Building Accurate Geodatabase Using Total Station,

GPS and GIS Techniques for Geomatic Applications

Introduction and Aim of the Project:

1.1 Introduction
Accurate geospatial data is fundamental for urban planning, cadastral surveys,
infrastructure development, and environmental monitoring. The integration
of Total Station, Global Positioning System (GPS), and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) has revolutionized geomatic applications by improving precision,
efficiency, and data management. However, challenges such as instrumental
errors, atmospheric disturbances, and data interoperability persist, affecting the
reliability of geodatabases.
This project investigates methods to enhance geodatabase accuracy by:
• Evaluating Total Station vs. GPS techniques in different terrains.
• Developing a GIS-based geodatabase with standardized data models.
• Proposing an optimized workflow for integrating surveying and GIS techniques.

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The primary aim of this project is to build a highly accurate geodatabase using Total
Station, GPS, and GIS for geomatic applications. Specific objectives include:
1. Compare the accuracy of Total Station and GPS (RTK & DGPS) in different
environments (urban, rural, and mixed terrains).
2. Develop a geodatabase schema in GIS (e.g., ESRI Geodatabase) with
proper topology rules, attribute domains, and metadata standards.
3. Assess error sources (instrumental, environmental, human) and apply
correction techniques (least squares adjustment, differential
corrections).
4. Validate the geodatabase using ground truthing and statistical accuracy
assessments (RMSE, CE90).
2. Review of Literature:
2.2 GPS and GNSS Techniques

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), including GPS,

GLONASS, and Galileo, provide real-time positioning with varying
accuracy:

GPS
Accuracy Best Use Case
Technique

Standalone
5–10 m Navigation, low-precision mapping
GPS

DGPS
(Differential 0.5–2 m Hydrographic surveys, agriculture
GPS)

RTK-GPS 1–2 cm Cadastral surveys, precision farming

Challenges in GPS Surveys:

• Multipath errors (signals reflecting off buildings).
• Ionospheric delays (affecting signal propagation).
• Satellite geometry (PDOP > 6 reduces accuracy).

2.3 GIS for Geodatabase Development:

A geodatabase is a structured repository for spatial data, supporting:
• Topology rules (no overlaps, no gaps in parcels).
• Attribute validation (domain values, subtypes).
• Spatial indexing for faster queries.
Case Studies on Geodatabase Accuracy
1. Urban Cadastral Survey (Cairo, Egypt):
o Total Station achieved ±5 mm accuracy, while RTK-GPS had ±2 cm due to
urban canyon effects (Abdellatif et al., 2015).
2. Agricultural Land Mapping (Netherlands):
o DGPS + GIS provided sub-meter accuracy for precision farming (Van der
Veen et al., 2017).

2.1 Total Station Technique

2.1.1 Definition and Principle:

➢ Definition of total station:

A Total Station is an electrical and digitally operated surveying
instrument used for measurement and survey work. It is grainful
instrument for estimating points like even and vertical, and distance.
➢ Principle of total station:
Reflectorless fitted in total stations measure distances between
two points that are reasonably light in color, to a few hundred
meters. It also provides data on the coordinate of the instrument
position and bearing of a backward station the coordinates of any
other point can be computed.
2.1.2 Tasks of TS and its Applications:
➢ Tasks of total station:
• Topographic surveys.
• Land and title surveys.
• Roadway and corridor surveys.
• Design surveys.
• Infrastructure surveys.
• Volumetric surveys.
• Power line inspections.
• Utility design surveys.
• Mine and quarry surveys.
• Tank calibration or inspection.

➢ Application of total station

•Point Location:
The coordinates of any sighted point can be determined, displayed, and
recorded in the following format: N.E.Z. (north, east, elevation). At this
time, the sighted point is numbered and coded for attribute data (point
description) all of which is recorded with the location data. This program is
used extensively in topographic surveys.
 • Trigonometric Leveling:
Trigonometric Leveling is the branch of Surveying in which we find out the
vertical distance between two points by taking the vertical angular
observations and the known distances. The known distances are either
assumed to be horizontal or the geodetic lengths at the mean sea level (MSL).

• Missing Line Measurement

It is the process of finding the distance between two points A & B (which
are not inter-visible from each other) from another point ‘I’ (instrument
position). This method is very useful for finding distances between two
points which has an obstruction between them.
It has two types:
Continuous Mode: i.e., AB, BC, CD, DE, EF etc.,
Radial Mode: i.e., AB, AC, AD, AE, AF etc.,
 • Resection:
This technique permits the surveyor to set up the total station at any
convenient position (sometimes referred to as a free station) and then
determine the coordinates and elevation of that instrument position by
sighting previously coordinated reference stations. When sighting only two
points of known position, it is necessary to measure and record both the
distances and the angle between the reference points; when sighting several
points (three or more) of known position, it is necessary only to measure the
angles between the points.

• Remote Object Elevation

The surveyor can determine the heights of inaccessible points.
(e.g., electricity conductors), while using a total station that is set
up by sighting the (polemounted prism) as it is being held directly
under the object. When the object itself is then sighted, the
object height can be promptly displayed.
 • Offset Measurements.
• Layout or Setting-Out Positions.
• Area Computation.
• Azimuth Determination.

Global Positioning System (GPS): -

can be segmented into three main components, often referred
to as segments or parts of GPS:
1. Space Segment (Satellites): -

• Consists of 24 operational satellites (and spares) orbiting Earth

at 20,200 km in 6 orbital planes.
• Each satellite transmits timing signals and orbital data
(ephemeris).
• Key satellite constellations:
• GPS (USA): Primary system.
• GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), BeiDou (China).
2. Control Segment (Ground Stations): -
• Monitor and control satellites: via ground-based stations.
• Master Control Station (MCS): Colorado Springs, USA.
• Monitor Stations: Worldwide (track satellite signals).
• Ground Antennas: Upload corrections/updates to satellites.
• Ensures clock synchronization and orbital accuracy.
 2. User Segment (Receivers) :

• Devices (e.g., smartphones, car nav systems) that

• Receive signals from 4 satellites.
• Calculate position (latitude, longitude, altitude) via trilateration.
• Correct errors (e.g., ionospheric delay) using algorithms.

Key Technical Terms:

- Ephemeris Data: Precise satellite orbit/position.
- Almanac: Approximate orbit info for all satellites.
- Pseudorange: Time-based distance measurement.

Field Techniques of positioning: -

1. Static GPS Positioning: -
Accuracy: 1mm - 1cm
Observation Time: 30 minutes to several hours.

Best For: -
- Establishing permanent geodetic control points.
- Monitoring tectonic plate movements.
- High-precision engineering projects (bridges, dams).

Key Characteristics:
- Requires post-processing.
- Most accurate GPS method.
- Uses dual-frequency receivers.
- Ideal for long baseline measurements.

2. Rapid Static Positioning: -

Accuracy: 0.5cm - 2cm
Observation Time: 2-20 minutes per point.

Best For:
- Secondary control networks.
- Topographic surveys.
- When RTK isn't available
 Key Characteristics:
- Faster than static but slightly less accurate.
- Still requires post-processing.
- Good compromise between speed and accuracy.
- Typically uses 2+ receivers.

3. Kinematic Positioning
Accuracy: 2cm - 5cm
Observation Time: Continuous measurements.

Best For:
- Mapping linear features (roads, pipelines).
- Hydrographic surveys.
- GIS data collection.

Key Characteristics:
- Receiver moves continuously.
- Requires initialization.
- If signal lost, must re-initialize.
- Post-processing required.

4. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)

Accuracy: 1cm - 3cm
Observation Time: Instantaneous.

Best For:
- Construction layout.
- Machine control.
- Precision agriculture.

Key Characteristics:
- Requires base station connection.
- Limited range (typically <10km).
- No post-processing needed.
- Most productive field method.
 Key Differences Table

Feature Static Rapid Kinematic RTK

Static
Accuracy 1mm- 0.5-2cm 2-5cm 1-3cm
1cm
Setup Time High Medium Low Medium
Productivity Very Medium High Very High
Low
Equipment Very High Medium High
Cost High
Skill Expert Advanced Intermediate Intermediate
Required

When to Use Each:

- Choose Static when you need millimeter accuracy
- Use Rapid Static for quick high-precision points
- Select Kinematic for mapping linear features
- Opt for RTK when you need real-time cm-level accuracy

Application of the system: -

1. Navigation & Transportation: -

- Road Navigation:
- Used in cars, trucks, and motorbikes (Google Maps, Waze,
Garmin).
- Provides real-time traffic updates and alternative routes.
- Aviation:
- Helps pilots with precise navigation, landing, and air
traffic control.
- Used in instrument landing systems (ILS) and autopilot.
- Maritime Navigation:
- Guides ships, boats, and submarines for safe ocean travel.
- Used in collision avoidance and port management.
 2. Tracking & Fleet Management: -
- Vehicle Tracking:
- Used by logistics companies (e.g., FedEx, Uber) to
monitor fleets.
- Helps in fuel optimization and route planning.

- Personal Tracking:
- Wearable GPS devices for children, elderly, or pets (e.g.,
Apple Air Tag, Tile).
- Used in emergency SOS services (e.g., Garmin in Reach).

3. Military & Defense: -

- Precision Targeting:
- Guided missiles, drones, and artillery use GPS for
accurate strikes.
- Soldier Navigation:
- Military personnel use GPS for battlefield coordination.
- Reconnaissance & Surveillance:
- UAVs (drones) rely on GPS for intelligence missions.

4. Surveying & Mapping: -

- Land Surveying:
- Used in construction, mining, and civil engineering.
- Provides centimeter-level accuracy with RTK-GPS.
- Cartography (Map-Making):
- Google Earth, GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
depend on GPS.
- Disaster Management:
- Helps in mapping flood zones, earthquake impacts, and
wildfire tracking.
 2.3 Geographic Information System (GIS)

2.3.1 Definition and Constituents:

Almost everything that happens, happens somewhere. Largely, we humans are

confined in our activities to the surface and near-surface of the Earth. We
travel over it and in the lower levels of the atmosphere, and through tunnels
dug just below the surface. We dig ditches and bury pipelines and cables,
construct mines to get at mineral deposits, and drill wells to access oil and gas.
Keeping track of all of this activity is important, and knowing where it occurs
can be the most convenient basis for tracking. Knowing where something
happens is of critical importance if we want to go there ourselves or send
someone there, to find other information about the same place, or to inform
people who live nearby. In addition, most (perhaps all) decisions have
geographic consequences, e.g., adopting a particular funding formula creates
geographic winners and losers, especially when the process entails zero sum
gains. Therefore, geographic location is an important attribute of activities,
policies, strategies, and plans. Geographic information systems are a special
class of information systems that keep track not only of events, activities, and
things, but also of where these events, activities, and things happen or exist.

GIS is a computer-based system for capturing, storing, analyzing, and

displaying geospatial data, it integrates:

1. Hardware: Computers, GPS, drones, servers.

2. Software: ArcGIS, QGIS, ERDAS.
3. Data: Spatial (coordinates) + Attribute (descriptions).
4. People: Analysts, surveyors, planners.
5. Methods: Geoprocessing, spatial statistics.
 Key Constituents:

Component Role Example

Represents location (points,

Spatial Data Roads, buildings, rivers.
lines, polygons).

Attribute Data Descriptive info (text, numbers). Population, land use type.

Structured storage (e.g., ESRI Parcel boundaries with

Geodatabase
File GDB). ownership.

(Visual Idea: Venn diagram of GIS components – Source: ESRI

2.3.2 Applicable Software

A. Commercial Software:

1. ArcGIS Pro (ESRI):

o Use: Advanced spatial analysis, 3D modeling.

o Accuracy: Supports sub-meter precision with survey-grade data.

(Screenshot Idea: ArcGIS Pro interface – ESRI Gallery)

2. AutoCAD Map 3D:

o Use: Engineering/CAD-GIS integration.

B. Open-Source Software:

1. QGIS:

o Use: Mapping, geodatabase management.

o Advantage: Free + supports GPS/Total Station data import.

(Screenshot Idea: QGIS with GPS points – QGIS Docs)

2. GRASS GIS:

o Use: Terrain analysis, remote sensing.

2.3.3 Applications

2.3.3.1 Mapping Spatial Locations:

Use Case: Surveyed land parcels (Total Station/GPS) imported into GIS.

1. Process:

o Step 1: Collect points with Total Station/RTK-GPS.

o Step 2: Import to ArcGIS/QGIS as shapefiles.

o Step 3: Apply topology rules (no gaps/overlaps).

Example:

• Cadastral Mapping:

o Data: Boundary points (Lat/Long).

o Output: Parcel map with owner attributes.

(Visual Idea: Cadastral map – USGS)

2. Utility Mapping:

o Data: Manholes (points), pipelines (lines).

o Output: Network analysis for maintenance.

 2.3.3. Application of the system
2.3.3.1. Mapping Spatial Location:
We can map the spatial location of real-world features and
visualize the spatial relationships among them. Example: below,
we see a map of frac sand mine locations and sandstone areas in
wisconsin. We can see visual patterns in the data by determining
that frac sand mining activity occurs in a region with a specific type
of geology.

Fig (1) frac sand map

2.3.3.2. Mapping quantities :
People map quantities, such as where the most and least are, to
find places that meet their criteria or to see the relationships
between places. Example: below is a map of cemetery locations
in Wisconsin. The map shows the cemetery locations as dots
(dot density) and each county is color coded to show where the
most and least are (lighter blue means fewer( .

Fig (2) quantities map

2.3.3.3. Mapping Densities
Mapping Densities refers to creating visual representations of
how dense or sparse a particular attribute is within a geographic
area. It's a powerful tool used in fields like urban planning,
environmental analysis, and public health .
For example:
1) Population Density Maps: Show how crowded certain
regions are by displaying the number of people per unit
area .
2) Environmental Density Maps: Highlight concentrations of
wildlife, vegetation, or pollutants in specific ecosystems .
3) Service Density Maps: Help visualize access to amenities
like hospitals or schools within a city.

Fig (3) Population Density map

Fig (4) insurgency and environmental degradation

 Fig (5) Medical service density - Nursing staff map
2.3.3.4. Mapping Attributes of Features:
Mapping Attributes of Features involves representing specific characteristics or qualities
of geographic features on a map. This technique is used to understand and visualize the
distribution, relationships, and variations of attributes across a region. Examples:

1) Land Use Attributes

Mapping areas with specific land use categories like residential,

commercial, agricultural, etc.

2) Demographic Attributes:

Mapping population characteristics like age groups, income levels,

or education attainment.

3) Environmental Attributes:

Mapping soil types, vegetation coverage, or water quality of

different regions.

4) Infrastructure Attributes:

Mapping road types (highways vs. local streets), transportation

hubs, or energy supply networks.

5) Cultural or Historical Attributes:

Mapping sites of cultural importance, historic landmarks, or areas

with specific cultural practices.
 Fig (6) Urban Green Infrastructure as a Strategy to Address
Urban Energy Efficiency and Sustainability.

Fig (7) historical geography

2.3.3.5. Determining the optimal relative locations of

features, optimal directions leading to certain location:
Determining Optimal Relative Locations and Directions involves
using Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies to find the
best placement of features and the most efficient routes.
REFERENCE
• Arwa terek (2021). Total station Theory, uses and
applications,7-8.
• https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/total-station-
surveying-134121982/134121982
• https://www.alarabimag.com/books/2521-Total-
station.html
• Dr. Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof, Dr. Herbert
Lichtenegger, Dr. James Collins (auth.) - Global
Positioning System GPS for Dummies.
• Abdellatif, A. H., Hussein, M., & Rabah, M.
(2015). Accuracy Assessment of RTK-GPS vs. Total
Station for Cadastral Surveying. Journal of Geomatics
Engineering, 12(3), 45-52.
• Chang, K. (2019). Introduction to Geographic Information
Systems (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Elaksher, A. F. (2008). Integration of Total Station and
GPS for Geodetic Surveys. Journal of Surveying
Engineering, 134(2), 72-78.
• Ghilani, C. D., & Wolf, P. R. (2012). Elementary
Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (14th ed.).
Pearson.
• Chang, K. (2019). Introduction to Geographic Information Systems (9th
ed.). McGraw-Hill. (Defines GIS components)
• ESRI. (2023). What is GIS? [Online].
Available: https://www.esri.com (Software examples)
• QGIS.org. (2023). QGIS User Manual. [Online].
Available: https://docs.qgis.org (Open-source tools)
• USGS. (2022). National Geospatial Program. [Online].
Available: https://www.usgs.gov (Mapping applications)