INTRODUCTION

Synonym: Lymphoid system; immune system.

 It consists of closed system of vessels that are formed from minute capillaries in the tissue spaces in
and around blood capillaries. These convey tissue fluid into the blood vascular system. It acts as an
alternate to venous system
Tissue fluid:
 As the blood flows through the capillaries small amount of the fluid enters the interstices of tissue
and this fluid is called interstitial/tissue fluid.
 Tissue fluid is plasma without plasma proteins.
 Most of the fluid reenters the capillaries.
 Some amount of fluid stays in the tissue spaces.
Lymph:
 The excess fluid that is staying in the interstices of tissue is taken up by lymph capillaries and is
returned to the bloodstream.
 This tissue fluid that is entering the lymphatic system is called lymph.
 Lymph is a milky liquid made up of tissue fluid, fatty substances, and lymphocytes,
Transportation of lymph:
 From the lymph capillaries it is transported through larger lymphatic vessels.
 During their passage the lymph vessels are interrupted by chains of lymph nodes that filter the lymph
and add lymphocytes to the circulating lymph that is ultimately emptied into the right or left
subclavian vein
 The lymphatic system consists of tissues and organs concerned with protection of internal
environment of the body from invasion by microorganisms.
 The cardiovascular system has the heart that acts as a pump, but the lymphatic system lacks that
pump.
 Like in the venous return of blood contraction of skeletal muscle causing compression of the lymph
vessels (muscle pump), pressure changes in the lymph vessels associated with respiration
(respiratory pump), the unidirectional valves in lymph vessels that prevent reverse flow of lymph,
and the contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of lymph vessels facilitate the flow of lymph.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS OF THE BODY
 There are three lines of defense mechanisms in the body:
 First line of defense: This is provided by surface epithelia, i.e., epidermis of skin, mucosa of
gastrointestinal, respiratory, urogenital system, etc. that are in contact with external environment and
exposed to various types of microorganisms.
 Second line of defense: This comes into action when the first line of defense is damaged due to
abrasion, injury, etc. and the organisms invaded the epithelia. This is provided by macrophages and
neutrophils of connective tissue present in lamina propria of mucosa and dermis of skin. The
nonspecific immune response provided by these cells destroys the pathogens by phagocytosis.
 Third line of defense: When first and second lines of defense fail to check the invasion of
microorganisms this gets activated. This is a specific immune response evoked by lymphocytes.
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 Mechanism of formation of tissue fluid:
 There is a gradient of blood pressure in different vessels.
 This facilitates formation of tissue fluid and drainage of fluid.
 
As the blood flows through the arterial end of capillaries fluid continuously gets filtered into the
tissue spaces. But nearly 85% of it is reabsorbed by venous ends of blood capillaries.
 About 15% of it containing water and plasma proteins is not reabsorbed because of the pressure
gradient and enters the interstices of tissue and is called interstitial fluid.
 Because of the pressure gradient micromolecules, crystalloids, and carbon dioxide getting filtered at
the arterial end of the capillary bed get reabsorbed at the venous end of capillaries that amounts to
about 27 liters. However, this amount of reabsorption is not sufficient even on a daily basis.
 As much as 3 liters of fluid (tissue fluid) is left to be reabsorbed in the extracellular spaces of the
body everyday. In addition, some proteins leak into the extracellular spaces.
 Further, some more material which cannot enter the capillary bed gets accumulated in the
extracellular area. This excess tissue fluid containing colloids and particulate matter is absorbed and
transported by lymphatic system back into the blood.
 If all this fluid is left behind, it would lead to a dangerous situation. Reverse osmosis would occur
and more fluid will flow into the already loaded extracellular space causing edema (excessive
interstitial fluid).
 The lymphatic system maintains low protein concentration of tissue fluid by returning the excess
protein to the circulatory system.
 Contribution for maintaining fluid balance: In normal life, the fluid balance is well maintained.
Amount of interstitial fluid remains fairly constant and unwanted material does not accumulate in the
extracellular space. All these proper balances are possible due to the action of the lymphatics and the
lymphatic system.
 Absorption of fat from intestines: It helps in absorption of fat from the intestines into the cisterna
chylii
 Production of lymphocytes: The lymphocytes are produced in the lymphatic follicles.
 Production of antibodies: These are produced by the plasma cells in the lymph
nodes.
 A channel for spread of infection or malignancy: In disease conditions the infection or malignant
cells are transported via lymphatics to a distant place.
COMPONENTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND LYMPH FLOW
 Lymph
 Lymph capillaries
 Lymphatic vessels
 Lymphatic tissue and organs.
Lymph
 The part of circulating blood from arterial end of capillaries that passes into the tissues is called
tissue fluid (30 liters).
 Most of this fluid (27 liters) reenters the circulation at the venous end of capillaries.
 Part of tissue fluid containing particulate matter and colloid material (3 liters) returns to the
circulation through separate vessels called lymph vessels (lymphatics).
 The fluid passing through lymphatics is called lymph.
 The lymph is similar in composition to that of blood plasma except that it transports plasma proteins
and contains more of white blood cells. In particular the lymph that leaves lymph node is rich is
lymphocytes.
 The lymph that is leaving the digestive system is called chyle and is rich in triglycerides (fat)
absorbed from small intestine and looks milky white in appearance because of the lipid content.
  The lymph vessels collecting chyle are called lacteals.
 The lymph also carries bacteria, dust, carbon, malignant cells, etc. and brings them to lymph node
where they are filtered and destroyed. Metastatic cancer cells also travel through lymph to distant
places.
Thoracic Duct
 The lymphatics collecting lymph from the lower parts of the body merge in the abdomen to form the
cisterna chyli. From this starts the thoracic duct.
 The thoracic duct drains lymph from both lower limbs, abdomen, left half of thorax, left upper limb,
and left half of head and neck of the body.
 It drains the lymph into the vascular system by ending at the junction of left subclavian vein and
internal jugular vein
Right Lymphatic Duct
 On right side, the right lymphatic duct terminates similarly and drains lymph from right half of head
and neck, thorax, and right upper limb.
 Its termination is similar to thoracic duct but on right side
Factors regulating flow of lymph in the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts:
 Filtration pressure of tissue fluid.
 Skeletal muscle contraction acting as a massage for the lymph vessels.
 Pulsations of arteries that are transmitted to lymph vessels.
 Valves converting the vessels into small segments and directing the flow.
 Gravity.
 Suction movement generated by diaphragm.
 Negative pressure in brachiocephalic veins.
Lymph Nodes
 Lymph nodes are usually present in groups especially in the axilla, groin, and root of lung.
 There are about 450-500 lymph nodes in the body.
 Their size varies from few millimeters to centimeters.
 Lymph, the fluid that flows through the lymphatic capillaries and vessels, is filtered by the lymph
nodes that are present along the course of the lymphatics.
 When foreign protein or foreign material drains from an area, the lymph nodes filter them and
attempt to eliminate them from the body.
 Also, antibodies (molecules to fight the foreign substance) are produced by the lymphatic system.
 The lymph nodes are oval or kidney-shaped structure with a convex surface and a slight indention on
one side called the hilum where blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves enter and leave the organ.
 Numerous afferent lymph vessels enter the node at many places over its convex surface but one or
two efferent vessels leave it only at the hilum.
Structure of Lymph Node
Capsule:
 The lymph node is covered by a connective tissue capsule.
Trabeculae:
 From the capsule there are extensions into the substance of lymph node dividing into compartments.
Subdivisions of the substance:
 The substance of lymph node presents outer darkly stained cortex and inner lightly stained medulla.
Subcapsular sinus:
  Underneath the capsule is the subcapsular lymph sinus into which numerous afferent lymph vessels
open.
 The subcapsular sinus is continuous with trabecular sinus that is found along the trabeculae.
 The trabecular sinuses are continuous with medullary sinuses in the parenchyma of lymph node.
Cortex:
 Cortex is darkly stained and contains lymphatic nodules with or without pale germinal center. It is
mainly formed by B lymphocytes.
Medulla:
 Medulla presents medullary cords and medullary sinuses.
 Medullary cords are darkly stained and contain branching and anastomosing cords of lymphoid
tissue.
 They contain B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages.
 Medullary sinuses are lightly stained and are extensions of trabecular lymph sinuses.
 They drain into the efferent lymph vessels at the hilum.
 The sinuses are traversed by reticular fibers.
Functions:
Defensive:
 Filter microorganisms of lymph, localizing the infection.
 Production of lymphocytes and antibodies.
Spleen
 It is a large encapsulated lymphoid organ located in the left hypochondrium of abdomen.
 At the hilum of spleen, splenic vessels and nerves enter and leave.
 It receives blood from splenic artery and is drained by splenic vein into the hepatic portal system.
 The circulating blood is filtered through spleen.
Structure of spleen:
 Spleen is covered by dense connective tissue capsule that sends trabeculae into the substance (pulp).
 Substance of spleen is arranged in the form of white pulp and red pulp.
 The white pulp contains Malpighian corpuscles or splenic nodules.
 These are lymphatic nodules with an eccentrically placed arteriole and contain lymphocytes.
 Red pulp is found around the white pulp. It contains thin walled venous sinusoids (splenic sinuses)
and intervening cords of cells (splenic cords of Billroth).
Functions:
 During early fetal life, it is a temporary organ of hematopoiesis.
 It filters blood and clears the infectious organisms, particulate matter, aged, and defective
erythrocytes and platelets.
Thymus
 It is a flattened, bilobed lymphoepithelial organ that produces lymphocytes.
 It is located in the lower neck and extends into the superior mediastinum of thorax.
 This is the only lymphatic organ that is fully developed at the time of birth.
 Other lymphatic organs reach their full development in postnatal life.
 It is active during childhood and later undergoes involution.
 From middle age to old age the thymic tissue is gradually replaced with lymphoid and adipose
tissues.
Structure:
 It is covered by connective tissue capsule from which trabeculae extend into its substance.
  Thymus is divided into number of lobules with each having a peripheral darker cortex capping the
central pale medulla.
 Cortex consists of mainly densely packed small T lymphocytes also called thymocytes.
 In medulla the lymphocytes are less densely packed and contain lamellated Hassall's corpuscles
which are concentrically arranged epithelial reticular cells. With increasing age their number
increases.
 In addition to lymphocytes macrophages are seen in both cortex and medulla.
Function:
 It produces the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin that stimulate the development and cell
differentiation of T lymphocytes.