b. Output - dependent variable,
function is defined by
ordinate, y-coordinate
0 1 2 2 𝑛 𝑛
Since output (y) is dependent on input 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 +... + 𝑎 𝑥 ,
(x), we can say that y is a function of x. where n is a non-negative integer
0 1 2
and 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 ,..., 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅.

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 a. Linear Function - polynomial
function with degree one. Composition of Functions - a function is
b. Quadratic Function - substituted to all variables in another
polynomial function with function. Also called as the function of
degree two. functions. It is simply putting a function
c. Cubic Function - polynomial inside another function.
function with a degree of
three. The functions (𝑓 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) and (h ∘ f)(x) are
generally not the same. It only means
4. Power Function - a function in the that order of functions counts in
𝑏
form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 where b is any real composition of function operation. There
constant number. are special cases where they will be the
same; this is when the two functions are
5. Rational Function 0 any function inverses.
which can be represented by a
𝑝(𝑥) George Polya’s 4-Step Rule
rational function like 𝑞(𝑥)
where
1. Explore - this step involves reading,
q(x) ≠ 0
analyzing, identifying the given
and unknown facts in the problem
6. Exponential Function - These are
and expressing the unknown in
2
functions of the form: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 terms of variables.
where x is an exponent and a and b
are constants. 2. Plan - in this step writing an
equation that describes the
7. Logarithmic Function - are the relationships between or among
inverses of exponential functions, the variables is involved.
and any exponential function can
be expressed in logarithmic form. 3. Solve - this step requires working
8. Absolute Value Function - The out with the written equation and
absolute value of any number, c is other number relations to
represented in the form of |c|. If determine the required quantities
any function f: R→ R is defined by that answer the question in the
f(x) = |x| It is known as the absolute problem.
value function.
4. Check - the final step that employs
Operations on Functions - similar to the use of other approaches to
operations on numbers. examine the appropriateness of the
1) Addition (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) answer.
2) Subtraction (f - g)(x)= f(x) - g(x)
3) Multiplication (f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x) Rational Equation - an equation
4) Division (f ÷ g)(x) = f(x) ÷ g(x) involving rational expressions
5) Composition of Functions Example:
𝑥+4
=
1
𝑥−1 5
(f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x))
Wherein: f and g are functions.

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Rational Inequality - an inequality
involving rational expressions
𝑥−2
Example: 5
> 3

Rational Function - a function of the

form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥) / 𝑞(𝑥) where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomial functions and q(x) is not
the zero function
2
𝑥 +6𝑥+8
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+4
4. Solve the simplified equation to
find the value/s of x.
Steps in Solving Rational Equations

1. Find the Least Common

Denominator (LCD).

5. Finally, you can now check each

solution by substituting in the
original equation and reject any
extraneous root/s (which do not
satisfy the equation).
2. Multiply the LCD to both sides of
the equation to eliminate the
fractions.

3. Simplify the resulting equation

using the distributive property and
then combine all like terms.

Steps in Solving Rational Inequalities

1. Put the rational inequality in the

general form where one side will be
just zero.

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 2. Write the inequality into a single
rational expression on the left-hand
side.

3. Set the numerator and

denominator equal to zero and
solve. The values you get are called
critical values.
6. Select test values in each interval
and substitute those values into the
inequality.

4. Plot the critical values on a number

line, breaking the numbers into Note:
intervals. a. If the test value makes the
inequality TRUE, then the
entire interval is a solution to
the inequality.
b. If the test value makes the
inequality FALSE, then the
entire interval is not a
solution to the inequality.
5. Substitute critical values to the
inequality to determine if the
endpoints of the intervals in the
solution should be included or not.

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 The domain is the set of all real
numbers except -2

Finding the Range in Rational Function

𝑥−2
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
7. Use interval notation to write the 1. To find the range, use f(x) = y then
final answer. solve for x.

2. Obtain the equation from Step 1,

then equate the denominator equal
to 0.
Rational Function - written in the form of
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)
. It should follow the
following conditions; namely:
1. Both p(x) and q(x) are polynomial
functions wherein it has no
negative and fractional exponents. Range: { 𝑦| 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 ≠ 1 } or
2. The denominator or q(x) should not (-∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
be equal to 0. The range is the set of all real
3. The domain of f(x) is a set of real numbers except 1
numbers such that q(x) ≠ 0.
Intercepts of Rational Functions
Finding the Domain in Rational
Function The intercepts of the graph of a rational
𝑥−2 function are the points of intersection of
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
its graph and an axis.
1. To find the domain, equate the
denominator to zero.
The y-intercept of the graph of a rational
x+2 = 0
function r(x), if it exists, occurs at r(0),
provided that r(x) is defined at x = 0. To
2. Obtain the equation in Step 1, then
find the y-intercept simply evaluate the
solve for x.
function at x = 0
x+2 = 0
x = -2 (The computed value is the
The x-intercept of the graph of a rational
restriction in the domain. It is not
function r(x), if it exists, occurs at the
included in the domain. All real
zeros of the numerator that are not zeros
numbers are included except -2.)
of the denominators. To find x – intercept
equate the function to 0.
Domain: { 𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −2 } or
(-∞, -2) ∪ (-2, ∞)

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 3. Slant/Oblique Asymptote - An
oblique asymptote is a line that is
neither vertical nor horizontal. It
occurs when the numerator of 𝑓(𝑥)
has a degree that is one higher
than the degree of the
denominator.

Finding the Vertical Asymptote

Zeroes of Rational Functions To determine the vertical asymptote of a
rational function, first reduce the given
The zeroes of a function are the values of function to its simplest form then find the
x which make the function zero. The zeroes of the denominator that are not
numbered zeroes are also x-intercepts of zeros of the numerator.
the graph of the function.

Finding the Horizontal Asymptote

Asymptotes of Rational Functions To determine the horizontal asymptote of
An asymptote is an imaginary line to a rational function, compare the degree
which a graph gets closer and closer as of the numerator n and the degree of the
the x or y increases or decreases its value denominator d.
without limit.
If n < d, the horizontal asymptote is y= 0
Kinds of Asymptotes
1. Vertical Asymptote - The vertical If n = d, the horizontal asymptote y is the
line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of ratio of the leading coefficient of the
a function f if the graph increases numerator a, to the leading coefficient of
or decreases without bound as the the denominator b. That is 𝑦 =
𝑎
.
𝑏
x values approach 𝒂 from the right
or left. If n > d, there is no horizontal asymptote.
2. Horizontal Asymptote - The
horizontal line y = b is a horizontal
asymptote of the function f if f(x)
gets closer to b as x increases or
decreases without bound.

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 This inverse function of function f is
−1
denoted by 𝑓 . It is defined by the
−1
equation 𝑓 (𝑦) = 𝑥 if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 for
any y in range B. Since both are
functions, then a function has to be
one-to-one for its inverse to be a function
at the same time. If it is a many-to-one
function, its inverse is one-to-many which
is not a function. A function has an
Finding Oblique/Slant Asymptote inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.
To find slant asymptotes simply divide
the numerator by the denominator by To find the inverse of a one-to-one
either using long division or synthetic function:
division. The oblique asymptote is the 1. Write the function in the form
quotient with the remainder ignored and y = f(x)
set equal to y. 2. Interchange the x and y variables
3. Solve for y in terms of x
One-to-One Function
A function f is one-to-one if it never takes Domain and Range of Inverse Function
the same value twice or f(𝑥1) ≠ f(𝑥2)
whenever (𝑥1) ≠ (𝑥2) . That is, the same The domain of the inverse is the range of
y-value is never paired with two different the original function and that the range
x-values. of the inverse is the domain of the
original function.
Horizontal Line Test - If f is a
one-to-one function then no two points
have the same y-value. Therefore, no
horizontal line cuts the graph of the
equation y = f(x) more than once. The domain of the original function is
(2,3,5,10) and the range is (6,8,12,21).
Therefore the domain of the inverse
relation will be (6,8,12,21) and the range is
(2,3,5,10).

Properties of an Inverse Function

−1
If the 𝑓 inverse function exists,
−1
1. 𝑓 is a one to one function, f is
Inverse of a Function - a function with also one-to-one.
domain B and range A given that the −1
2. Domain of 𝑓 = Range
original function has domain A and range −1
B. 3. Range of 𝑓 = Domain of f.

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 5. Principal Axis - the line that passes
Pre Calculus through the focus and
perpendicular to the directrix.
6. Focus - a point where rays
Conic Section - a curve obtained as the
reflected from the curve converge.
intersection of the surface of a cone with
7. Directrix - a line used to construct
a plane.
and define a conic section. The
distance of a directrix from a point
on the conic section has a constant
ratio to the distance from that
point to the focus.

Degenerate Conics - the degenerate

cases are point, line, and two intersecting
Circle - the conic section formed by the lines. These are not curves but are also
plane being parallel to the base of the possible results of the intersection of the
cone plane and a double right circular cone.

Ellipse - the conic section formed by the

plane being at an angle to the base of
the cone

Parabola - the conic section formed by

Eccentricity - how much the conic
the plane being parallel to the cone.
section varies from being circular. The
farther away the eccentricity of a conic
Hyperbola - the conic section formed by
section is from 0, the less the shape looks
the plane being perpendicular to the
like a circle.
base of the cone

Common Parts of Conic Sections

1. Apex - the tips of a cone intersect
at a point.
2. Nappes - the surface of a cone.
3. Generators - a line that lies on the
surface of the cone.
4. Vertex - the point of intersection of
the conic and its principal axis.
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 1. Vertex - sharpest turn point of the
Circle - the locus of all parabola (represented by V).
points in the plane
having the same fixed 2. Focus - a point which is used to
positive distance, determine or define the parabola
called the radius, from (represented by F). The distance of
a fixed point, called focus to the vertex is always
the center. determined by p (focal distance).

Standard Form of a Circle 3. Latus Rectum - a line passing

2
center at origin: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟
2 2 through the focus, perpendicular to
2 2 2 the axis of symmetry, and it has
center at (h.k): (𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
two endpoints. The distance of
endpoints of the latus rectum is
General Form of a Circle
2 2 always determined by 4p.
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0
4. Axis of Symmetry - a line that
Parabola - locus of points such that the
divides the parabola in half.
distance from a point to a focus is equal
to the distance from the same point and
5. Directrix - a line perpendicular to
the directrix.
the axis of symmetry (represented
by D).
Distance Formula:

𝑑 =
2
(𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
2
Patterns in Finding Parts of a Parabola

Standard Form of a Parabola

Parts of a Parabola

General Form of a Parabola

2
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0

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 4. Foci - Each focus is c unit/s away
Ellipse - when the plane figure is tilted from the center.
and cut only one cone to form a bounded
curve Patterns in Finding Parts of an Ellipse

It implies that the distance of segments

from the foci to any points on the ellipse
is equal to the length of the major axis.

Standard Form of an Ellipse

General Form of an Ellipse

2 2
2 2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0
To find c: 𝑐 = 𝑎 −𝑏

Hyperbola - the set of all points in the

Parts of an Ellipse
plane such that the difference of their
distances from two fixed points (foci) is
constant.

Standard Form of a Hyperbola

2 2
To find c: 𝑐 = 𝑎 +𝑏
1. Center - This can be at the origin or
(h, k). This is the middle inner most Parts of a Hyperbola
part of an ellipse.

2. Vertices - The vertices are the

parts on the ellipse, collinear with
center and foci. Each vertex is a
unit/s away from the center. The
length of the endpoints of the
vertices is called the major axis.

3. Co-Vertices - Each co-vertex is b

units away from the center. The
length of the endpoints of the
co-vertices is called the minor axis.

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 1. Center - This can be at the origin or If A ≠ B and AB > 0, the equation
(h, k). This is the middle inner most represents an ellipse.
part of a hyperbola. The orientation of an ellipse is horizontal
when A < B and vertical when A > B.
2. Vertices - Each vertex is distanced
by units from the center. Moreover, If A = 0 or B = 0, but not both, the
the transverse axis has length 2a. equation represents a parabola.
The parabola opens
3. Endpoints of the Conjugate Axis - a.) upward when B = 0 and D < 0,
Each endpoint of the conjugate b.) downward when B = 0 and D> 0,
axis is b units from the center. c.) to the right when A = 0 and C < 0, and
Moreover, the length of the d.) to the left when A = 0 and C>0
conjugate axis is 2b.
If AB < 0, the equation represents a
4. Foci - Each focus is c units from the hyperbola.
center and collinear to the vertices. The orientation of a hyperbola is
horizontal when A > 0 and vertical when
5. Asymptotes - These are the two B>0
lines that intersect at the center.
If the left side in the standard form of the
Patterns in Finding Part of a Hyperbola equation of a circle and ellipse are equal
to 0 then it is a point while if it has
negative value, then it is an empty set.

If the left side in the standard form of the

equation of a hyperbola is equal to 0
then it forms two intersecting lines.

Sequence - a list of numbers (separated

by commas). The sequence with nth term
an is usually denoted by {𝑎𝑛}

General Form of a Hyperbola Series - a sum of numbers (separated by

2 2
𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0 “+” or “–” sign). the associated series is
given by S = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + · · · + 𝑎𝑛.
Recognize Conic Sections and
Degenerate Cases Arithmetic Sequence - a sequence
wherein the difference between any two
The relationship between coefficients A consecutive terms is constant
and B are significant in identifying the
type of conics and its characteristics. Geometric Sequence - a sequence
wherein there is a common ratio that is
If A = B ≠ 0, the equation represents a multiplied to each term to get the next.
circle.
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Sigma Notation - The uppercase Greek
letter Σ (sigma) is used to indicate a
“sum.” The picture below can be read as
“the summation of f of i from m up to n”.

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 5. Nutrients - used to build and
Earth Science maintain an organism's body
structure. Recycling nutrients -
water, carbon and oxygen,
Earth - the third planet from the Sun, the
phosphate and nitrogen cycles
fifth largest planet in the solar system,
the only place we know of so far that’s
Earth’s Subsystems
inhabited by living things.

1. Atmosphere - Earth’s blanket. Its

Characteristics of the Earth that are
name is rooted from the Greek
Necessary to Support Life
word atmos which means gas and
sphaira which means globe or ball.
1. Temperature - it influences how
It is composed of 78% nitrogen,
quickly atoms, molecules or
21% oxygen, 0.9% argon 0.10% is
organisms move
made up of different trace gasses
a. low temperature – slows
and vapor
down chemical reaction
b. high temperature – break
down of important molecules

2. Water - one of the important

ingredients in the different
biological processes. It has
different forms - it is solid (ice) in
the 2 poles and liquid along the
equator

3. Atmosphere - ozone (O3 ) layer -

shields the surface from harmful
radiation. CO2 and CH4 - traps
heat and avoid our planet from
freezing
2. Geosphere - comes from the Greek
4. Energy - organisms use light or word geos meaning ground. It
chemical energy to run their life pertains to the solid part of the
processes Earth and it is divided into three
a. plants and photosynthetic layers such as the crust, mantle
bacteria use light as the and the core. It contains all the soil,
source of their energy rocks, and minerals present in the
b. chemosynthetic organisms crust to the core of the Earth. It
rely on chemical energy to comprises the geologic landforms
support various biological such as mountains and hills.
processes

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 3. Hydrosphere - hydro is a Greek
word which means water. It is Physical Properties of Minerals
composed of all the water on Earth
in any form. This includes ice, water 1. Crystal Habit - overall shape of the
vapor, and liquid water. THe mineral. It can be equant (equal),
permanently frozen part of this Elongate (long), or platy (flat).
subsystem is called the cryosphere.
2. Luster - appearance of quality of
4. Biosphere - came from the Greek light reflected from the surface of a
word bios meaning life. It is mineral. It can be metallic or
composed of all living things and nonmetallic.
the areas where they are found. It
includes all animals, microbes, and 3. Cleavage and Fracture
plants. a. Cleavage: the tendency of
minerals to break along very
smooth, flat and shiny
surfaces
b. Fracture: breaks along
random, irregular surface

4. Hardness - measure of the

mineral’s resistance to scratching

Sphere Interactions - the processes that

move matter and energy from one sphere
to another. Changes in any sphere greatly
affect the other sphere as well since all
the spheres are interconnected.

Biogeochemical Cycles - carbon,

oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water.

Minerals - a naturally-occurring
inorganic solid that possesses orderly
internal structure and has definite
chemical composition. Minerals are
- Naturally occurring
- Inorganic
- Solid
- Orderly internal structure
- Definite chemical composition
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 5. Color - most obvious properties of other minerals are broken down by
a mineral but not reliable alone weathering
9. Mineraloid - term used for those
6. Streak - refers to the color of the substances that do not fit neatly
mineral in its powdered form into one of these eight classes

Additional Physical Properties Rocks - a natural substance composed of

solid crystals of different minerals that
1. Magnetism - attracted to a hand have been fused together into a solid
magnet lump
2. Reaction to Acid - react visibly with
acid (ex.: carbonates) Classification of Rocks
3. Striation - presence of very thin, 1. Igneous - formed through the
parallel grooves cooling and solidification of
4. Specific Gravity - weight of that magma or lava
mineral divided by the weight of an a. Intrusive - formed when
equal volume of water. 2.6 to 3.5, 5 magma solidifies beneath
to 8 (g/mL) Earth’s surface
5. Taste, Odor, Feel b. Extrusive - formed when
magma solidifies on the
Chemical Properties - shows the Earth’s surface
presence and arrangement of atoms in
minerals and minerals are identified by 2. Sedimentary - formed by the
how they react to certain substances. deposition and cementation of
mineral or organic particles on the
Dana System floor of oceans and other bodies of
water
1. Native Elements - naturally a. Clastic - formed from the
occurring in nature mechanical weathering
2. Silicates - largest group of debris of rocks
minerals; silicon and oxygen b. Chemical - formed when
3. Oxides - combination of a metal dissolved materials
with oxygen precipitate from the solution
4. Sulfides - compounds of sulfur c. Organic - formed from the
usually with a metal build-up of plant or animal
5. Sulfates - compounds of sulfur debris
combined with metals and oxygen
6. Halides - halogen elements with 3. Metamorphic - produced from
metal pre-existing igneous, sedimentary,
7. Carbonates - made of carbon, or even metamorphic rocks that
oxygen, and a metallic element are subjected to heat and pressure,
8. Phosphates - presence of causing a profound chemical or
phosphoric acid, formed when physical change.

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 a. Foliated - mineral grains are
arranged in planes or bands
b. Non-foliated - mineral grains
are NOT arranged in planes
or bands

b. Strip Mining - involves the

removal of a thin strip of
overburden (earth and soil)
above a desired deposit,
dumping the removed
overburden behind the
deposit, extracting the
desired deposit, creating a
second, parallel strip in the
same manner and depositing
the waste materials from the
second (new) strip onto the
first strip.
Importance of Minerals to Society -
Minerals are important to society that
can help in households, construction,
generation of power and electricity,
agriculture, and for our health.

Mining - the process of mineral c. Dredging - the process of

extraction from a rock seam or ore (a mining minerals from the
natural rock or sediment containing one bottom of a body of water,
or more valuable minerals). including rivers, lakes, and
oceans.
Two Methods of Mining

1. Surface Mining - used to extract

ore minerals near the surface of
the earth. The soil and rocks that
covered the ores are removed 2. Underground Mining - used to
through blasting (a controlled use extract rocks, minerals and other
of explosives to break rocks). precious stones that can be found
a. Open-Pit Mining - a big hole beneath the earth’s surface. Miners
(or pit) on the ground; the need to create a tunnel so they can
most common type of reach the ore minerals.
surface mining.

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 a. Anthracite - highest rank of
coal; hard, brittle, and black
lustrous coal
b. Bituminous Coal - has a high
heating value; most common
type of coal used in
electricity generation; shiny
Mineral Processing - the process of and smooth at first glance,
extracting minerals from the ore, refining but when you look closely,
them, and preparing these materials for you will see that it has layers
use. c. Subbituminous Coal - black
1. Sampling - the removal of a in color and dull; has a higher
portion which represents a whole heating value than lignite
needed for the analysis of this d. Lignite - brown coal
material.
2. Analysis - evaluate the valuable 2. Oil - organic material, mostly
component in an ore including algae, which was buried in mud at
chemical, mineral, and particle size the bottom of the sea and lakes.
analysis. Used for the production of
3. Comminution - the process where transportation fuels and petroleum
the valuable components of the ore -based products
are separated through crushing
and grinding. 3. Natural Gas - Earth’s cleanest fossil
4. Concentration - involves the fuel; odorless and colorless; from
separation of the valuable minerals sedimentary rock formation by
from the raw minerals. forcing chemicals, water, and sand
5. Dewatering - uses the down a well under high pressure;
concentration to convert it to Malampaya natural gas field
usable minerals. This involves (Palawan Island)
filtration and sedimentation of the
suspension and drying of the solid Fossil Fuel Formation
materials harvested from this
suspension.

Fossil Fuel - remains of plants and

animals that died millions of years ago;
non-renewable energy source

Three Types of Fossil Fuel

1. Coal - primary fossil fuel present on
earth; 50% coal resource
(Philippines); found where forest
trees, plants and marshes existed
before being buried

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 Geothermal Energy - energy from the
heat within the earth; located near
volcano and hot springs; Geothermal
Power Plant and Geothermal Heat Pumps

Process of a Geothermal Power Plant

1. Use the heat from deep within the
Earth’s surface to produce steam
to generate electricity (1-2 miles
deep to pump steam). Hot water is
pumped from deep underground
through a well under high pressure.
Millions of years ago the remains of 2. When the water reaches the
prehistoric plants and animals are buried surface, the pressure is dropped,
underneath the Earth’s surface. These which causes the water to turn into
remains were covered in mud. The mud steam.
sediment was buried by more sediments 3. Steam spins a turbine, which is
and it started to change into rock as connected to a generator that
temperature and pressure increased. In produces electricity.
that case fossil fuels are formed in a low 4. Steam cools off in a cooling tower
oxygen environment. The plant and and condenses back to water.
animal remains were altered chemically 5. Cooled water is pumped back into
by this process, slowly turning into crude the Earth to begin the process
oil and natural gas. again.

Energy Resources - source or supply that Geothermal Heat Pump - use heat just
can be used to generate electricity beneath the earth’s surface in order to
heat water or provide heat for buildings;
a. Renewable - natural source of naturally existing heat; used in residential
energy that can be replenished and commercial buildings
over time; clean energy
b. Non-Renewable - energy resources
that deplete and will not be
replenished

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 Water - nearly ¾ of the Earth’s surface is
covered with water (ocean); freshwater -
groundwater, lakes, rivers and streams.
70% of the human body is water and
bodies of all plants and animals also
contain water.

Water Resources - natural resources of

water that are potentially useful in
Hydroelectric Energy - use the energy of agricultural, households, recreational and
a falling or a moving water to generate environmental activities.
electricity
Sources of Water
1. Natural Sources - bodies of water
like rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes,
streams, ponds and springs
2. Man-made sources - structures like
dams, wells, tube wells,
hand-pumps, canals

Two Main Sources of Water

1. Surface Water - oceans, rivers,
Process of Hydroelectric Energy lakes, reservoirs, ponds and
1. A dam raises the level of a source streams.
of water to create a drop of water. 2. Underground Water - rainwater
High level of water: greater seeps through the soil on to the
potential energy nonporous rocks
2. As the water flows, potential
energy is converted to kinetic
energy
3. Kinetic energy in water powers the
blade of the turbine to spin. Kinetic
energy is converted to mechanical
energy
4. The turbine is connected to a
generator. Mechanical energy will
be converted to electrical energy
Drinking Water - piped water tube wells
Dams or boreholes; protected dug wells,
1. Angat Dam protected springs; rainwater. Improved
2. Magat Dam source: bottled water or refilling stations
for drinking.

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Water Quality - the condition of the Soil Degradation - decline in soil
water, including chemical, physical, and condition caused by its improper use or
biological characteristics, usually with poor management, usually for
respect to its suitability for a particular agricultural, industrial or urban purposes
purpose.
Human Activities that Contribute to the
Physical Characteristics of Water Loss of Good Quality Soil
Quality 1. Farming - one of the traditional
1. Temperature - affects some of the sources of income in our country
important physical properties and done by planting crops or raising
characteristics of water livestock
2. Color - used as a quantitative a. Positive Effects to Soil
assessment of the presence of i. a pesticide used to kill
potentially hazardous or toxic unwanted plants used
organic materials in water in farming has a
3. Taste and Odor - human positive benefit on soil
perceptions of water quality health
4. Turbidity - a measure of the ii. lime and mineral
light-transmitting properties of fertilizers added to soil
water provide stable
optimum growing
Water Availability - the quantity of conditions for plants
water that can be used for human iii. organic manures and
purposes without significant harm to other organic
ecosystems or other users fertilizers provide a
source of food for
Water Scarcity - the lack of sufficient many soil organisms
available water resources to meet the iv. irrigation /drainage
demands of water usage within a region. water stabilizes the soil
Caused by: climate change, increased moisture
pollution, increased human demand, b. Negative Effects to Soil
overuse of water. i. tillage can cause direct
damage to soil
Soil - a necessary resource because it microorganisms
helps sustain life on Earth; mixtures of ii. have long term
minerals, water, air, organic matter, and harmful effects on the
countless organisms; helps purify, or overall activity of soil
clean, water as it drains through the organisms
ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans;
decomposers in soil also help recycle 2. Construction - grading and filling
nutrients by breaking down the remains can reduce soil quality on
of plants and animals; provides a home construction sites; soil nutrients are
for a variety of living things washed away making it unsuitable
for farming.
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 provisions of national law (United Nations
3. Waste Disposals - soil pollution – Environment)
happens when hazardous
chemicals from human and Kinds of Waste
industrial sewage are carelessly 1. Solid Waste - plastics, styrofoam,
disposed of, altering soil’s natural papers, scrap iron and sludge from
health and quality a wastewater treatment plant
2. Liquid Waste - chemicals, oils, and
Ways to Protect and Conserve the Soil waste water from ponds and
1. Buffer Strips - provide protection manufacturing industries
where stream banks exist 3. Gaseous Waste - gasses/smoke
2. No-till Farming - allows crops to from factories, smoke from
remain in place for a season, keeps vehicles, smoke from burning of
the soil from being left bare and waste
unprotected
3. Plant Windbreak Areas - Classification of Waste
windbreaks are composed of 1. Biodegradable Waste –
shrubs, plants and trees decomposes themselves over a
4. Terrace Planting - done by period of time depending on the
maximizing the topography of the material
land, it benefits from the way the 2. Non-biodegradable Waste – do not
rain water flows naturally decompose by themselves and
5. Crop Rotation - planting and hence are major pollutants
growing a serious of different crops 3. Hazardous Waste – unsafe to use
in the same soil commercially
6. Water the Soil - helps to not only 4. Non-Hazardous Waste – safe to use
nourish the soil but to protect it, commercially
moist soil is not in danger of
erosion due to wind activity Waste According to Generation (Origin)
7. Maintain pH – a pH range of 1. Municipal Solid Waste - household
approximately 6 to 7 promotes the garbage, construction and
most ready availability of plant demolition debris, sanitation
nutrients residues, packaging materials,
8. Fertilizers – use of organic fertilizer trade refuges
improves the quality of soil 2. Industrial Waste - chemical,
9. Control Storm Water – setting up petroleum, coal, metal, gas,
large container to hold excess sanitary and papers
water 3. Agricultural Waste - manure,
harvest waste, fertilizer runoff from
Waste - wastes as unwanted or unusable fields; pesticides that enter into
materials which are disposed of or are water, and salt and silt drained
intended to be disposed of or are from fields
required to be disposed of by the 4. Fishery Waste - fish viscera, fish
bones and scales
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 5. Radioactive Waste - by-products of ● Plant uptake
nuclear processes ● Ventilation
6. E-Waste - discarded electrical or ● Runoff
electronic devices ● Leaching
7. Biomedical Waste - containers, ● Insects, birds, rats, flies and
intermediate or end products animals
● Direct dumping of untreated waste
3R’s of Waste Management in seas, rivers and lakes results in
1. Reduce the plants and animals that feed on
2. Reuse it
3. Recycle
Impacts of Solid Waste on Health
Zero Waste Management Program - a ● Chemical poisoning through
comprehensive approach to waste chemical inhalation
management that seeks to reduce the ● Uncollected waste can obstruct the
amount of waste generated and storm water runoff resulting in
maximize the reuse and recycling of flood
materials ● Low birth weight
● Cancer
Waste Disposal Practices ● Congenital malformations
1. Landfill - a place to dispose waste ● Neurological disease
material by burying or covering ● Nausea and vomiting
over with soil and become an ● Mercury toxicity from eating fish
extending usable land after few with high levels of mercury
years
2. Dump - an excavated piece of land Effects of Solid Waste on Animals and
used as storage for waste Aquatics Life
materials ● Plastic found in oceans ingested by
3. Composting - natural process of birds
recycling organic matter, such as ● Resulted in high algal population in
leaves and food scraps, into a rivers and sea
valuable fertilizer ● Degrades water and soil quality
4. Material Recovery Facility (MRF) -
a facility to receive, sort, process Impacts of Solid Waste on
and store recyclable materials Environment
● Waste breaks down in landfills to
The Effect of Different Kinds of Waste form methane, a potent
to Human and the Environment greenhouse gas
Sources of Human Exposure ● Change in climate and destruction
● Ingestion of contaminated water of ozone layer due to waste
or food biodegradable
● Contact with disease vectors ● Littering, due to waste pollutions,
● Inhalation illegal dumping
● Dermal
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 5. Matthias Schleiden (1838) -
General Biology concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells

Biology - the study of living organisms;

6. Theodor Schwann (1839) - stated
derived from the Greek words “bios” (life)
that all animal tissues are
& “logos” (study).
composed of cells

Three Major Branches of Biology

7. Rudolf Virchow (1858) - stated that
1. Medical Science - it includes the
all cell come from pre-existing cells
study of several plants used in
medicines.
Postulates of the Cell Theory
2. Botany - it includes the study of
plants.
1. All living organisms are composed
3. Zoology - it includes the study of
of one or more cells.
animals
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all
living things.
Aristotle - Father of Biology and Zoology.
3. All cells come from pre-existing
He started classification with two
cells.
kingdoms: animal and plantae.

Types of Organisms Based on Number

Cell - the smallest unit that can live on its
of Cells
own and that makes up all living
organisms and the tissues of the body.
● Unicellular
● Multicellular
Cell Theory

Types of Cells Based on the Presence of

1. Robert Hooke (1665) - cork
Membrane-Bound Organelles
specimen; coined the word “cell”

● Prokaryotic cells/Prokaryotes - no
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676) -
true nucleus; has nucleoid, no
“Animalcules”(an old term for
membrane-bound organelles
microscopic organisms that
● Eukaryotic cells/Eukaryotes - has
includes bacteria, protozoans, &
true nucleus, has membrane-bound
very small animals.
organelles

3. Robert Brown (1831) - Inside the

cell is a dark, dense spot which he
termed “nucleus”

4. Felix Dujardin (1835) - State that

cells were not hollow and described
the jellylike material in animal cells
and termed it as “sarcode”.

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Organelles - internal structures of the Ribosomes - cell organelles that consist
cell which perform specific functions of of RNA and proteins, responsible for
the cell. assembling the proteins of the cell

Cell Wall - a major role of the cell wall is Golgi Apparatus - responsible for
to form a framework for the cell to manufacturing, warehousing, and
prevent over expansion. Additional shipping certain cellular products,
functions include: support, withstand particularly those from the endoplasmic
turgor pressure, regulate growth, reticulum (ER).
regulate diffusion, communication,
storage Lysosomes - act as the digesters,
lysosome membrane helps to keep its
Cell Membrane - protect the integrity of internal compartment acidic and
the interior of the cell by allowing certain separates the digestive enzymes
substances into the cell, while keeping
other substances out. Nucleus - a membrane bound structure
that contains the cell’s hereditary
Cytoplasm - support and suspend information and controls the cell’s growth
organelles and cellular molecules. It is and reproduction. Parts: nuclear
clear in color and has a ge;-like envelope, chromatin & chromosome,
appearance. nucleoplasm, nucleolus

Cytoskeleton - network of fibers that Mitochondria - power houses of

forms the “infrastructure” of eukaryotic, eukaryotic cells, generate power by
prokaryotic cells, and archaeans. 3 converting energy into forms that are
components of cytoskeleton: usable by the cell.
microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
microtubules. Plastid - Chloroplast contains a green
pigment called chlorophyll, which absorbs
Centrosome - during mitosis or cell light energy for photosynthesis
division, it replicates and migrates to
opposite ends of the cell. Important for Central Vacuole - responsible for a wide
the formation of cell structures known as variety of important functions in a cell
cilia and flagella. including nutrient storage, detoxification,
and waste exportation, can perform a
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - active number of functions in a cell including:
protein synthesis and manufactures turgor pressure control, growth, storage,
membranes and secretory proteins. molecule degradation, detoxification,
protection, seed germination
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum -
carbohydrate and lipid synthesis, cell
detoxification

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 cells to transport oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Red blood cells
carry oxygen from our lungs to the
rest of our bodies. Then they make
the return trip, taking carbon
dioxide back to our lungs to be
exhaled.

3. White Blood Cells - part of the

body's immune system. They help
the body fight infection and other
diseases. On the basis of their
appearance under a light
microscope, white cells are
Cell Structure and Modifications grouped into three major
classes—lymphocytes,
Cell Types: Human and Animal granulocytes, and
monocytes—each of which carries
1. Stem Cells - the cells that develop out somewhat different functions.
into blood, brain, bones, and all of
the body's organs. They have the
potential to repair, restore, replace,
and regenerate cells, and could
possibly be used to treat many
medical conditions and diseases.

4. Platelets - tiny blood cells that help

your body form clots to stop
bleeding. If one of your blood
vessels gets damaged, it sends out
signals to the platelets. The
platelets then rush to the site of
damage and form a plug (clot) to
2. Red Blood Cells - contain fix the damage. A normal platelet
hemoglobin and are covered with a count is 150,000 to 450,000
membrane composed of proteins platelets per microliter of blood.
and lipids. Hemoglobin—an
iron-rich protein that gives blood
its red color—enables red blood
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 ● microglia - they do
phagocytosis to fight
infection
● oligodendrocytes - bind the
CNS neurons together and
5. Nerve Cells - Neurons (also called insulate the axons
neurons or nerve cells) are the ● schwann cells - insulate PNS
fundamental units of the brain and axons
nervous system, the cells ● satellite cells - myogenic
responsible for receiving sensory stem cells responsible for
input from the external world, for muscle regeneration
sending motor commands to our throughout the lifespan
muscles, and for transforming and
relaying the electrical signals at
every step in between.

6. Neuroglial Cells - diverse class of

7. Muscle Cells - Commonly known as
cells that provide developmental,
myocytes, are the cells that make
physiological, and metabolic
up muscle tissue. Muscle tissue is
support for neurons. They are
composed of cells that have the
responsible for maintaining
special ability to shorten or
homeostatic control and immune
contract in order to produce
surveillance in the nervous system.
movement of the body parts.
Muscle cells are specialized to
contract - create a pulling force to
stabilize or move parts of the body.

● ependymal cells - move

cerebrous spinal fluid around
to keep it homogenous
● astrocytes - form the blood
brain barrier

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 ● Skeletal muscle – the 10. Skin Cells - represent the ultimate
specialized tissue that is barrier between our inner selves
attached to bones and allows and the outside world. Provides a
movement protective barrier against
● Smooth muscle – located in mechanical, thermal and physical
various internal structures injury and hazardous substances.
including the digestive tract, Prevents loss of moisture. Reduces
uterus and blood vessels harmful effects of UV radiation.
such as arteries Other functions: protection,
● Cardiac muscle – the muscle sensation, allows movement,
specific to the heart endocrine, excretion, immunity,
and regulate temperature.
8. Cartilage Cells - Cartilage has
many functions, including the
ability to resist compressive forces,
enhance bone resilience, and
provide support on bony areas
where there is a need for flexibility.
The primary cell that makes 11. Endothelial Cells - main functions
cartilage is the chondrocyte. of endothelial cells are filtration of
Chondrocytes make up “cell nests,” fluids, blood vessel size regulation,
groups of chondrocytes within hemostasis, and transport of
lacunae. Chondroblasts are various substances throughout the
responsible for the secretion and body.
maintenance of the matrix.

9. Bone Cells - Bone cells work in

harmony to maintain a balance 12. Epithelial cells - They form the
between bone formation and covering of all body surfaces, line
resorption, ultimately to control body cavities and hollow organs,
bone structure and function. Bone and are the major tissue in glands.
is composed of four different cell They perform a variety of functions
types; osteoblasts, osteocytes, that include protection, secretion,
osteoclasts and bone lining cells. absorption, excretion, filtration,
diffusion, and sensory reception.

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 13. Fat Cells - (AKA adipocytes or
adipose cells) are the cells that
make up the adipose tissue. They
store energy in the form of lipids Cell Types: Plants
and to create an insulating layer
beneath the skin for the
conservation of body heat.

1. Parenchyma Cells - The unifying

characteristic of all parenchyma
cells is that they are living at
maturity and capable of cell
division, giving them important
roles in regeneration and wound
14. Sex Cells - made in specialized healing. Other key functions of
organs and carry genetic these cells include photosynthesis,
information to the next generation. storage, secretion and transport.
Gametes are an organism's 2. Collenchyma Cells - Collenchyma
reproductive cells. They are also tissue is composed by elongated
referred to as sex cells. Gametes living cells of uneven primary thick
are haploid cells, and each cell walls, which possess hemicellulose,
carries only one copy of each cellulose, and pectic materials. It
chromosome. provides support, structure,
mechanical strength, and flexibility
to the petiole, leaf veins, and stem
of young plants, allowing for easy
bending without breakage.
15. Nephron Cells - The nephrons work 3. Sclerenchyma Cells - Sclerenchyma
through a two-step process: the cells are strong, thick cells that
glomerulus filters your blood, and provide most of the support in a
the tubule returns needed plant. They are known to have
substances to your blood and extremely thick cell walls and do
removes wastes. Each nephron has not participate in many of the
a glomerulus to filter your blood other activities of the developing
and a tubule that returns needed plant, such as photosynthesis,
substances to your blood and pulls because their focus is strictly on
out additional wastes. support and structure.

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 4. Cork Cells - found at the periphery locomotion or in higher forms a
of roots and stems of grown plants current of fluid.
as they increase in girth. These
cells also contain a chemical
named suberin in their cell walls
which does not allow them to be
permeable to gasses and water.
Functions of Cork cells: Protects
plants from external injury to some
extent. 3. Flagella - performs the following
functions: they help an organism in
movement, they act as sensory
organs to detect temperature and
pH changes.

Specialized Cell Types (Animals)

1. Microvilli - Microvilli on the surface
of epithelial cells such as those
lining the intestine increase the
cell's surface area and thus
facilitate the absorption of
ingested food and water molecules.
In the small intestine, these cells Specialized Cell Types (Plants)
contain microvilli, which are tiny
hair-like projections that increase
nutrient absorption. These
projections increase the surface
area of the small intestine allowing
more area for nutrients to be
absorbed.

1. Cuticle Layer - Cuticle is the

outermost layer interacting with
the environment. This lipophilic
layer comprises the polyester cutin
2. Cilia - a minute short hair-like embedded in cuticular wax; and it
process often forming part of a forms a physical barrier to protect
fringe especially : one on a cell that plants from desiccation as well as
is capable of lashing movement from diverse biotic and abiotic
and serves especially in free stresses.
unicellular organisms to produce

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 2. Stomata - tiny openings or pores in Palisade mesophyll cells are
plant tissue that: allow for gas elongate and form a layer beneath
exchange, helps in the the upper epidermis, whereas
transpiration of water – the loss of spongy mesophyll cells are internal
excess water from the plant, to the lower epidermis.
loss of water from the stomata
creates an upward pull - suction 6. Vein (Xylem and Phloem) - The vein
pull, which helps in absorption of xylem transports water from the
water from the roots, maintains the petiole throughout the lamina
moisture balance according to mesophyll, and the phloem
weather by opening and closing. transports sugars out of the leaf to
the rest of the plant.
3. Trichomes - Glandular trichomes,
epidermal appendages found on 7. Root hairs - function as an
the stems and leaves of many extension of plant epidermal cells
plants, store and secrete secondary in growing plant roots. They serve
metabolites in a species- and to increase the surface area of
cultivar-specific fashion. The plant roots and help the plant
accumulation of these toxic extract more water from the soil as
compounds at the plant's surface well as more efficiently extract
may provide a first line of defense nutrients from the soil.
against insects, pathogens, and
herbivores.

4. Palisade Layer - most of the

photosynthesis occurs in the leaf.
Mitosis - the process by which a cell
The palisade cells contain a lot of
replicates its chromosomes and then
chloroplasts to help them perform
segregates them, producing two identical
this photosynthesis. The palisade
nuclei in preparation for cell division.
cells are closely packed together to
Mitosis is generally followed by equal
maximize light absorption.
division of the cell's content into two
daughter cells that have identical
5. Spongy Mesophyll Layer - it forms
genomes.
a layer next to the palisade cells in
the leaf. The spongy mesophyll's
function is to allow for the
interchange of gasses (CO2 ) that
are needed for photosynthesis.
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Stages of Mitosis

1. Prophase - Chromosomes condense

and become visible. Spindle fibers
emerge from the centrosomes.
Nuclear envelope breaks down.
Nucleolus disappears.

2. Prometaphase - Chromosomes
continue to condense. Kinetochores
appear at centromeres. Mitotic
spindle microtubules attach to
kinetochores. Centrosomes move
toward opposite poles.

3. Metaphase - Mitotic spindle is fully

developed; centromeres at the
opposite poles of the cell. Cell Plate - is a structure that forms in
Chromosomes are lined up at the the cells of land plants while they are
plate. Each sister chromatid is undergoing cell division.
attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles. Meiosis - type of cell division in sexually
reproducing organisms that reduces the
4. Anaphase - Cohesin proteins number of chromosomes in gametes (the
binding the sister chromatids sex cells - egg and sperm).
together break down. Chromatids
are pulled toward opposite poles. Meiosis I - the number of cells is doubled
Non-kinetochore spindle fibers but the number of chromosomes is not.
lengthen, elongating the cell. This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes
per cell.
5. Telophase - Chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles and begin to Stages of Meiosis I
decondense. Nuclear envelope
material surrounds each set of 1. Prophase I - The copied
chromosomes. The mitotic spindle chromosomes condense into
breaks down. X-shaped structures that can be
easily seen under a microscope.
Each chromosome is composed of
two sister chromatids containing
identical genetic information. The
chromosomes pair up so that both
copies of chromosome 1 are
together, both copies of
chromosome 2 are together, and so

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 on. The pairs of chromosomes may Stages of Meiosis II
then exchange bits of DNA in a 1. Prophase II - The dyads contract.
process called recombination or
crossing over. At the end of 2. Metaphase II - The centromeres
Prophase I the membrane around are directed to the equatorial plate
the nucleus in the cell dissolves and then divide.
away, releasing the chromosomes.
The meiotic spindle, consisting of 3. Anaphase II - The sister
microtubules and other proteins, chromatids (monads) move away
extends across the cell between the from each other and migrate to
centrioles. opposite poles of the spindle fiber.

2. Metaphase I - The spindle 4. Telophase II - The monads are at

apparatus is completely formed the poles, forming two groups of
and the microtubules are attached chromosomes. A nuclear
to the centromere regions of the membrane forms around each set
homologues. The synapsed tetrads of chromosomes and cytokinesis
are found aligned at the follows. The chromosomes uncoil
metaphase plate (the equatorial and extend.
plane of the cell) instead of only
replicated chromosomes.

3. Anaphase I - Chromosomes in each

tetrad separate and migrate
toward the opposite poles. The
sister chromatids (dyads) remain
attached at their respective
centromere regions.

4. Telophase I - The dyads complete

their migration to the poles. New
nuclear membranes may form. In
most species, cytokinesis follows,
producing two daughter cells. Each
has a nucleus containing only one
set of chromosomes (haploid level)
in a replicated form.

Meiosis II - during meiosis II, the sister

chromatids within the two daughter cells
separate, forming four new haploid
gametes.

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 21st Century Spanish Influences On Philippine
Literature

Literature - written works, especially

The first Filipino alphabet, called
those considered of superior or lasting
ALIBATA, was replaced by the Roman
artistic merit. Books and writings
alphabet. Also, the teaching of the
published on a particular subject.
Christian Doctrine became the basis of
(Definitions from Oxford Languages)
religious practices. European legends and
“something acquired from reading or
traditions brought here became
studying books”. It represents the
assimilated in our songs, corridos, and
culture/tradition of a language or people.
moro-moros.

ALIBATA - Arabic alphabet system; came

1. Folk Songs - It manifests the
from alif, ba, ta which are the first 3
artistic feelings of the Filipinos and
letters; Paul Rodriguez Verzosa (1914)
shows their innate appreciation for
and love of beauty. The examples
BAYBAYIN - “baybay” means to spell;
are Leron-Leron Sinta,
Pedro de San Buenaventura (Vocabulario
Pamulinawen, Dandansoy, Sarong
de Lengua Tagala)
Banggi, and Atin Cu Pung
Sing-sing.
The Spanish friars burned their alphabet
in the belief that they were works of the
2. Recreational Plays - There are
devil or were written on materials that
many recreational plays performed
quickly perished, like the barks of trees,
by Filipinos during the Spanish
dried leaves, and bamboo cylinders,
times. Almost all of them were in a
which could not have remained firm even
poetic form such Cenaculo,
if efforts were made to preserve them.
Panunuluyan, Salubong and
Zarzuela
Pre-Spanish Literature
1. Folk Tales - made up stories about
Period of Enlightenment (1872-1898)
love, life, horror, etc.
The Propaganda Movement (1872-1896) -
2. The Epic Age - Epics are grand,
This movement was spearheaded mostly
long compositions about the heroic
by the intellectual middle-class like Jose
deeds of men and women
Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar; Graciano Lopez
3. Folk Songs - These are one of the
Jaena, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce,
oldest forms of Philippine literature
Jose Ma. Panganiban, and Pedro Paterno.
that emerged in the pre-Spanish
period.
● Some of Rizal’s writings: Noli Me
Tangere, Mi Ultimo Adios, Sobre La
Understanding Literary History
Indolencia Delos Filipinos and
Literature in this period may be classified
Filipinas Dentro De Cien Aňos.
as religious prose and poetry and secular
prose and poetry.

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 ● Some of Del Pilar’s writings: ● Three types of poems emerged
Pagibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love during this period:
of Country), Kaingat Kayo (Be a. Haiku , a poem of free verse
Careful), and Dasalan at Tocsohan that the Japanese like. It
(Prayers and Jokes). was made up of 17 syllables
divided into three lines and
● Some of Jaena’s writings: Ang Fray has a 5-7-5 pattern.
Botod, La Hija Del Fraile (The Child b. Tanaga – like the Haiku, is
of the Friar). and Everything Is short, but it has measure and
Hambug (Everything is mere show), rhyme. It has 7 syllables per
Sa Mga Pilipino...1891), and line.
Talumpating Pagunita Kay c. Tanka - a Japanese poetry
Kolumbus (An Oration to with 31 syllables in total
Commemorate Columbus). following a 5-7-5-7-7 pattern.
It uses simile, metaphor, &
The American Regime (1898-1941) personification
The languages used in writing were d. Karaniwang Anyo (Usual
Spanish and Tagalog and the dialects of Form) - free verse or rhyming
the different regions, but the writers in
Tagalog continued in their lamentations Philippine Literature in English
on the conditions of the country and their (1941-1945)
attempts to arouse love for one’s native Because of the strict prohibitions
tongue and the writers in English imitated imposed by the Japanese in the writing
the themes and methods of the and publishing of works in English,
Americans. Philippine literature in English
experienced a dark period. For the first
The Japanese Period (1941-1945) twenty years, many books were published
Between 1941-1945, Philippine Literature both in Filipino and in English. In the New
was interrupted in its development when Filipino Literature, Philippine literature in
another foreign country, Japan, Tagalog was revived during this period.
conquered the Philippines. Philippine Most themes in the writings dealt with
literature in English came to a halt. Japanese brutalities, the poverty of life
Except for the TRIBUNE and the under the Japanese government, and the
PHILIPPINE REVIEW, almost all brave guerilla exploits.
newspapers in English were stopped by
the Japanese. Period of Activism (1970-1972)
According to Pociano Pineda, youth
● Filipino Poetry During This Period - activism in 1970-72 was due to domestic
The common theme of most poems and worldwide causes. Because of the ills
during the Japanese occupation of society, the youth moved to seek
was nationalism, country, love, and reforms.
life in the barrios, faith, religion,
and the arts.

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The Literary Revolution Post-EDSA 1 Revolution (1986-1995)
The youth became vocal with their History took another twist. Once more,
sentiments. They demanded a change in the Filipino people regained their
the government. It was manifested in the independence, which they lost twenty
bloody demonstrations and the sidewalk years ago. In four days from February
expressions but also in literature. 21-25, 1986, the so-called People Power
(Lakas ng Bayan) prevailed. In the short
Period of New Society (1972-1980) span of the existence of the real Republic
The period of the New Society started on of the Philippines, several changes
September 21, 1972. The Carlos Palanca already became evident. It was noticed
Awards continued to give annual awards. in the new Filipino songs, newspapers,
Poems dealt with patience, regard for speeches, and even in the television
native culture, customs, and the beauties programs. The now crony newspapers
of nature and surroundings. that enjoyed an overnight increase in
circulation were THE INQUIRER,
Newspapers donned new forms. News on MALAYA, and the PEOPLE’S JOURNAL.
economic progress, discipline, culture,
tourism, and the like were favored more 21st Century Period
than the sensationalized reporting of The new trends have been used and
killings, rape, and robberies. Filipinos introduced to meet the needs and tastes
before were hooked on reading of the new generation. 21st Century
magazines and comics. learners are demanded to be ICT inclined
to compete with the style and format of
Period of the Third Republic writing as well. New codes or lingos are
(1981-1985) used to add flavor in the literary pieces
After ten years of military rule and some produced nowadays.
changes in the life of the Filipino, which
started under the New Society, Martial Imagery - a poetic element that tries to
Rule was at last lifted on January 2, 1981. create a picture in the mind of the reader
The Philippines became a new nation, or a mental image through the use of
and this; former President Marcos called figural language. It represents objects,
“The New Republic of the Philippines.” places, ideas, or even actions that appeal
Poems during this period of the Third to the senses of the readers.
Republic were romantic and
revolutionary. Many Filipino songs dealt A Taste of Philippine Poetry
with themes that were true-to-life like
those of grief, poverty, aspirations for 1. Region I (Ilocos Region)
freedom, love of God, of country and a. Francisco Lopez -
fellowmen. Augustinian friar who
published his own Iloko
translation of the Doctrina
Cristiana in 1621, the first
book to be printed in Iloko.

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 b. Leona Florentino - b. Macaria Garcia - She
Considered by some as the narrated Suan, the Good
“National Poetess of the Guesser
Philippines”. Filipino poet in
the Spanish and Ilocano 4. Region IV (Southern Tagalog)
languages. “The Mother of a. Jose Rizal - “Legend of Maria
Philippine Women’s Makiling”, Noli Me Tangere,
Literature”. Wrote Naplay a El Filibusterismo
Namnama o Naunsyaming
Pag-asa (Blasted Hope) 5. Region V (Bicol Region)
c. Pedro Bukaneg - “Father of a. Mariano Perfecto - Father of
Ilocano literature”. Author of Bicol Literature. Published
the Ilocano epic, Biag ni the first Bicol newspaper,
Lam-ang “Ang Parabareta”(The
Most of the inhabitants of the Newsman)
Ilocano homeland are b. Ibalon - Narrated by
concentrated along a narrow Cadregong, translated by Fr.
coastal plain. Because of Jose Castaño Talks about
geographical boundaries, these three stories of Bicol heroes
people often experience heavy
rains and violent typhoons, A Taste of Tagalog Essay
especially during rainy seasons. CALABARZON (Region IV-A) is home to
Tagalog-speaking people in the
2. Region II (Cagayan Valley) Philippines. It is home to many a
a. Ines Tacad Cammayo - Philippine hero foremost, and among
“People of Consequence” them are Rizal of Laguna, Mabini of
(first prize) Don Carlos Batangas, and Aguinaldo of Cavite.
Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature in 1970. “On A Taste of Creative Nonfiction
Friends You Pin Such Hopes” The Visayas region comprises several
(second prize) Don Carlos islands circling the Visayan Sea. Its
Palanca Memorial Awards for people, therefore, share a sea-based
Literature in 1973. “Tears, culture and tradition that may be rooted
Melancholy” (second prize) in a strong religious foundation.
Focus literary contest in 1979
b. Fernando Maramag - The dwelling place of many festivals such
Excellent poet and journalist as the Ati-Atihan, Di-nagyang, Sinulog,
in English. “The Rural Maid” Pintados, and Maskara, the Visayas may
indeed be considered as one of the
3. Region III (Central Luzon) cradles of Philippines civilization.
a. Anicio Pascual - “Juan
Manalaksan”. He is from
Arayat, Pampanga

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Major Literary Genres navigation, reading, viewing in all
three forms. Digital fiction is fiction
1. Poetry - an imaginative awareness written for and read on a computer
of experience expressed through screen that pursues its verbal,
meaning, sound, and rhythmic discursive and/or conceptual
language choices to evoke an complexity through the digital
emotional response. medium.

2. Drama - a composition in prose or 3. Graphic Novel - Narrative in comic

verse presenting in dialogue or book formats. Narrative work in
pantomime, a story involving which the story is conveyed to the
conflict, more contrast of reader using a comic form. The
character, especially when term is employed broadly,
intended to be acted on a stage or encompassing non-fiction work.
play.
4. Manga - It is used in the
3. Fiction - literature created from English-speaking world as a
imagination, not presented as fact, generic term for all comic books
though it may be based on a true and graphic novels originally
story or situation. published in Japan. Considered as
an artistic and storytelling style.
4. Non-Fiction - based on facts and a. Shonen - Boy’s Manga
the author’s opinion about a b. Shojo - Girl’s Manga
subject. The purpose of nonfiction c. Seinen - Men’s Manga
writing is to inform and sometimes d. Josei - Women’s Manga
to persuade. e. Kodomo - Children’s Manga

21st Century Literary Genres 5. Doodle Fiction - Literary

presentation where the author
1. Illustrated Novel - Story through incorporates doodle writing and
text and illustrated images. 50% 0f drawings and handwritten graphics
the narrative is presented without in place of the traditional font.
words. The reader must interpret Drawing enhances the story, often
the images to comprehend the adding humorous elements.
story completely. Textual portions
are presented in traditional form. 6. Text-Talk Novel - Blogs, email and
Some illustrated novels may IM format narratives. Stories told
contain no text at all. almost entirely in dialogue
simulating social network
2. Digi-Fiction - Triple Media exchanges.
Literature. Combines three media:
book, movie/video and internet 7. Chick Lit or Chick Literature - A
website. To get the full story, genre fiction which addresses
students must engage in issues of modern womanhood,
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 often humorously and 12. Blog - (weblog ) a website
lightheartedly. Chick Lit typically containing short articles called
features a female protagonist posts that are changed regularly.
whose femininity is heavily
thermalizing in the plot. 13. Hyper Poetry - Digital poetry that
uses links using hypertext mark-up.
8. Flash Fiction - Is a style of fictional It can either involve set words,
literature of extreme brevity. There phrases, lines, etc. that are
is no widely accepted definition of presented in variable order but sit
the length and category. It could on the page much as traditional
range from a word to a thousand. poetry does, or it can contain parts
Defined as a very short story. While of the poem that move and mutate.
there is no set word count that
separates flash fiction from more Context - This can be defined as the
traditional short stories, flash circumstances that surround a given text
fiction stories can be as short as a and help to specify its meaning. How a
few words. short passage is significant to the whole
passage. Circumstances that contribute
9. Six-Word Flash Fiction - An entire to the meaning of a text.
story told in six words. It is a short
narrative that can have all of the Writer’s Context - knowing about the
emotional themes of longer writer's life, values, assumptions, gender,
stories—from funny to dramatic, race, race, sexual orientation, and the
sad to scary political and economic issues related to
the author.
10. Creative Nonfiction - A genre of
writing that uses literary styles and Reader’s Context - the reader's previous
techniques to create factually reading experience, values, assumptions,
accurate narratives. political and economic issues.

11. Science Fiction - Is a genre of Text’s Context - about its publishing

speculative fiction dealing with history. It is part of the larger text such
imaginative concepts such as as newspaper, history, events, translated
futuristic science and technology, in it.
space travel, time travel, faster
than light travel, a parallel universe Social context and Socio-cultural of a
and extraterrestrial life. Often Text - feature the society in which the
explores the potential characters live and in which the author's
consequences of scientific and text was produced.
other innovations and has been
called a “literature of ideas”. Imagery - Creating a picture in the
reader’s mind by using words that appeal
to the senses.

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Types of Imagery with commas, dashes, or parentheses;
sometimes, or that is, or in other words is
1. Visual - produced by the use of used.
words that appeal to the sense of
sight. Antonym - The unfamiliar word is shown
to be different from or unlike another
2. Auditory - produced by the use of word, and is often an opposite; but,
words that appeal to the sense of however, although, otherwise, unless,
hearing. instead, on the contrary, on the other
hand, while, never, no, or not may be
3. Kinesthetic - produced by the use used to signal contrast.
of words that appeal to actions and
movement. Anecdote - simply a story that’s short
and self-contained. Most anecdotes
4. Tactile - produced by the use of revolve around a central theme or event
words that appeal to sensations or without too much complexity. Anecdotes
the way your skin might feel in that can be true or fictional (or somewhere in
moment. between when it comes to exaggeration),
and their tone can range from serious
5. Olfactory - produced by the use of warnings to lighthearted jokes. Unlike
words that appeal to peculiarities other narratives, most anecdotes tend to
of a scent. focus exclusively on a single character.

6. Gustatory - produced by the use of Functions of Anecdote

words that appeal to capture 1. Stir up laughter
flavors. 2. To disclose a truth in a general way
3. To describe a feature of a
Literary Techniques - methods the character in such a way that it
author or writer of a literary piece used becomes humorous, and at the
to convey what they want to impart to same time gives us a better
the reader. understanding of the character.
4. To reminisce
1. Flashback - past events 5. To inspire
2. Future Event - events about to
happen Types of Anecdote
3. Plot Twist - unexpected events
1. Cautionary - These “cautionary
Context Clues - information a reader tales” often involve characters with
can get from the reading that helps show some flaw or poor judgment,
what a word or group of words means. resulting in punishment or negative
consequences.
Synonym - The meaning is usually right
after the unfamiliar word and often
separated from the rest of the sentence
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 2. Characterizing - Anecdotes are Components of Multimedia
commonly used in literature to 1. Videos
flesh out characters, showing sides 2. Graphics
of their personality or events from 3. Drawings
their past that aren’t part of the 4. Audio
main narrative. 5. Animations
6. Text
3. Humorous - Anecdotes originated
as stories told in social situations to Different Formats of Multimedia in
entertain each other. In this sense, Interpreting LIterary Texts
jokes with involved narratives can
be considered anecdotes. 1. Blog - Website containing
informational articles about a
4. Inspirational - tend to focus on person’s own opinions, interests
dramatic events by everyday and experiences.
people that the reader or listener
can identify with. 2. Mind Mapping - Graphical
technique to visualize connections
5. Reminiscent - sometimes conjure a of ideas and pieces of information.
sense of nostalgia or longing for This tool structures information to
the past to create an idyllic version. better analyze, comprehend,
synthesize, recall and generate new
Anecdotes are structured just like any ideas. You can use Microsoft Word
other narrative, with a beginning, middle, or online mind mapping tools in
and end. In the beginning, you introduce creating a mind map (Pasuello
your characters and themes, in the 2017).
middle you present the action or conflict
of the story, and in the end you conclude 3. Mobile Phone - Text tula is a
the action and wrap everything up. traditional Filipino poem. A
particular example of this poem is
Multimedia - According to Marshall a tanaga that consists of 4 lines
(2001), multimedia is computer-controlled with 7 syllables each with the same
integration of text, graphics, drawings, rhyme at the end of each line
still and moving images (video),
animation, audio, and any other media 4. Slideshow Presentation - It
where every type of information can be contains series of pictures or pages
represented, stored, transmitted and of information (slides) arranged in
processed digitally. sequence and often displayed on a
large screen using a video
3 Common Components of Media: projector (Computer Hope 2018)
1. Text
2. Audio/Sounds
3. Images

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 5. Tag Cloud - a visual, stylized 3. Plot - the actual story. The series of
arrangement of words or tags events of the story.
within a textual content such as a. Exposition - beginning;
websites, articles, speeches and introduction of characters
databases (Techopedia 2020) and setting; establishes the
main conflict
6. Video - An electronic device used b. Rising Action - where conflict
to record, copy, playback, starts to build
broadcast, and display moving c. Climax - most exciting part;
visual media (Lexico 2020) important decisions are
made or important things
Short Story - best fictional prose are discovered
narrative that is short d. Falling Action - problems in
the story start to work
Basic Elements of a Short Story themselves out; less
excitement as the conflict is
1. Character - the character is either resolved
a person or an animal who takes e. Resolution - solution to the
part in the action of the story. It is problem of the story
the heart of the story.
a. Protagonist - main character 4. Conflict - The story’s problem or
or most important of all the challenge given to the main
characters. The one who character. It is made to make the
learns something or story interesting.
undergoes some changes Types of Conflict
throughout the course of the a. Man vs. Man
story. b. Man vs. Nature
b. Antagonist - the character c. Man vs. Himself
that challenges the main d. Man vs. Society
character. It has no concern
for the well-being of the 5. Theme - central idea and general
main character. May be a truth; the author’s message to the
person, nature, the society or readers.
any intangible matter.
6. Point of View - the way the story is
2. Setting- the place (locale) and time told or narrated; the vantage point
(period) when the story happens. that a writer uses to narrate the
May be based on a real place and story.
real time or it may also be based Types of Point of View
on the author’s imagination. It a. First Person
helps the reader visualize the story b. Second Person
and connect to the story’s plot. c. Third Person

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 Linear Communication - is one-way,
Oral Communication focusing on the transmission of a
message to a receiver who never
responds or has no way of responding
Communication - a two way process of
to the information conveyed.
connecting both living and nonliving
things. It is also a means of sharing and
Interactive - is a two-way
exchanging messages, information,
communication process where a
ideas, and feelings for mutual
response is given after a message is sent.
understanding.
The recipient of the action intentionally or
unintentionally gives feedback
The Communication Process
associated with the information received.
1. Sender - the one who initiates the
message that needs to be
Transactional - shows a circular process
transmitted
of interaction between the persons
2. Message - the information
involved in the communication, with each
intended to be communicated by
one actively participating and sharing
words as in speech, letter, pictures
ideas with one another.
or symbols.
3. Encoding - process of expressing
Functions of Communication (RIMES)
the idea into appropriate medium
1. Regulation/Control - it controls
4. Channel - the medium or passage
someone
through which encoded message is
2. Information/Information
passed to the receiver
Dissemination - used into getting
5. Receiver - refers to which the
information
message is meant for
3. Motivation - persuade or
6. Decoding - it means transmitting
encourage someone
the encoded message into a
4. Emotional Expression - expressing
language that can be understood
any feelings
by the receiver.
5. Social Interaction - to have bond
7. Noise - a hindrance to
and intimacy
communication.
8. Feedback - the response of the
Various Models of Communication
receiver to be sent to the sender.
1. Berlo’s Model - SMCR
communication model is focused
on the encoding & decoding
process. SMCR stands for source,
message, channel, and receiver.
B - Berlos’s Model
E - Encoding
D - Decoding

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 2. Laswell’s Model - action, mass
communication, propaganda
5. Schramm’s Model - a two-way
analysis
communication model wherein
L - Laswell’s Model
there is an exchange of thoughts
A - Action
and ideas; field of experiences
M - Mass Communication
(commonalities)
P - Propaganda Analysis
S - Schramm’s Model
F - Field of Experience

3. Aristotle’s Model - speaker 6. Transactional Model -

centered model; the oldest model communication is dynamic. It has a
A - Aristotle’s Model complex nature. It takes place
S - Speaker Centered among individuals at any given
O - Oldest Model time with any given subject.
T - Transactional
C - Communications

4. Shannon-Weaver Model - it is linear

and has a one-way process starting
from the source up to the
destination.
S - Shannon-Weaver
I - Information theory
M - Mother of all Models

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Verbal and Nonverbal Cues 4. Linguistic Barriers - pertain
1. Verbal cues - the words are usually conflicts with regard to language
directives, orders, requests, etc., and word meanings. Because
meant to regulate and control words carry denotative and
other people’s behavior. connotative meanings, they can
2. Nonverbal cues - include hand sometimes cause confusion and
gestures, bodily action (including misunderstanding.
posture), vocal tone
(paralanguage) and eye contact. Classification of Noise
The tone and the bodily action that 1. External Noises - the “sight, sound
accompany the words are and other stimuli that draw
authoritative and firm. Eye contact people’s attention away from
is direct. intended meaning.”
2. Internal Noises - are the “thoughts
Communication Breakdown - occurs and feelings that interfere with
when problems in any elements of meaning.”
communication involved arise. They 3. Semantic Noises - the “alternate
become barriers to communication. meanings aroused by a speaker’s
symbols.” This idea means that a
Communication breakdown results when word may have another meaning in
the intended message of the sender is the minds of the students.
not understood exactly by the receiver.
5 Ways to Avoid Communication
Barriers to Communication Breakdown
1. Physical Barriers - the natural or 1. Have clarity of thought before
environmental condition that act as speaking
the barrier in communication in 2. Learn to listen
sending the message from the 3. Take care of your body language
sender to receiver. and tone
2. Psychological Barriers - are called 4. Build up your confidence by asking
mental barriers. These refer to for feedback and observing others
social and personal issues of a 5. Communicate face to face on the
speaker towards communicating important issues
with others.
3. Cultural Barriers - pertain to 7Cs of Effective Communication
communication problems 1. Clearness
encountered by people regarding 2. Conciseness
their intrinsic values, beliefs, and 3. Concreteness
traditions in conflict with others. 4. Correctness
People’s culture affects the way 5. Consideration
they communicate and relate to 6. Completeness
others. 7. Courtesy

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Speech Context - context referring to Types of Speech According to Purpose
speech communication is the 1. Informative or Expository Speech -
surroundings, circumstances, mainly performed for the purpose
environment, background or setting that of educating the audience on new
determine, specify, or clarify the meaning or relevant pieces of information
of an event. on a particular topic.
2. Persuasive Speech - given solely
Types of Speech Context for the purpose of convincing the
1. Intrapersonal - a type of audience to agree with the
communication that is focused on speaker’s opinion on a particular
one person, where the speaker acts topic.
both as the sender and as the 3. Extemporaneous Speech - aims to
receiver of the message. share laughter and enjoyment to
2. Interpersonal - a type of the audience through witty and
communication that takes place humorous lines.
between and among people and
creates a personal relationship Types of Speech According to Delivery
among them. 1. Manuscript Speech - the
a. Dyad Communication - word-for-word iteration of a written
communication that happens message using visual aids.
between two people. 2. Memorized Speech - the rote
b. Small Group - applies to recitation of a written message
interactions involving at least that the speaker has committed to
three but not more than memory.
twelve people engaged in 3. Extemporaneous Speech - the
face-to-face interactions to presentation of a carefully planned
achieve the desired goal. and rehearsed speech, spoken in a
3. Public - a communication that conversational manner using brief
enables you to send or deliver a notes.
message before a crowd. The 4. Impromptu Speech - the
message can be transmitted for presentation of a short message
informative or persuasive without advance preparation and
purposes. is for people knowledgeable about
4. Mass Communication - the subject.
communication through television,
radio, newspapers, ,agazies, books, Types of Speech Style
billboards, the internet, and other 1. Intimate - used for very close
types of media. relationships
2. Casual - an informal
Speech - more formal than talking or communication between groups
usual conversations. They are primarily and peers who have something to
delivered to leave a remarkable share and have shared knowledge
language. but do not have close relations

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 3. Consultative - used in semi-formal 5. Declaration - a type of
and standard communication illocutionary act which brings a
4. Formal - one-way straightforward change in the external situation.
speech
5. Frozen - the most formal
communicative style that is usually
used during solemn ceremonies
and events.

Three Types of Speech Act

1. Locutionary act - the actual act of
uttering or saying something;
happens when the utterances of a
sound, word or even a phrase as a
natural unit of speech.
2. Illocutionary act - the social
function of what is aid; it is not just
saying something itself but with
the act of saying something
3. Perlocutionary act - the
consequent effect of what was
said. This is based on the particular
context in which the speech act
was mentioned. It also aims to
change feelings, thoughts, or
actions.

Searle’s Classification of Speech

1. Assertive - a type of illocutionary
act in which the speaker expresses
belief about the truth of a
proposition.
2. Directive - a type of illocutionary
act in which the speakers tries to
make the addressee perform an
action
3. Commissive - a type of
illocutionary act which commits the
speaker to doing something in the
future.
4. Expressive - a type of illocutionary
act in which the speaker expresses
their feelings or emotional
reactions.
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 ○ Ang wika at kultura ay
Komunikasyon magkabuhol at hindi
maaaring paghiwalayin. Ang
wika ay nilikha upang
Wika
magkaunawaan ang mga
● Pinakamahalagang instrumento na
taong gumagamit nito.
taglay ng tao.
● Ang wika ay buhay at daynamiko.
● Binubuo ng mga sagisag at
○ Ang wika ay patuloy na
simbolo. (Sagisag: binibigkas /
nagbabago at sumasabay sa
Simbolo: isinusulat)
pagbabagong dulot ng
● Ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng
panahon.
naiisip, nararamdaman at nais
● Ang lahat ng wika ay
sabihin.
pantay-pantay.
● Nagbibigkis sa pakikipag-ugnayan
○ Walang nakatataas na wika
sa kapwa at pagkilala ng kultura
sa iba. Ang kabuluhan ng
ng iba’t ibang lipunan.
bawat wika ay nakabatay sa
● Ang wika ang isang masistemang
mga taong gumagamit nito.
balangkas na sinasalitang tunog
ng pinili ay isinaayos sa paraang
Wikang Pambansa
arbitraryo upang magamit ng mga
taong may isang kultura. – Henry
Manuel Luis Quezon
Gleason
● Pangulo ng Pamahalaang
Komonwelt noong taong 1935 at
Katangian ng Wika
Ama ng Wikang Pambansa.
● Nadama niya kung gaano kahirap
● Ang wika ay masistemang
sa isang bansa ang hindi
balangkas.
pagkakaroon ng isang Wikang
○ May prosesong pinagdaanan
Pambansa (Lingua Franca).
ang wika at nakaayos sa
● “Ang pambansang wika ay
isang tiyak na balangkas.
makapangyarihang sandata sa
pagtataguyod ng
● Ang wika ay pinili at isinaayos sa
pagkakaunawaan ng lahat ng
paraang arbitraryo,
mamamayan ng bansa.”
○ Ang sinasalitang tunog na
tinatawag na PONEMA ay
Mga Batas Pangwika
pinili sa pamamaraang
napagkasunduan ng mga
● Seksyon 3, Artikulo XIV Saligang
taong gumagamit ng wika sa
Batas ng 1935 – “Ang kongreso ay
pang araw-araw na
gagawa ng hakbang tungo sa
pamumuhay.
pagkakaroon ng isang wikang
Pambansa na ibabatay sa isa sa
● Ang wika ay ginagamit ng mga
mga umiiral na katutubong wika sa
taong may isang kultura.
Pilipinas. Hangga’t walang
itinatadhana ang batas, ang Ingles
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 at Kastila ay patuloy na mga ● Batas Republika Blg. 7104 (1991) –
wikang opisyal.” Nabuo ang Komisyon sa Wikang
Filipino na may tungkulin na
● Batas Komonwelt Blg. 184 (1036) – magsagawa, mag-ugnay at
Pinagtibay ang pagtatakda ng magtaguyod ng mga pananaliksik
lupon, kapangyarihan at tungkulin para sa pagpapaunlad ng Filipino.
tungo sa pagbuo ng wikang
Pambansa batay sa isa sa mga Mga Batayan sa Pagpili ng Tagalog
umiiral na katutubong wikang sa Bilang Wikang Pambansa
bansa. 1. Wikang Tagalog ang sinasalita at
nauunawaan ng lalong maraming
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. Pilipino.
134 (1937) – Ang wikang Pambansa 2. Wikang Tagalog ang may
ng Pilipinas ay ibabatay sa pinakamayamang talasalitaan at
TAGALOG alinsunod sa panitikang nasusulat.
rekomendasyon ng Surian ng 3. Ginagamit sa pagpapahayag ng
Wikang Pambansa. naiisip, nararamdaman at nais
sabihin.
● Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg. 4. Wikang Tagalog ang ginagamit na
263 (1940) – Sinimulang ituro ang sentro ng edukasyon at
wikang Pambansa batay sa pamahalaan.
Tagalog sa mga paaralan.
Wikang Opisyal
● Batas Komonwelt Blg. 570 (1946) – ● Ang wika na itinadhana ng batas
Nagtatadhana na ang Tagalog ay na maging opisyal na wika sa
magiging isa sa mga wikang komunikasyon, transaksyon o
opisyal ng Pilipinas. pakikipag-ugnayan ng
mamamayan sa pamahalaan; sa
● Kautusan Pangkagawaran Blg. 7 pasalita at higit na lalo sa pasulat
(1959) – Nilagdaan ni Kalihim Jose na paraan.
E. Romero ng Kagawaran ng ● Sakop nito ang mga dokumento sa
Edukasyon na mula Tagalog ay korte, lehislatura, at
naging PILIPINO ang tawag sa pangkalahatang pamamahala sa
ating wikang Pambansa. ating gobyerno, maging sa Sistema
ng ating edukasyon.
● Seksyon 6, Artikulo XIV Saligang
Batas ng 1987 – Ang wikang Wikang Panturo
Pambansa ng Pilipinas ay ● Ito ang WIKANG opisyal na
FILIPINO. Samantalang nililinang, ginagamit bilang midyum ng
ito ay dapat na payabungin pa pag-aaral sa sistema ng
salig sa umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas edukasyon.
at iba pang mga wika. ● Ito ang tawag sa wikang
ginagamit ng guro sa pagtuturo sa

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 paaralan at pagsulat sa mga ng wikang Filipino (PH Census,
materyal na panturo. 2000).
● SEKSYON 7, ARTIKULO XIV – 85% and nakaiintindi at
SALIGANG BATAS NG 1987 – “Ukol nakababasa ng Filipino, 79% ang
sa mga layunin ng komunikasyon nakapagsusulat ng Filipino, at 45%
at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang and gumagamit ng Filipino sa
opisyal ng Pilipinas ay Filipino, at araw-araw (Social Weather Survey,
hangga’t walang ibang 2017).
itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles.
Ang mga wikang opisyal sa mga Wikang Panturo
rehiyon ay magsisilbing pantulong ● Nakabatay sa pangkalahatang
sa mga wikang panturo roon.” polisiya sa wika at programa sa
● Gagamitin ang UNANG WIKA edukasyon ng isang bansa.
bilang midyum ng pagtuturo sa ● Wikang ginagamit na midyum o
mga mag-aaral sa Kinder daluyan ng pagtuturo at pagkatuto
hanggang Baitang Tatlo na sa sistema ng edukasyon.
makikita sa implementasyon ng ● Isa sa pangunahing porma ng
K12 Curriculum. eksklusyon sa edukasyon ang
suliranin sa wika (UNESCO, 2003).
Wikang Pambansa ● Nakasaad sa Bilingual Education
● Ito ay tumutukoy sa isang wikang Policy 1987 na ang wikang panturo
ginagamit nang pasalita at pasulat ay binubuo ng Filipino at Ingles.
ng mga mamamayan ng isang ● Nakapaloob sa Mother
bansa. Tongue-Based Multilingual
● Ito ang nag iisang wikang Education 2009 na Katutubong
ginagamit batay sa kultura ng Wika ang wikang panturo.
lipunan.
● Nagiging batayan ng grupo ng Wikang Opisyal
taong gumagamit nito. ● Wikang itinadhana ng batas bilang
wikang gagamitin/ ginagamit sa
Filipino mga opisyal na komunikasyon ng
● DE JURE – legal at naaayos sa gobyerno.
batas na Filipino ang Pambansang ● Ang wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay
wika. Artikulo XIV, Sek. 6-9 ng Filipino at Ingles (Artikulo XIV, Sek,
Konstitusyong 1987 (ang wikang 7, 1987 constitution)
pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino). ● Ang konstitusyong ito ay dapat
● DE FACTO – sapagkat aktwal na ipahayag sa Filipino at Ingles at
itong ginagamit ng karamihan ng isalin sa Arabic at Kastila (Artikulo
mamamayang Pilipino. XIV, Sek, 8, 1987 constitution)
– 86.5% ang gumagamit ng wikang
Filipino.
– 65 milyong Pilipino sa kabuuang
populasyon ng Pilipinas ang
nakauunawa at nakapagsasalita
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Ang Bilingguwalismo Kabutihan ng Multilingguwalismo
Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) 1. Kritikal na pag-iisip
● Ipinatupad sa Pilipinas sa 2. Kahusayan sa paglutas ng suliranin
pamamagitan ng National Board 3. Mahusay na kasanayan sa
of Education (NBE) Resolution No. pakikinig at matalas na memorya
73-7 S.1973. 4. Maunlad na kognitibong
● Ipinatupad sa pamamagitan ng kakayahan
DECS ng Department Order No. 25, 5. Mabilis na pagkatuto ng iba’t ibang
s. 1974 na may titulong wika
Implementing Guidelines for the
Policy on Bilingual Education. MTB MLE
● Hiwalay na gamit ng Filipino sa ● Ipinatupad sa pamamagitan ng
Ingles bilang wikang panturo sa Department of Education Order 16,
mga tiyak na larangan ng s. 2012 (Guideline on the
pagkatuto sa mga paaralan. Implementation of the MTB-MLE)
● Pagpapaunlad ng wika tungo sa
Fran Lowry (2011) matatag na edukasyon at
● Speech-Language Pathologist habambuhay na pagkatuto.
● Tumutukoy sa kakayahan ng taong ● Kognitibong pag-unlad na may
makapagsalita ng dalawang wika. pokus sa HOTS
● Malikhain at nagpapakita ng ● Akademikong pag-unlad na
kahusayan sa pagpaplano maghahanda sa mga mag-aaral na
● Paglutas ng kompleks na suliranin paghusayin ang kakayahan sa
● Mataas na bilang ng mga may iba’t ibang larangan ng pagkatuto
hanapbuhay ● Pag-unlad ng kamalayang
sosyo-kultural
Layunin ng BEP
1. Magpataas ng pagkatuto sa Mga Teorya ng Wika
pamamagitan ng dalawang wika.
2. Mapalaganap ang wikang Filipino ● Tore ng Babel - Teoryang nahalaw
bilang wika ng literasi. mula sa banal na kasulatan.
3. Mapaunlad ang Filipino bilang Nagkawatak watak na ang mga
simbolo ng pambansang identidad tao nang mawasak ang tore at iba
at pagkakaisa iba na ang wikang kanilang
4. Malinang ang elaborasyon at binibigkas.
intelektwalisasyon ng Filipino
bilang wika ng akademikong ● Teoryang Bow-Wow - Ginagaya
diskurso. nila ang tunog na nililikha ng mga
5. Mapanatili ang Ingles bilang wika hayop gaya ng tahol ng aso, tilaok
ng agham at teknolohiya. ng manok at huni ng ibon.
Ginagaya naman daw ng tao ang
Ang Multilingguwalismo - Tumutukoy sa tunog ng kalikasan at paligid gaya
kakayahan ng taong makapagsalita at ng pagtunog ng kampana, patak
makaunawa ng iba’t ibang wika. ng ulan at langitngit ng kawayan.
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 sosyal, hanapbuhay at propesyon
● Teoryang Yoo He Yo - Pwersang ng indibidwal.
pisikal. Nakakalikha ng tunog sa
tuwing nagpapakita ng pwersa ● Jargon – tumutukoy sa mga
wikang ginagamit ng iba’t ibang
● Teoryang Pooh-Pooh - Nakalilikha propesyon.
ng tunog sanhi ng bugso ng
damdamin. Gamit ang bibig, ● Idyolek – wikang natatangi sa
napabubulalas ang mga tunog ng indibidawal, ito ang kakaibang
pagdaing na dala ng takot, paraan sa pagbigkas ng salita na
lungkot, galit, saya at paglalaan ng nagbibigay ng impresyon sa mga
lakas. tagapakinig.

● Teoryang Ding Dong - May sariling ● Ekolek – wikang ginagamit sa loob

tunog na kumakatawan sa lahat ng ng tahanan.
bagay sa kapaligiran o Tsug-tsug
ng tren, tik-tak ng orasan ● Register – espesyalisadong
ginagamit sa isang partikular na
● Teoryang Ta-Ra-Ra-Boom De-Ay - pangkat o domain.
Ang wika ng tao ay nag ugat sa
mga tunog na kanilang nilikha sa ● Pidgin – “Nobody’s language.”
mga ritwal. Pagsayaw, pagsigaw, Nabuo ang pidgin dahil sa
at incantation o mga bulong na pagnanais ng dalawang indibidwal
ginagawa tuwing makikidigma, na mayroong magkaibang unang
pagtatanim at iba pa. wika na magkaroon ng
komunikasyon.
Barayti ng WIka
- Nagkakaroon ng BARAYTI ng wika ● Creole – wikang nagmula sa Pidgin.
dahil sa pagkakaiba-iba ng grupo Ito ay pinaghalo-halong mga salita
o pangkat na kinabibilangan ng ng indibidwal mula sa magkaibang
tao. lugar hanggang sa naging
personal na wika.
- Ginagamit ang REHISTRO upang
tukuyin ang barayti ng wika. Homogeneous na Wika
● Magkaparehong lahi.
● Dayalek – wikang ginagamit sa ● Ang isang lugar ay pare-parehong
isang tiyak na lalawigan o sinasalita ang partikular na wikang
kapuluan, wikang kinamulatan ng umiiral dito.
mga tao at itinuturing din itong ● Pagkakaroon ng iisang anyo at
unang wika. katangian ng wika.
● Language uniformity. Pagkakaroon
● Sosyolek – wikang ginagamit ng ng iisang istandard ng paggamit
isang partikular na pangkat na ng isang particular na wika.
nakakaapekto ang katayuang ●
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Heterogenous na Wika Pitong Tungkulin ng Wika
● Magkaibang lahi.
● Nagkakaroon ng pagkakaiba-iba 1. Interaksyonal – ginagamit sa
ng salik panlipunan tulad ng edad, pagtatatag, pagpapanatili at
kasarian, kalagayang panlipunan, pagpapatatag ng relasyong sosyal
propesyon, etnolingguwistikong sa kapwa tao.
komunidad o pangkat etniko. Halimbawa: Magandang umaga!,
● Pagkakaiba-iba ng uri at Hi!, liham pangkaibigan; (kowd:
katangian ng isang wika. Ikaw, ako, tayo)
● Nakapaloob sa palagay na ito ang
iba’t ibang konsepto ng dayalektal 2. Instrumental – ginagamit sa
na baryasyon sa wika. pagtugon sa mga
pangangailangan. Ginagamit sa
Lingguwistikong Komunidad pakikiusap at pag uutos.
● Grupo ng mga taong gumagamit Halimbawa: Pakikitungo/
ng iisang uri ng barayti ng wika at pakiusap, pag uutos, application
nagkakaunawaan sa mga letter; (kowd: May gusto ako)
espisipikong patakaran o mga
alituntunin sa paggamit ng wika. 3. Regulatoryo – ginagamit sa
● Ang wika at pamamaraan ng pagkontrol o paggabay sa kilos o
paggamit nito ay isang porma ng asal ng ibang tao.
panlipunang identidad at Halimbawa: Direksyon!, Paalala!,
ginagamit, malay man o hindi Babala!; (kowd: Sundin mo)
(Yule, 2014).
4. Personal – ginagamit sa
Unang Wika pagpapahayag ng sariling
● Kadalasan na tinatawag din damdamin o opinyon. Halimbawa:
katutubong wika o sinusong wika Talakayan (pormal/ di-pormal),
(mother tongue). liham sa patnugot, kolum,
● Wikang natutunan at ginamit ng komentaryo; (kowd; Ako lang to)
isang tao simula pagkapanganak
hanggang sa panahon kung kailan 5. Imahinatibo – ginagamit sa
lubos nang nauunawaan at pagpapahayag ng imahinasyon sa
nagagamit ng tao ang nasabing malikhaing pamamaraan.
wika. Halimbawa: Idyoma, tayutay,
sagisag, simbolismo, balagtasan,
Pangalawang Wika spoken word poetry, tula, nobela;
● Wikang natutunan at ginagamit ng (kowd: Langit ka’t lupa ako)
isang tao labas pa sa kanyang
unang wika. 6. Heuristiko – ginagamit sa
● Isang wikang ginagamit din sa paghahanap o paghingi ng
lokalidad ng taong nagsasalita. impormasyon.

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 Halimbawa: Pagtatanong, 6. Patalinghaga (Poetic) - ginagamit
pananaliksik, pakikipagpanayam, ang wika sa masining na
sarbey; (asa ka ba) pagpapahayag gaya ng panulaan,
prosa, sanaysay, at iba pa.
7. Impormatibo – ginagamit sa
pagbibigay ng impormasyon. Cohesive Devices o Kohesyong
Impormatibo – direkta o tuwiran Gramatikal - upang maging mas
Representatibo – tsart, graph o mahusay ang pagkakahabi ng tekstong
concept map, simbolo deskriptibo bilang bahagi ng iba pang uri
Halimbawa: Pagsagot ng sarbey, ng teksto o kaya mas maging malinaw
pag uulat, pagtuturo; (kowd: ang anumang uri ng tekstong susulatin.
Makinig ka’t may sasabihin ako)
Reperensiya (Reference) - ito ang
Anim na Paraan ng Paggamit ng Wika paggamit ng mga salitang maaaring
tumukoy o maging reperensya ng
1. Pagpapahayag ng Damdamin paksang pinag-uusapan sa pangungusap
(Emotive) - ginagamit ang wika a. Anapora - kung kailangang
upang ipahayag ang isip at bumalik sa teksto upang malaman
damdamin na ginagamit ang iba’t kung ano o sino ang tinutukoy.
ibang uri ng pangungusap. Halimbawa: Si Anna ang dapat
mauna sa magkapatid. Siya kasi
2. Panghihikayat (Coriative) - ang panganay sa kanilang dalawa.
ginagamit ang wika upang b. Katapora - kung nauna ang
mag-utos, manghikayat, o panghalip at malalaman lang kung
magpakilos ng taong kinakausap sino o ano ang tinutukoy kapag
ipinagpatuloy ang pagbabasa sa
3. Pagsisimula ng Pakikipag-ugnayan teksto.
(Phatics) - ginagamit ang wika Halimbawa: Siya dapat ang mauna
upang makipag-ugnayan sa kapwa sa magkapatid. Si Kata ang bunso.
at makapagsimula ng usapan
Substitusyon (Substitution) - paggamit
4. Paggamit bilang Sanggunian ng ibang salitang ipapalit sa halip na
(Referential) - ginagamit ang muling ulitin ang salita. Sa paggamit ng
wikang nagmula sa aklat at iba substitusyon, nagiging mas makabuluhan
pang babasahin bilang sanggunian at maayos ang isang komposisyon.
o batayan ng pinagmulan ng
kaalaman. Isang paraan din ng substitusyon ay ang
paggamit ng mga sinonimo o mga
5. Pagbibigay Kuro-Kuro salitang may parehong kahulugan. Sa
(Metalingual) - ginagamit ang wika halip na gamitin nang paulit-ulit ang
upang magbigay ng opinyon o parehong salita, maaaring magamit ang
komentaryo sa isang kodigo o ibat-ibang bersyon nito.
isang batas.

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Halimbawa: Ang ganda ng tanawin ng pinangyayarihan o kinauukulan ng
Tagaytay. Kaaya-aya ito sa aking isang kilos, pag-aari, o layon.
paningin.
Kohesyong Leksikal
Ellipsis - may binabawas o kinakansela a. Reiterasyon - kung ano ang
na bahagi ng pangungusap subalit ginagawa o sinasabi ay nauulit
inaasahang maiintindihan o magiging nang ilang beses.
malinaw pa rin sa mambabasa ang i. Pag-uulit o Repetisyon - ang
pangungusap dahil makatutulong ang mga piling salita na inuulit
naunang pahayag para matukoy ang upang magbigay diin
nais ipahiwatig ng nawalang salita. ii. Pag-iisa-isa - enumerasyon o
Halimbawa: Bumili si Gina ng apat na proseso ng paglalahad ng
aklat at si Rina nama’y tatlo. bawat aytem o pangyayari
iii. Pagbibigay Kahulugan - ang
Pang-ugnay - mga salitang ginagamit sa paglilinaw o paglalahad ng
pagsusulat o pagsasalita para kahulugan sa anumang uri
mapag-ugnay o maikabit ang isang ng paggamit ng salita sa
ideya sa iba pang ideya. isang teksto.
a. Pangatnig - isang bahagi ng b. Kolokasyon - tumutukoy sa
pananalita na ginagamit upang pagsasama ng mga salitang
magdugtong o mag-ugnay sa karaniwang nagagamit nang
dalawang salita, parirala, o sugnay magkapareha o may kaugnayan sa
upang makabuo tayo ng isang isa't isa, kung kaya't kapag
malinaw na mensahe o kaisipan. nabanggit ang isa ay naiisip din
b. Pang-angkop - bahagi ng ang isa.
pananalita na nag-uugnay sa
panuring katulad ng pang-uri at ng Teoryang Pandarayuhan
pang-abay. ● Teorya kung saan sinasabi na ang
i. “na” - ginagamit upang dahilan ng paglalalakbay ng mga
iugnay ang dalawang salita tao ay bumabase sa kanilang
na kung saan ang naunang kagustuhan, interes, at
salita ay nagtatapos sa mga pangangailangan.
katinig maliban sa titik n. ● “Wave Migration Theory”
ii. “-ng” - dinudugtong sa mga ● Dawn Man - Cave-man type na tao
salitang nagtatapos sa mga na may kaugnayan sa Java Man,
patinig tulad ng a, e, i, o, at Peking Man at iba pang Asian
u. Homo erectus specimens
iii. “g” - dinudugtong sa mga ● Negrito - Maliliit at may maitim at
salitang nagtatapos sa kulot na buhok. Katutubong
katinig na n. pangkat ng mga mangangaso at
c. Pang-ukol - ginagamit upang mangangaso, ay dumating sa
malaman ang pinagmulan o kapuluan sa pamamagitan ng mga
patutunguhan, kinaroroonan o tulay na lupa.
pinagkakaroonan, at

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 ● Indones - Halos hawig ng mga hanggang sa nauwi sa
malay sa kulay ang mga grupong Pakikipagsunduan, Kasalan, at
ito ay kinabibilangan ng Samal, Migrasyon ng mga tao sa
Bagobo, Guianga, Ata, Tagakaolo, Timog-Silangang Asya hanggang
tagbanua, manobo, mandaya, at sa Makarating ito sa Pilipinas.
Blaan. Grupo mula sa Indonesia na
may kakayahang maglakbay sa Austronesian Migration Theory
dagat at humawak ng mga ● Ang mga Austronesian ay
kagamitan ang naging unang mga dumating sa Pilipinas mula Taiwan,
imigrante na nakarating sa noong 2,500 B.C.E na ang
Pilipinas gamit ang karagatan. nakalipas. Sinasabi sa teorya na ito
● Malay - Mga kayumanggi na na ang mga Austronesian ay
kinabibilangan ng mga tao sa Orihinal na pinagmulan sa
bikol, bisaya at timog luzon. Dinala Bansang Timog China.
ng mga Sibilisado at naglalayag na ● Ang Austronesian ay isang pangkat
Malay ang kulturang Panahon ng ng mga wika na kabilang sa
Bakal sa Pilipinas at naging malawak na pamilya ng mga wika
dominanteng grupo bago ang sa buong mundo. Sila ay nanirahan
pagdating ng mga Espanyol sa Timog Silangang Asya, Oceania
sapre-kolonyal na panahon at Polynesia.
● Ang mga halimbawa ng mga
Teoryang Pandarayuhan Mula sa mga Austronesian na wika ay ang
Austronesian Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano,
Indonesian, Malay, Fijian, at iba
Nusantao Maritime Trading and pa. Ang pag-aaral ng Austronesian
Communication Network ay mahalaga sa pag-unawa sa
● Ang Teorya na ito ay isang paraan kasaysayan, kultura, at mga
upang maunawaan ang kultural at relasyon ng mga bansa at mga
pang-ekonomiyang ugnayan ng komunidad na kabilang sa pangkat
mga lugar na nasa rehiyon ng na ito.
nusantao. ● Ayon sa teoryang ito, ang mga
● Pinaniniwalaan sa teorya na ito na taong nagsasalita ng mga wika ng
ang mga Austronesian ang mga Austronesian ay nagmula sa
Unang tao sa Pilipinas. Taiwan mga 5,000 taon na ang
● Ang Nusantao ay mula sa salitang nakalilipas at unti-unting
austronesian na “nusa” at “tao” na naglakbay at nagmigrasyon
nangangahulugang “Tao mula sa patungo sa iba't ibang bahagi ng
timog” Timog-Silangang Asya, Oceania, at
● Ang dahilan ng pagpapalawak ng Pasipiko.
teritoryo ng mga Austronesian
noon ay ang Pakikipagkalakalan. Panahon ng Kastila
● Pinaniniwalaang nag mula sa ● 1500s – turuan ng wikang Kastila
Celebes at Sulo, lumawak ang ang mga katutubo ngunit hindi
kanilang pakikipag-ugnayan naisakatuparan.
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 – Ipinag utos ng hari ng espanya Panahon ng Pagsasarili
na turuan ang mga katutubo ng ● 1935 – Saligang Batas ng 1935, Art
Wikang Kastila. Bagkus, inaral ng XIV, Sek. 3: hakbang sa
mga Kastila ng Wikang Katutubo. pagpapaunlad ng Wikang
– Ayaw mahigitan Pambansa
– Natatakot sa paghihimagsik ● 1936 – Batas Komonwelt Blg. 184:
– Nangangambang isumbong ang Naitatag ang Surian ng Wikang
katiwalian Pambansa
● Nov. 9, 1937 – rekomendasyon kay
Panahon ng Rebolusyong Pilipino Manuel Quezon ng SWP na ang
● 1800s – nailimbag ang maraming Wikang Tagalog ay ang Wikang
panitikang Pilipino na nagbunsod Pambansa
ng nasyonalismo. ● Dec. 13, 1939 – Unang balarilang
● 1800s – kartilya ng katipunan Pilipino, Lope K. Santos “Ama ng
● 1897 – Biak na bato; naging Balarilang Pilipino”
Wikang Opisyal ang Wikang ● Dec. 30, 1939 – Kautusang
Tagalog Tagapagpaganap Blg. 134:
Pinroklama ang bisa.
Panahon ng Amerikano ● Abril 1, 1940 – Kautusang
● 1900s – sapilitang paggamit ng Tagapagpaganap Blg. 263:
Ingles kaysa Wikang Katutubo ipinalimbag ang diksyunaryong
– nagpatayo ng pitong Tagalog-Ingles at ng Balarila ng
pampublikong paaralan Wikang Pambansa.
– tinanggap ng mga ninuno ● Hunyo 19, 1940 – sinimulang ituro
– Edukasyong liberal sa paaralan ang Wikang
– Mabuting pakikitungo Pambansa na nakabatay sa
● 1925 – Monroe Educ’l Comm. Tagalog.
Mabagal ang pagkatuto kung
Ingles ang Wikang Panturo Panahon ng Hapon
● 1932 – Panukalang Batas Blg. 557: ● 1939-1945
Wikang Katutubo ang Wikang ● Nobyembre 30, 1943 – nilagdaan ni
Panturo sa paaralan ng primarya. Pang. Laurel ang Kautusang
● Monroe Educational Commission Tagapagpaganap Blg. 10 na
(1925) – nagsasaad na mabagal nagtakda ng reporma sa
matuto ang mga batang Pilipino edukasyon; pagtuturo ng Wikang
kung Ingles ang gamit na wikang Pambansa.
panturo. ● Enero 3, 1944 – binuksan ang isang
● Panukalang Batas Blg. 577 (1932) – Surian ng Tagalog tulad ng Surian
gamiting bilang wikang panturo sa ng Niponggo upang ituro ang
mga paaralang primarya ang mga Tagalog sa mga gurong di-tagalog.
katutubong wika mula taong – sumiklab ang WWII, nagsara ang
panuruan (1932-1933). mga paaralan.

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 – sapilitang itinuro ang Wikang ● 1974-1975 – Patakarang
Niponggo at kinalimutan ang Bilinggwalismo; Wikang Pilipino at
Ingles. Wikang Ingles
– Nagwakas, ginamit ang Wikang ● 1977 – Memorandum Sirkular 77:
Katutubo bilang Wikang Pambansa pagsasanay sa paggamit ng
Wikang Filipino sa mga
Panahon ng Republika transaksyon, komunikasyon at
● Hulyo 4, 1946 – Batas Komonwelt korespondensya.
Blg. 570: ang Wikang Pambansa ay ● 1978 – Kautusang Pangministri Blg.
isa ng Wikang Opisyal ng Pilipinas. 22: pagkakaroon ng 6 na yunit na
● 1946 – ang Wikang Pambansa ay Pilipino sa lahat ng kurso sa
tatawaging Wikang Pambansang tersyarya at 12 yunit sa mga
Pilipino kursong pang edukasyon.
● Marso 26, 1954 – Proklamasyon Blg. ● 1979 – Kautusang Pangministri Blg.
13: ang pagdiriwang ng Linggo ng 40: ang mga estudyante sa
Wika ay tuwing Marso 29 – Abril 4 medisina, dentist, abogasya,
ayon kay Pang. Magsaysay. paaralang gradwado at
● Setyembre 23, 1955 – estudyanteng dayuhan ay
Proklamasyon Blg. 186: Linggo ng magkakaroon ng asignaturang
Wika (Agosto 13-19); Ama ng Filipino.
Wikang Pambansa si Manuel Luis ● Nobyembre 1980 – Memorandum
Quezon Sirkular Blg. 80-86: nag aatas sa
● Agosto 3, 1959 – Kautusang lahat ng mga gobernador at mayor
Tagapagpaganap Blg. 7: Ang ng Pilipinas na isa-Pilipino ang
Wikang Pambansa ay Pilipino mga sagisag opisyal.
● 1967 – Kautusang ● Kautusang Pangministri Blg. 102 –
Tagapagpaganap Blg. 96: nagtatakda ng mga sentro ng
pangalanan sa Pilipino ang mga pagsasanay ng mga guro sa
gusali at tanggapan ng Filipino bilang midyum ng
pamahalaan pagtuturo sa antas tersyarya.
● 1970 – Resolusyon Blg. 70: Ang ● Setyembre 10, 1983 – Constitutional
Wikang Pambansa ang Commission: Wikang Pilipino ang
magsisilbing Wikang Panturo Wikang Pambansa
● Hulyo 29, 1971 – Memorandum
Sirkular Blg. 488: Pagdiriwang ng Panahon ng Kasalukuyan
Buwan ng Wika tuwing Agosto ● Okt. 12, 1986 – Wikang Filipino ang
13-19 Wikang Pambansa
● Enero 1987 – Kautusang
Panahon ng Bagong Lipunan Tagapagpaganap Blg. 117: SWP ay
● 1973 – Resolusyon Blg. 73: iniluwal naging Linangan ng Wikang
ang patakarang bilinggwal; Pambansa
paggamit ng Wikang Ingles at ● 1988 – Kautusang Pangkagawaran
Filipino sa pagtuturo. Blg. 84: DECS: Filipino sa lahat ng

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 komunikasyon at transaksyon ng
Pamahalaan
● Marso 19, 1989 – Kautusang
Pangkagawaran Blg. 21:
nagtagubilin na gamitin ang
Filipino sa pagbigkas ng
panunumpa ng katapatan sa
Saligang Batas at sa bayan natin;
ipinalabas ng kalihim ng
Edukasyon, Kultura, at Palakasan
na si Isidro Carino.
● Agosto 14, 1991 – Batas Republika
Blg. 7104: Itinatag ang KWF
alinsunod sa Saligang Batas 1987,
Art. XIV, Sek. 9
● Hulyo 15, 1997 – Nilagdaan ni Pang.
Fidel Ramos ang Proklamasyon
Blg. 1041: Taunang pagdiriwang ng
buwan ng Wikang Pambansa mula
Agosto 1-31

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 World Wide Web (WWW) - refers to the
ICT software aspect as it relates to the
Protocols or HTTP, web services,
applications and platforms
Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) - an umbrella term
Web Versions
referring to communication hardware or
W
software that allows the access, storage,
transmission, and manipulation of
information.

Current State of ICT

1. Convergent Technologies - this is
when multiple different devices
combine into a single gadget
because of technological
advancement. (ex. cellphone)
2. Social Media - these are software,
applications, or platforms that
allow users to communicate in
online social communities or
networks.
3. Mobile Technologies - devices that
are easily carried and allow fast
means of communication that are
smaller and more compact.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) - the Different Types of Online Platforms

system or procedures that enables the 1. Web Search Engines - a software
transfer of information on the internet. designed to search for information
on the World Wide Web (WWW).
World Wide Web vs. Internet The search results are generally
presented in a line of results
Internet - the actual interconnection of referred to as Search Engine
computers and other networks, while the Results Pages (SERPs). (ex. Yahoo,
web refers to the system that enables Internet Explorer, Google)
people to access information over the 2. Communication Service Provider -
internet. The internet is the hardware a provider that transports
aspect because it relates computer information electronically and can
networks, connections and encompass public and private
infrastructures. companies in telecom, internet,
cable, satellite, and managed
services business. (ex. Smart, PLDT,
Globe, Sun, Sky)

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 3. Payment System - any system used Types of Malware
to settle financial transactions a. Virus - A malicious program
through the transfer monetary designed to replicate itself and
value and includes the institutions, transfer from one computer to
instruments, people, rules, another either through the Internet
procedures, standards, and and local networks or data storage
technologies. (Ex. PayPal, like flash drives and CDs.
Landbank, MasterCard, VISA) b. Worm - A malicious program that
4. Advertising Platforms - allow users transfers from one computer to
to create and manage advertising another by any type of means.
campaigns, generate reports, and Often, it uses a computer network
retrieve information about the ads, to spread itself. For example, the
campaigns, and organizations ILOVEYOU worm (Love Bug Worm)
associated with an account. created by a Filipino.
5. Social Media - are forms of c. Trojan - A malicious program that
electronic communication through is disguised as a useful program
which users create online but once downloaded or installed,
communities to share information, leaves your PC unprotected and
ideas, personal messages, and allows hackers to get your
other content. (ex. Facebook, information.
Instagram, Linked In, Skype, d. Rogue Security Software - Tricks
Twitter, Pinterest) the user into posing that it is a
6. Social Networking - the difference security software. It asks the user
between social media and social to pay to improve his/her security
networking is that social media is a but in reality, they are not
platform used for broadcasting protected at all.
information, whereas social e. Spyware - A program that runs in
networking is a platform for the background without you
communicating with one another knowing it (thus called “spy”). It
wherein communication has a has the ability to monitor what you
two-way nature. are currently doing and typing
through keylogging.
Social Networking Platforms f. Keyloggers - Used to record the
1. Facebook - platform for keystroke done by the users. This is
advertising done to steal their password or any
2. Twitter - platform for hashtagging other sensitive information. It can
3. Linked In - platform for grouping record email, messages, or any
4. YouTube - platform for teaching information you type using your
5. Pinterest - platform for analyzing keyboard.
business g. Adware - A program designed to
send you advertisements, mostly
Internet Threats as pop-ups.
1. Malware - Malicious Software
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 7. Help keep flame wars under control
2. Spam - Unwanted email mostly 8. Respect other people’s privacy
from bots or advertisers. It can be 9. Don’t abuse your power
used to send malware. 10. Be forgiving of other people’s
3. Phishing - Its goal is to acquire mistakes
sensitive personal information like
passwords and credit card details. Smart Searching
This is done by sending you an 1. Use unique, specific terms
email that will direct the user to 2. Use the minus operator (-) to
visit a website and be asked to narrow the search
update his/her username, 3. Use asterisk as wildcard
password, credit card, or personal 4. Don't use common words and
information. punctuation
4. Pharming - Is a cyber attack 5. Use Google AutoComplete
intended to redirect a website’s
traffic to another, fake site. It can Research Skills
be conducted either by changing 1. Critical Thinking - as you search
the hosts file on a victim’s through the web, you must think
computer or by exploitation of a very carefully about the
vulnerability in DNS server information that you have
software. gathered. Critical thinking involves
5. Hoaxes/Chain Letters - a the ability to reflect on the
deliberate lie to seem truthful information presented to you.
2. Data Organizing - a good
Cyber Security - protection of researcher can organize their
internet-connected systems such as collected data. As you collect those
hardware, software and data from data, be sure to track where
cyberthreats. specific information is gathered.
3. Research Presenting - part of your
Netiquette - network étiquette; is research is the actual writing, be
concerned with the “proper” manner of creative and reflective in writing
communication in the online your search, explain every detail
environment. and step into achieving your
objective.
Virginia Shea’s Rules of Netiquette
1. Remember the Human Tips in Identifying Satirical Searches
2. Adhere to the same standards of 1. If the contents of the source are
behavior online that you follow in too impossible to happen, or too
real life good to be true, then there must be
3. Know where you are in cyberspace something wrong.
4. Respect other people’s time and 2. If the site is unfamiliar and
bandwidth continuously popping ads, then it is
5. Make yourself look good online satirical.
6. Share expert knowledge
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 3. If the site started as a false site for
public figures such as TV
personalities or political figures,
then uploaded stories from
different sources, it is a satirical
one.

Word Processor - any software, program,

or application where you can type. It can
also provide input, editing, formatting,
and output of text, often with some Basic Formulas in Excel
additional features. =SUM(
=AVERAGE(
=MAX(
=MIN(
=IF(
=COUNT(
=COUNTA(
=NOW(
=LEN(
=ABS(
=RAND(
=RANDBETWEEN(
=UPPER(
Steps in Mail Merging =LOWER(
1. Go to Mailings Menu =PROPER(
2. Search Recipients
3. Click use existing file (excel) Presentation Software - a presentation
4. Select the excel file program is a software package used to
5. Click insert merge field display information in the form of a slide
6. Click <<title>> show
7. Click preview results
8. Navigation bar
9. Click Finish and Merge

Spreadsheet - an electronic document in

which data is arranged in the rows and
columns of a grid and can be
manipulated and used in calculations.

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6 Tips for Creating an Effective Layout - the process of organizing and
Powerpoint Presentation arranging these elements in a design as
1. Minimize the number of slide 10-15 you plot in a paper.
only
2. Clarity. Use large, legible fonts. Basic Principles of Design and Layout
Avoid being fancy by using a font 1. Balance - proper arrangement of
style that is easy to read the elements, which gives a visual
Tip: A font size of 72 is about an weight for the design.
inch (depends on the screen size). A a. Symmetrical - elements are
one-inch letter is readable 10 feet equally distributed on both
away; a two-inch letter is readable sides of your design;
20 feet away. mirror-based design.
3. Simplicity. Use bullets or short b. Asymmetrical - a free layout
sentences. Summarize the where the elements can be
information on the screen to have placed in any order or the
your audience. opposite of symmetrical.
4. Visuals. Use graphics to help in
your presentation but not too many
to distract the audience. In
addition, instead of using tables of
data, use charts and graphs.
5. Consistency. Make your design
uniform. Avoid having different
font styles and backgrounds.
6. Contrast. Use a light font on a dark 2. Emphasis - something that needs
background or vice versa. This is to stand-out or emphasize. You can
done so that it is easier to read. In change the color, size, or even the
most instances, it is easier to read element itself to lead the eye to the
on screen if the background is focal interest.
dark. This is due to the brightness
of the screen.

Graphic Design - an artistic way of

communicating ideas and messages
through visual expressions using texts,
3. Pattern, Repetition, and Rhythm -
images and symbols.
use of repetitive elements such as
lines, shapes, forms, textures,
Graphic Design vs. Layout
space, colors, font, style, and the
like to create texture, movement,
Design - a plan of creating an idea
continuity, and consistency of the
through combination of texts, images
design.
and other elements that are placed
together artistically

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 Infographics - graphic visual
4. Alignment - proper placement of representations of information, data, or
an element to your design, just like knowledge intended to present
invisibly placing or aligning your information quickly and clearly.
texts or images diagonally,
vertically, and horizontally. Graphs and Charts as Infographics
1. Bar Graphs - primarily used in
comparing sets of data
2. Line Graphs - similar with bar
graphs but are more suitable in
showing trends
3. Forest Graphs - used to visually
represent values within a group
5. Hierarchy - the proper and compare them to other groups
arrangement of the details such as 4. Radial Graphs - similar to forest
text, characters, numbers, and graph but are represented using a
symbols. It can help the viewer to circle
recognize and navigate the
highlight of the event smoothly. 7 Common Types of Infographics
1. List-based Infographic
2. Comparison Infographic
3. Flowchart Infographic
4. Visual Article Infographic
6. Contrast - the use of different or 5. Map Infographic
opposite elements such as sizes, 6. Timeline Infographic
shapes, spaces, form, colors, 7. Data Visualization (Graph)
texture, and values. It gives visual Infographic
weight to an object or design.
Online Photo Editors
1. Canva - ideal for team
collaboration
2. Adobe Photoshop Express - ideal
7. Unity and Harmony - the for quick edits on mobile
relationship of the elements or the 3. Pixlr - the best browser-based
contents when you placed them solution for quick edits
together. The elements must work 4. Photopea - the best free browser
together and agree to its meaning, alternative to Adobe Photoshop
theme, feeling, or mood.

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Offline Photo Editors 3. Content Management System
1. GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation (CMS) - allow the user to publish,
Program) edit, manipulate, organize, and
2. Adobe Photoshop delete web content.

Common Photo Editing Techniques Online Platforms - a digital service that

1. Editing Images facilitates interactions between two or
2. Cropping more distinct but interdependent sets of
3. Changing Color users
4. Adding Text
5. Combining Images Online Platforms Contents
1. Text
Online Creation Tools and Applications 2. Graphics
- computer programs that utilize web 3. Audio
browsers and web technology to perform 4. Video
tasks over the internet. 5. Link

Existing Online Creation Tools and Existing Online Platforms

Applications for Specific Purposes 1. Presentation/Visualization - let you
1. Audio and Visual Content Creation showcase and share presentations,
Tools and Applications infographics, and videos with other
a. Audio - allow users to create, people.
edit, trim, remix, and publish
kinds of music and sounds. 2. Cloud Computing - allows you to
b. Infographics - give users the upload, download, organize, and
chance to create a creative store files on the onlines storage,
and stunning infographic which is called cloud instead of
c. Video - allow users to edit using offline storage like a
and create videos online computer desktop.
d. Presentations - let the users
utilize images, videos, and 3. Social Media - interactive online
graphics on their technologies that enable the
presentations to get into the creation or sharing of information,
minds of their target ideas, career interests, and other
audience forms of expression through virtual
e. Memes - the internet is full of communities and networks.
colorful images and videos
because audiences love them 4. Mapping - provides detailed
and share them. Memes get information about geographical
copied and spread rapidly regions and sites around the world.

2. Online Offices - word processors, 5. File Management - allows you to

spreadsheets, slides, and survey convert and manage files like
forms that work in cyberspace. images, videos, documents, audio,
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 and more to other formats without Web Page Design - a similar process of
downloading a software tool. creation, with the intention of presenting
the content on electronic web pages,
6. Web Page Creation - lets you build which the end-users can access through
a web page that includes colors, the internet with the help of a web
texts, images, and often contains browser.
links to media such as video and
audio. Layout - it means that your design
should align with a handful of soothing
Factors to Consider When Choosing adjectives; it should be simple, familiar
Online Platforms intuitive, clean, and accessible
1. Address Specific Purpose
2. Easy to Use Basic Principles to Make Your Web
3. Collaborative Features Design Aesthetically Pleasing, Easy to
4. Browser Support Use, Engaging, and Effective
5. Content Security 1. Purpose - clear and needs
2. Communication - easy to read and
Web Page - a document for the World digest, use bullets
Wide Web that can be accessed and 3. Typefaces - Serif and Sans Serif
displayed on a monitor or smartphone fonts
using any web browser. 4. Colors - complementary colors
creates harmony and balance;
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) contrast to easily read; vibrant
- Describes the structure of a web colors creates emotions; and white
page space provides uncluttered look
- Consists of a series of elements 5. Images - videos, graphics,
- Elements tell the browser how to infographics
display the content and are 6. Navigation - action, move, logical
represented by TAGS page hierarchy, designing clickable
- TAGS label pieces of content such buttons following the ‘three click
as “heading”, “paragraph”, “table”, rule’
and so on… 7. Grid-base Layout - use columns,
- Browsers do not display the HTML boxes
tags, but use them to render the 8. F Pattern Design
content of the page 9. Load Time - optimize image size,
combining code into a central CSS
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You or JavaScript file
Get) - whatever you will type, insert, 10. Mobile Friendly
draw, place, rearrange, or whatever you
do on a webpage is what the audience
will see.

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Online WYSIWYG Platforms - you are
creating a website using drag-and-drop
interface or changing the way fonts look
in an editor, that is how your finished
product will look.

WYSIWYG Website Builders

1. Wix
2. SquareSpace
3. Weebly
4. WordPress
5. Shopify

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 vessels, and blood to work
Physical Education efficiently and to supply the body
with oxygen.
3. Flexibility – The ability to use your
Physical Fitness as Defined
joints fully through a wide range of
A person who is free from illnesses and
motion.
can do physical or sports activities and
4. Muscular Endurance – The ability to
still has an extra energy to do more
use muscles for a long period of
activities is considered to be physically
time without tiring.
fit.
5. Muscular Strength – The ability of
the muscles to lift a heavy weight
Physical fitness - a combination of
or exert a lot of force one time.
health fitness and body fitness. Health
fitness refers to your body’s ability to
Skills Related Fitness Components
fight off diseases.

1. Agility – The ability to change body

Body fitness - refers to the ability to do
positions quickly and keep the
strenuous physical or sports activities
body under control when moving.
without getting tired easily. It is not
2. Balance – The ability to keep the
enough for someone to only look good
body in a steady position while
and feel good in order to be called
standing and moving.
physically fit. An individual should also
3. Coordination – The ability of the
take into consideration his kind of
body parts to work together when
lifestyle including the food he takes every
you perform an activity.
day because it can lead him to better
4. Power – The ability to combine
health.
strength with speed while moving.
5. Reaction Time – The ability to move
Health Related Fitness
quickly once a signal to start
This is primarily associated with disease
moving is received.
prevention and functional health.
6. Speed – The ability to move all or a
Participating in regular health-related
part of the body quickly.
fitness helps you control your weight,
prevents diseases and illness, improves
Specific Components of Physical
mood, boosts energy and promotes
Fitness
better sleep.

1. Agility –The ability of the individual

Health Related Fitness Components
to change direction or position in
space with quickness and lightness
1. Body Composition – The
of movement while maintaining
combination of all the tissues that
dynamic balance.
make up the body such as bones,
2. Balance – The ability to control
muscles, organs and body fat.
organic equipment
2. Cardiovascular Endurance – The
neuro-muscularly; a state of
ability of the heart, lungs, blood
equilibrium.
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 3. Coordination - The ability to 2. Domestic – These are the activities
integrate the body parts to you do at home.
produce smooth motion. Example: Washing clothes and
4. Endurance – The ability to sustain dishes, gardening, carpentry,
long continued contractions where baking or cleaning the house.
a number of muscle groups are
used; the capacity to bear or last 3. Transportation – These are the
long in a certain task without activities that involve traveling.
undue fatigue. Riding a jeepney, tricycle,
5. Flexibility – The quality of motorcycle, or bikes.
plasticity, which gives the ability to
do a wide range of movement. 4. Leisure Time – These are the
6. Organic Vigor – It refers to the activities you do during
soundness of the heart and lungs recreational activities. Playing,
which contributes to the ability to swimming, hiking or craft making.
resist disease.
7. Power – The ability of the muscles Exercise - according to a study by
to release maximum force in the Buckworth and Dishman, is the “planned,
shortest period of time. structured, repetitive bodily movements
8. Speed – The ability to make that someone engages in for the purpose
successive movements of the same of improving or maintaining physical
kind in the shortest period of time. fitness or health.
9. Strength – The capacity to sustain
the application of force without Aerobic, Muscle-strengthening, and
yielding or breaking; the ability of Bone-strengthening Activity
the muscles to exert efforts against
resistance. Aerobic - Aerobic activities, also called
endurance activities, are physical
activities in which people move their
Physical Activity and Exercise large muscles in a rhythmic manner for a
Activities done by the skeletal muscles sustained period.
that utilize energy are called Physical
Activity. Activities you are doing at home Muscle-Strengthening Activity - This
or in school are considered to be physical kind of activity, which includes resistance
activity. It is classified into 4 domains: training and lifting weights, causes the
occupational, domestic, transportation, body’s muscles to work or hold against
and leisure time. an applied force or weight.

1. Occupational – These are the Bone-Strengthening Activity - This kind

activities you do at your workplace. of activity (sometimes called
Lifting computers and books, going weight-bearing or weight-loading
to your friend’s desk or preparing activity) produces a force on the bones
lunch at the pantry. that promotes bone growth and strength.

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Barriers to Physical Activities which you Reflect, Replace, and
We understand the benefits of physical Reinforce.
activities to our health specially our body
but there are circumstances when we ● REFLECT on all of your specific
become lazy in performing physical eating habits, both bad and good;
activities. Below are some of the barriers and, your common triggers for
that hinder us to do physical activities: unhealthy eating.
1. Lack of time ● REPLACE your unhealthy eating
2. Social Support habits with healthier ones.
3. Lack of Energy ● REINFORCE your new, healthier
4. Lack of Motivation eating habits.
5. Fear of Injury
6. Lack of Skill Principles of Physical Activity
7. High Costs and Lack of Facilities Overload Principle
8. Weather Conditions This principle pertains to doing “more
than normal” for improvement to happen.
Eating Habits It means to boost our fitness, strength, or
The term eating habits (or food habits) endurance. Workload is extended
refers to why and how people eat, which accordingly. Applying these training
foods they eat, and with whom they eat, principles will cause long-term
as well as the ways people obtain, store, adaptations, enabling the body to figure
use, and discard food. Individual, social, more efficiently to deal with higher levels
cultural, religious, economic, of performance.
environmental, and political factors all
influence people's eating habits. Overloading will be achieved by following
the acronym FITT:
Improving Your Eating Habits
Frequency: Increasing the number of
When it comes to eating, we have strong times you train per week. The first thing
habits. Some are good (“I always eat to identify in the workout plan is
breakfast”), and some are not so good (“I frequency—how often you exercise. Your
always clean my plate”). Although many frequency often depends on a spread of
of our eating habits were established things including the sort of workout
during childhood, it doesn’t mean it’s too you're doing, how hard you're working,
late to change them. your fitness level, and your exercise
goals.
Making sudden, radical changes to
eating habits such as eating nothing but Intensity: Increasing the problem of the
cabbage soup, can lead to short term exercise, for instance, running at 12 km/h
weight loss. However, such radical rather than 10 or increasing the load
changes are neither healthy nor a good you're squatting with.
idea, and won’t be successful in the long Intensity refers to how hard you work
run. Permanently improving your eating during the physical activity period.
habits requires a thoughtful approach in Intensity is often measured in several
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ways, counting on the health-related become better at a selected exercise or
component. skill, you need to perform that exercise or
skill. For example, a cyclist should be
Time: Increasing the length of your trained in cycling and a runner should be
training time for every session for trained in running. Use the acceptable
instance, cycling for 45 minutes rather sort of exercise that directly improves
than 30. your target muscles.

Type: Increase the intensity of the Principle of Reversibility

training. For instance, progress from Development of muscles will happen if
walking to running regular movement and execution are
completed. If activity ceases, it will be
Principle of Progression reversed. This shows that benefits and
To ensure that the results will still improve changes achieved from overload will last
over time, the adapted workload should as long as training is continuous. On the
be continually increased. A gradual and flip side, this also implies that the
systematic increase within the workload detraining effect will be reversed once
over a period of time will lead to training is resumed. Extended rest
improvement in fitness without risk of periods reduce fitness and therefore the
injury. If overload occurs and increases physiological effects diminish over time
rapidly, it may lead to injury or muscle which throws the body back to its
damage. If it increases slowly, pre-training condition.
improvement is unlikely. For instance, the
athlete who exercises vigorously only on Note: The effect of training will be lost if
weekends violates the principle of the training is discontinued.
progression and may not see obvious
fitness gains. The F.I.T.T Principle of Physical Activity
Understanding the F.I.T.T. principle helps
The Principle of Progression also stresses you create a workout plan which will be
the requirement for correct rest and beneficial in reaching your fitness goals.
recovery. Continual stress on the body F.I.T.T. stands for frequency, intensity,
and constant overload will lead to time, and type of exercise. These are the
exhaustion and injury. You ought not to four elements you would like to believe to
train hard all the time, as you'll risk make workouts that suit your goals and
overtraining and a decrease in fitness. fitness level. Learn how the F.I.T.T.
principle works.
Principle of Specificity
We've all heard the phrase, "Practice Warm-up - At least 5 to 10 minutes of low
makes perfect." Well, this is often the to moderate intensity aerobic exercise or
principle of specificity in action. This resistance exercise with lighter weights.
principle simply states that exercising a
specific piece or component of the body Conditioning -15 to 60 minutes of
primarily develops that part. The aerobic, resistance, neuromuscular,
principle of specificity implies that to and/or sport activities
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Cool-down - At least 5 to 10 minutes of
low to moderate intensity aerobic
exercise or resistance exercise with
lighter weights

Stretching - At least 10 minutes of

stretching exercises performed after the
warmup or cool-down phase

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