1.

CIRCULAR CURVES Horizontal, circular or simple curves are curves of constant radius required to connect two straights set out on the ground. Such curves are required for roads, railways, kerb lines, pipe lines and may be set out in several ways, depending on their length and radius. Figure illustrates how two tangents are joined by a circular curve and shows some related circular curve terminology. The point at which the alignment changes from straight to circular is known as the BC (beginning of curve).The BC is located at a distance T (sub tangent) from PI (Point of tangent intersection). The length of a circular curve (L) is dependent on the central angle () and the value of R (radius). The tangent deflection angle () is equal to the curves central angle (Figure). The point at which the alignment changes from circular back to tangent is known as the EC (end of curve). Since the curve is symmetrical about the PI, the EC is also located at distance T from the PI. From a study of geometry, we recall that the radius of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of tangency. Therefore, the radius is perpendicular to the back tangent at the BC and to the forward tangent at the EC. The terms BC and EC are also referred to by some agencies as PC (point of curve) and PT (point of tangency) and by others as TC(tangent to curve) and CT(curve to tangent).

Figure Circular Curve Terminologies

2.Compound Circular Curves A compound circular curves are curves formed when of two (usually) or more circular arcs between two main tangents turn in the same direction and join at common tangent points. Figure shows a compound curve consisting of two circular arcs joined at a point of compound curve (PCC). The lower chainage curve is number 1, whereas the higher chainage curve is number 2. The parameters are R1, R2, 1, 2 (1 + 2 = ), T1 and T2. If four of these six or seven parameters are known, the others can be solved. Under normal circumstances, 1, 2, or , are measured in the field, and R1 and R2 are given by design considerations, with minimum values governed by design speed. Although compound curves can be manipulated to provide practically any vehicle path desired by the designer, they are not employed where simple or spiral curves can be used to achieve the same desired effect. Practically, compound curves are reserved for those applications where design constraints (topographic or cost of land) preclude the use of simple or spiral curves, and they are now usually found chiefly in the design of interchange loops and ramps. Smooth driving characteristics required that the larger radius be more than 1-1/3 times larger than the smaller radius (this ratio increases to 1-1/2 when dealing with interchange curves). Solutions to compound curve problems vary, as several possibilities exist as to which of the data are known in any one given problem. All problems can be solved by use of the sine law or cosine law or by the omitted measurement traverse technique. If the omitted measurement traverse technique is used, the problem becomes a fivesided traverse (Figure 4.6) with sides R1, T1, R2 and (R1- R2) and with angles 90, 180 - + 90, 180+ 2 and 1. An assumed azimuth that will simplify the computations can be chosen.

Compound Circular Curves 3.Reverse Curves Reverse curves are seldom used in highway or railway alignment. The instantaneous change in direction occurring at the point reverse curve (PRC) would cause discomfort and safety problems for all but the slowest of speeds. Additionally, since the change in curvature is instantaneous, there is no room to provide super elevation transition from cross-slope right to cross-slope left. However, reverse curves can be used to advantage where the instantaneous change in direction poses no threat to safety or comfort. The reverse curve is particularly pleasing to the eye and is used with great success on park roads, form paths, waterway channels, and the like. The curve can be encountered in both situations illustrated in Figure a. and b. the parallel tangent application is particularly common (R1 is often equal to R2). As with compound curves, reverse curves have six independent parameters ( R 1, 1, T1, R2, 2, T2); the solution technique depends on which parameters are unknown, and the techniques noted for compound curves will also provide the solution to reverse curve problems.

Reverse Curves (a-Non parallel curve, b- Parallel tangents) 4.Transition Curves The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle as it moves along a curve increases as the radius of the curve decreases. A vehicle moving from the straight with no smaximum amount of centrifugal force for that radius of curve. To prevent this sudden lateral shock on passengers in the vehicle, a transition curve is inserted between the straight circular curve

(Figure). The transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius. The radius (R) of transition curves varies from infinity at its tangent with the straight to a minimum at its tangent point with the circular curve. The centrifugal force thus builds up gradually to its maximum amount.

S = shift

Figure The Transition Curves. The purpose of a transition curve then is to achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight (radius ) to the curve (radius R) and permit the gradual application of super-elevation to counteract centrifugal force. The central fugal force tending to thrust a vehicle sideways on a curve is resisted by the friction between the wheels and the surface. If the outer edge of the surface is raised or super elevated, the resultant forces tend to reduce the frictional force necessary to hold the vehicle on the surface. At a particular slope the frictional force necessary can be eliminated by the formula below:
v tan gR
2

where v is the velocity and g is the acceleration due to gravity. As vehicle speeds vary, the fractional resistance is always necessary and a vehicle may stop on the curve. The super elevation must not be too great.

5.Spiral Curve and Composite Curve A spiral is a curve with a uniformly changing radius. Spirals are used in highway and railroad alignment changes from tangent to circular curves, and vice versa. The length of the spiral curve is also used for transition from normally crowned pavement to fully superelevated pavement. Figure shows how the spiral curve is inserted between tangent and circular curve alignment. It can be seen that at the beginning of the spiral (T.S. = tangent to spiral) the radius of the spiral is the radius of the tangent line (infinitely large) and that the radius of the spiral curve decreases at a uniform rate until, at the point where the circular curve begins (S.C = spiral to curve) the radius of the spiral equals the radius of the circular curve. The spiral curve, used in horizontal alignment, has a uniform rate of change of radius (curvature). This property permits the driver to leave a tangent section of highway at a relatively high rate of speed without experiencing problems with safety or comfort. A composite curve is a curve that forms by combination of two transition curves or through combination of two transition curves and a circular curve.

Figure Spiral Curves

6.Vertical Curves Vertical curves are used in highway and street vertical alignments to provide a gradual change between two adjacent grade lines. Some highway and municipal agencies introduce vertical curves at every change in grade-line slope, whereas other agencies introduce vertical curves into alignment only when the net change in slope direction exceeds a specific value (for example 1.5% or 2%).

In Figure, g1 is the slope of the lower chainage grade line, g2 is the slope of the higher chainage grade line, BVC is the beginning of the vertical curve, EVC is the end of the vertical line, and PVI is the point of intersection of the two adjacent grade lines. The length of vertical curve (L) is the projection of the curve onto a horizontal surface and, as such, corresponds to plan distances. The algebraic change in slope direction is A, where A = g2 g1. Example 4b: g1 = +1.5% and g2= -3.2% A = g2 g1 = -3.2-1.5 = -4.7 The geometric curve used in vertical alignment designs is the vertical axis parabola. The parabola has the desirable characteristics of (1) (2) a constant rate of change of slope, which contributes to smooth alignment transition, ease of computation of vertical offsets, which permits easily computed curve elevations

Figure Vertical Curves (Profile View Shown) The origin of the axes is placed at the BVC (Figure 4.11), the general equation becomes y = ax2 + bx, and because the slope at the origin is g1, the expression for slope of the curve at point becomes
dy slope dx

= 2ax + g1 The general equation can finally be written as y = ax2 + g1x