6

Heat Transfer
But the twO processes are
Theme : In both boiling and evaporation, matter changes from liquid to gas.
the matter gain energy and move
uite different. When temperature of a matter increases, the particles of
gas. Other particles, inside
with greater speed. In evaporation, the particles at the surface escape and forn
occurs at the surface. It happens at
the liquid, do not have enough energy. So the process of evaporation
temperature and are involved in the
all temperature. In boiling, all particles of the liquid are at the same
a fixed temperature, particular to a
process. It happens in the whole volume of the liquid. And it happens at there is another effect which is
heat,
liquid. But before change of states takes place due to supply of
except some exceptions, expand
commonly observed. That is the expansion of matter. Matters in all form,
gases maximum. CIlassification of expansion
on heating. In solids, the effect is less, in liquids more, and in
examples from daily life.
into three types-linear, superficial and volume are explained with
Engaging children in tasks related to boiing
In this chapter you will learn to and evaporation.
compare and contrast boiling and evaporation; Explaining the difference in boiling and
describe thermal expansion of matter; evaporation.
describe, linear, area (superficial) and volume Demonstrating linear expansion, area
expansion and volume expansion through
expansiorn;
conducting simple experiments for children.
compare expansivity in solids, liquids and Explaining expansion with the help of
gases;
examples from daily life activities.
o Construct models based on scientific process;
Observe andcite multiple physical phenomena KNOWING CONCEPTS
from one experiment;
Difference between boiling and evaporation.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES > Thermalexpansion:
Linear expansion " Volume expansion
Revising and revisiting previous concepts Superficial expansion
learnt by children.
Compare expansivity in solids, liquids,
Building on children's previous learning and gases.
Demonstrating points of boiling and
evaporation. Examples and real world applications
Heat Transfer 103
INTRODUCTION average kinetic energy of
In the earlier classes you have read that molecules
substance, its temperature decreases.
of
matter is composed of tiny particles called However during the change in state of
molecules. A molecule can exist freely in substance at a constant temperature, there willa
nature and it possesses the properties of the be no change in the average kinetic
matter. It isvery small in size (nearly 10lm) its molecules (as explained later on).energy of
and cannot be seen even by a microscope. The EFFECTS OF HEAT
molecules are in motion as well as they have
the forces of attraction amongst them. Due to
Heat produces mainly the following thre
effects :
motion, the molecules have the kinetic energy
and due to forces of attraction, they have the 1. Change in temperature of the body.
potential energy. The solid state would have 2. Change in state of the body, and
the greatest potential energy and least kinetic 3. Change in size of the body.
energy. The gaseous state, on the other hand, 1. Change in temperature of the body:
would have the least potential energy and When abody is heated, its temperature
greatest kinetic energy. When a substance rises and when it is cooled, its temperature
absorbs heat (or the substance is heated), the falls. The change in temperature of the body
motion of its molecules becomes rapid, so their depends on the following two factors:
kinetic energy increases. When the substance (a) Quantity of heat imparted to (or
is cooled (or it gives out heat), the motion of rejected from) the body : When heat is
its molecules becomes slow and so their kinetic imparted (or given) to the body, its temperature
energy decreases. The total kinetic energy of rises while if heat is rejected (or taken) from
molecules of the substance is called its internal the body, its temperature falls.
kinetic energy and the total potential energy Reason : On heating, the molecules begin
of molecules is called its internal potential to move faster, so the average kinetic energy
energy. The sum of internal kinetic energy and of molecules increases and so the temperature
internal potential energy is called the total rises. On the other hand, on cooling. the
internal energy or heat energy of the substance. average kinetic energy of molecules decreases
Thus, heat is the internal energy of a substance. so the temperature falls.
It is measured in the unit joule (symbol J)*. (b) Material of the body : Some
some
When two bodies at different temperatures materials rise to high temperature while
are kept in contact, heat flows from the body quantiy
to a low temperature even when same
at higher temperature to the body at lower of heat is imparted to them.
temperature., The average kinetic energy of the Reason : Different materials have diftere
substance is a measure of temperature of the specific heat capacities (i.e., different anou
ofuni
body. When there is a rise in average kinetic of heat required to raise the temperature
energy of molecules of a substance, its mass by unit rise in temperature).
temperature increases and if there is fall in the 2. Change in state of the body :
states,
* Other common unit of heat is calorie (symbol cal),
where 1cal = 42 J (nearly) Matter exists in three different
MiddleSchool-8
104 Concise PHYSICS
namelysolid, liquid and gas.
Sublimation

The process of change from one state to Melting Vaporisation

Heat absorbed
Heat absorbed
another at a constant temperature is called SOLID LIQUID GAS
change of state. Freezing Condensation
Heat rejected Heat rejected
When asolid is heated, it changes into its Solidification

liquid at a fixed temperature. This process is Fig. 6.1 Changes in state of matter
called melting. The reverse happens when During the change of state, the heat
cooled, the liquid freezes into
aliquid is absorbed (or rejected) is called the latent heat
solid at the same fixed temperature. This or hidden heat because it is not manifested by
process is called freezing. For example,
any change in temperature. This heat when
ice at 0°C on heating melts into water at 0°C. expressed for unit mass of a substance is called
while water at 0°Con cooling freezes into jce
at 0°C.
specific latent heat. The latent heat, instead of
When a liquid is heated, it changes into its
raising the temperature, is utilized to change
the forces of attraction between the molecules
vapour (or gas) at a fixed temperature. This of a substance. Since temperature remains
process is called vaporization or boiling. The constant, the absorbed (or rejected) heat has
reverse happens when vapour is cooled, no effect on the speed or the average kinetic
the vapour condenses into liquid at the same energy of the molecules. Thus during
fixed temperature. This process is called interconversion of states, the latent heat
condensation. For example, water at 100°C on increases (or decreases) only the average
heating vaporizes into steam at 100°C, while potential energy of molecules whereas the
steam at 100°C on cooling condenses into water average kinetic energy remains unchanged.
at 100°C.
3. Change in size of the body :
When a solid on heating changes directly
When abody is heated, it expands and upon
Into its vapour at a fixed temperature, the
cooling, it contracts. This change in size of the
process is called sublimation. For example, body due to heating is called thermal expansion.
camphor on heating, changes directly from Generally all solids, liquids and gases
SOlid to vapour. These vapours on cooling expand on heating or contract on cooling. The
change directly into solid state. This process reason is that on heating a substance, the
is called solidification or deposition.
average inter molecular separation between the
The change of state from liquid to gas at molecules of the substance increases, while on
all temperatures is called evaporation. Thus, cooling it decreases.
evaporation differs from boiling. Boiling EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
ocCurs at a fixed temperature while evaporation MOLECULAR MOTION
lakes place at all temperatures. For example, We have read that the nmolecules of each
drying of clothes is due to evaporation of
substance possess kinetic energy by virtue of
Water. Evaporation is a slow process, while their continuous motion. When the motion
boiling is a rapid process. Fig. 6.1, shows the becomes less rapid, the temperature decreases
change in different states of matter. 105
|Heat Transfer
or if the temperature decreases, the molecular of a liquid on an average have a larger speed
speed decreases. At high temperatures, the than the molecules of a solid. The
molecules are very much agitated. This distance between the liquid molecules relandative
suggests that as a limit, when the temperature direction of their motion is found to be the
will become zero, the molecular motion ceases. irregular. When a molecule, while in totaly
The temperature at which molecular motion reaches the surface of the liquid, it is motion,
inside by the Cohesive force of pulled
completely ceases is known as the absolute
zero on the Kelvin scale. Temperature lower surrounding
molecules of the liquid as there are no molegnle
than absolute zero is not possible. on the other side of the surface. Thus, molecules
CHANGE OF LIQUIDINTO VAPOUR STATE are not allowed to leave the surface and
therefore a liquid has a definite volume.
Aliquid changes into vapour in two
On the other hand, in a gas the molecules
ways :
are very much farther apart than those of a
1. By evaporation at all temperatures, and
solid or liquid. There is a very small or
2. By boiling at a fixed temperature. negligible force of attraction between the ga
1. EVAPORATION molecules and therefore the molecules are free
The change of liquid into its vapour at to move about over the entire available space.
all temperatures from its surface is called This is why a gas has neither a fixed shape
evaporation. nor a fixed volume.
If you place a drop of ether on yourpalm, In a liquid, molecules while in motion
youwill notice that the ether disappears within collide with each other. Some molecules which
a few seconds and the palm feels cold. The gain energy reach to the surface of liquid while
process causing this phenomenon is known as others which lose energy remain inside the
evaporation. This is essentially a surface liquid. Thus, the molecules on the surface of
phenomenon and takes place at all temperatures. liquid have higher kinetic energy than those
The process of evaporation can be understood inside the liquid. During evaporation. the
in terms of the molecular motion. molecules on the surface which have suffiient
EXPLANATION OF EVAPORATION ON THE kinetic energy to do work against the force of
BASIS OF MOLECULAR MOTIONS attraction on them due to other molecules
It is difficult to break a solid into its small inside the liquid, eScape out from the surface
into space. These escaping molecules form
pieces, but a liquid can easily break up into continues
small drops. We conclude, therefore, that the vapour of the liquid. The process rate of
mutual force of attraction between the liquid till all the liquid evaporates. The
molecules is much less than that in the case of evaporation depends on temperature of liquu
presence of
a solid. The attractive force between the liquid wind, surface area and the

molecules is not strong enough to keep them in humidity.

rateof
the
Effect of temperature on evaporation
fixed positions. Therefore, the liquid molecules
can move throughout the liquid. The molecules evaporation : The rate of
/-8
106 Concise PHYSICS Middle School
jincreases with the increase in temperature of 2. BOILING
reason is that the energy of the The change from the ligquid state to the
liquid. The
molecules increases with 1ncrease in
gaseous (or vapour) state, on heating at a
(emperature. So mOre and more molecules constant temperature, is called boiling.
the surface of liquid, hence the rate
Come to The temperature, at which the liquid
evaporation will increase with increase of changes into vapour without further increase
of
temperature.
in temperature, is called the boiling point of
Effect of blowing air on the rate of the liquid.
evaporation : When air is blown above the The boiling of a liquid can be
surface of a liquid, the rate of evaporation demonstrated by the following activity.
inereases. The reason is that the blowing air
takes away with it the molecules of the liquid ACTIVITY 1
escaping out of its surface. To take their
Take a beaker. Pour some water in the beaker. Place
nlace. other molecules move to the surface of the beaker on a wire guaze placed over the tripod
the liquid. stand. Clamp a thermometer in a vertical stand and
Effect of increase in area of surface on insert it in the beaker as shown in Fig. 6.2. Heat the
the rate of evaporation : On increasing the beaker over the flame of a burner and record the
temperature of water after every minute.
area of surface exposed to air, the rate of
evaporation increases. The reason being that You will notice that temperature of water rises
continuously till the water starts boiling at 100°C.
on increasing the area of surface, number of Once the water starts boiling, its temperature does
molecules escaping out from the surface
not rise any further, although the heat is still being
increases. supplied. Now the bubbles formed throughout the
Effect of humidity on the rate of water are seen. At this temperature, water begins to
evaporation : In presence of humidity, the rate boiland changes into steam. Thus, the boiling point
of water is 100°C.
of evaporation becomes slow because vapour
molecules do not find space to escape.
Cooling produced during evaporation: 100°C

When aliquid evaporates, it produces cooling Thermometer

in its surroundings.
Vertical
Reason : In the process of evaporation, a stand
Beaker
Bubbles
quid changes to vapour and for this purpose Water

SOme heat is needed. If there is no external Wire gauze

supply of heat, the liquid (e.g- ether) will draw Burner Tripod stand
ne necessary heat from its surroundings (e-g.
Palm of your hand) and therefore it (palm) gets Fig. 6.2 Boiling of water
cooled.

Heat Transfer 107

EXPLANATION OF BOILING BY temperature below 100°C and it
MOLECULAR MOTION difficult to cook the vegetables. On the becomes
other
When a certain liquid is heated, there is oker by
hand, in a pressure cooker
keeping the
rapid formation of vapour from all parts of the water vapours inside it, the
liquid as indicated by visible bubbles. Heating pressure is increased, then water surrounding
inside it
of the liquid increases the average kinetic boils at a temperature nearly 125°C. So the
energy of the liquid molecules. When the vegetables get readily cooked inside it.
molecules acquire sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the force of attraction of other Do Vou Know ?
molecules they escape out from the liquid in
One kg of water at 100°Cabsorbs 2-26 x 106
the form of vapour.
(or 5-4 x 10 cal) of heat to convert into steam ar
These molecules now start leaving the I00°C.
liquid, not only at the surface but also near
the walls of the containing vessel. This is DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EVAPORATION
shown by the presence of bubbles on the AND BOILING
walls of the vessel. The bubbles grow in size In both the processes of evaporation and
with further evaporation and move to the boiling, a liquid changes its state to the
surface in quick succession. This causes vapour or gaseous state. But they differ in the
agitation in whole of the liquid and this is following respects
called boiling. When the boiling starts, the 1. Evaporation takes place at all temperatures
temperature of the liquid does not increase while boiling takes place at a fixed
any further. This temperature is known as the temperature called the boiling point of
boiling point of the liquid. liquid.
Effect of pressure on the boiling 2. Evaporation occurs only from the
point : The boiling point of a liquid increases surface of liquid (i.e., it is a surface
with an increase in pressure and it decreases phenomenon) while boiling takes place
with decrease in pressure. The reason is that throughout the mass of liquid at the same
at the boiling point, the pressure exerted by the instant.
vapour of liquid is equal to the atmospheric 3. In evaporation, some molecules near the
pressure. Thus, the boiling point of a liquid surface of liquid acquire sufficient kinetie
depends on the surrounding atmospheric energy by collisions with other liquid
pressure. With the increase of atmospheric attractive
molecules to overcome the
pressure, boiling point of a liquid increases to forces of the other molecules. Thus.
increase the vapour pressure and make it equal absorbing heat from the surroundings
to the atmospheric pressure and with the other
they escape out into space. On the the
decrease in atmospheric pressure, it decreases. hand, in boiling at a fixed temperature,
This is why at mountains where the of the liquid
average kinetic energy Overcone
atmospheric pressure is low, water boils at a molecules becomes sufficient to
108
Middle School-8
Concise PHYSICS
 the forces of attraction of other molecules
Explanation of thermal expansion of solids
and they start leaving the liquid on the basis of molecular motion
throughout the mass of liquid. As a On heating a solid, the average kinetic
result, bubbles are formed. These bubbles energy of molecules of the solid increases.
move to the surface and boiling of liquid They start vibrating about their mean
takes place.
positions with a large amplitude. The result
4. In evaporation, heat is absorbed by the is that their mean positions change such that
molecules at the surface of liquid from the inter-molecular separation between the
its surroundings so as to change to vapour molecules increases, thus the solid expands
state, while in boiling. heat is supplied equally in all directions.
externally at a fixed temperature. Demonstration of thermal expansion of
5. Evaporation is a slow process while solids
boiling is a rapid process. The thermal expansion in solids can be
THERMAL EXPANSION demonstrated by the following experiments.
It has been experimentally observed that Experiment (1) :
when a substance (solid, liquid or gas) is (i) Take a ball and ring set-up. This is
heated, it expands and when it is cooled, it shown in [Fig. 6.3(a)]. It consists of a
contracts. We will now consider the thermal metal ball and a ring. The metal ball
expansion in solids, liquids and gases just slips through the ring when both
separately. are at the room temperature.
(ii) Now heat the ball on a burner, and place
Do Vou Know ? it over the ring. You will notice that the
Exceptions of thermal expansions are : ball does not pass through the ring
1. Water from 0°C to 4°C. [Fig. 6.3(b)]. The reason is that on
2. Silver iodide from 80°C to 141°C. heating, the ball expands and becomes
3. Silica below - 80°C. bigger in diameter than the ring.
They contract on heating and expand on cooling in
the given range of temperature.
Ring

THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS

A solid has a definite shape. When a Metal ball

solid is heated, it expands in all directions.

Hence the length, area and volume all
Increase on heating a solid. The increase in
length of a solid is called linear expansion. (a) Before heating, the bal (b) After heating, the ball
The increase in area iis called superficial passes through the ring does not pass through the ring
expansion and increase in volume is called Fig. 6.3 Ball and ring set-up to show
cubical expansion. thermal expansion of a solid
Heat Transfer 109
 (iii) Now allow the ball to cool by itself and (i) Dependence on the original
after some time again place it over the
length
of the rod : If we heat two rods of
the same metal - one short
ring. You will notice that the ball now and
passes through the ring. This is because other long, to the same temperaturethe
that
we will find the long rod
Thus,expands
on cooling, the ball contracts.
more than the short rod.
Experiment (2) : the rod, greater 1s the increase in its longer
(i) Take a bar and gauge set-up as shown length.
in [Fig. 6.4(a)]. It consists of a metal (ii) Dependence on the increase in
bar anda metal gauge attached with a
temperature : If we heat two
handle. The bar just fits into the gauge identical rods (of the same metal and
when both are at theroom temperature. of the same length), one at a higher
(ii) Now heat the bar and try to fit it into temperature than the other, we find
the gauge. You will find that it does not that the rod heated to the higher
fit into the gauge now [Fig. 6.4(b)]. This temperature eXpands more than
is because the bar expands on heating the rod heated to the lower
and becomes longer than the gap temperature. Thus, more the increase
provided in the gauge. in temperature of rod, greater is the
increase in its length.
Handle (iii) Dependence on the material of the
rod: If we heat two rods of same
length, but one of copper and the
other of iron at the same temperature,
(a) Before heating, the bar (b) after heating, the bar we find that the copper rod expands
fits into the gauge does not fit into the gauge
more than the iron rod. The increase
Fig. 6.4 Bar and gauge set-up to show in length of copper rod is nearly 3/2
thermal expansion in solids times the increase in length of the iron
(iii) Now allow the bar to cool by itself. You rod. Thus, the increase in length of a
will find that the bar contracts on rod depends on the material of the
cooling and again fits into the gauge. rod.
LINEAR EXPANSION
When a solid in the form of arod (or a Do Vou Kinow ?
wire) is heated, only the linear expansion (i.e., () Abimetallic strip which consists of two rods of
increase in length) is effective. The increase same lengths but of different materials (say, one of iron
in length of a metal rod on heating depends and other of copper) rivetted together, is commonly
on the following three factors : used in a thermostat. A thermostat is a device used o
circuit.
(i) Original length of the rod, temperature by closing and opening the
control

(ii) Increase in temperature, and Thermostat is used in electrical gadgets like refrigerato
electric iron, oven, geyser, etc.
(iii) Material of the rod.
110 Concise PHYSICS Middle School -8
 increase in length of a rod on heating does Linear expansion of solids can be
(2) The
not
depend whether it
is hollow or solid. If we heat demonstrated by the following activities.
of the same
metal and of the same length, but
tworods
one
hollow and the other solid, to the same rise in ACTIVITY 2
temperature, we find that both the rods expand to the To show linear expansion.
sarne extent.
Take a metal rod and set up an apparatus as shown
of a rod at 0°C and in Fig. 6.5. Fix one end of the rod and keep the other
If Lo is the length end free but it touches a pointer. Now heat the rod.
t °C is L,, the increase in length
its length at You will see that the pointer starts moving up with
is given as the expansion of the metal rod. The metal rod
elongates along the free end which pushes the
the coefficient of linear pointer upwards.
where a is called Scale
expansion which depends on the material of
od ie.. a is different for different substances. Pointer

Its unit is per °C. Metal rod

The value of coefficient of linear

expansion of some metals is given in the
following table.
Fig. 6.5A metal rod expands on heating
Coefficient of linear expansion of
Some solids
ACTIVITY 3
Coefficient of linear
Substance To show bending of a bimetallic strip
expansion (× 10-6 per °C) Take a composite bar (a bimetallic strip) as shown
Aluminium 24 in Fig. 6.6(a). The bar is made of brass and iron of
19
equal length and rivetted together. Heat the bar and
Brass observe. You will notice that the bar bends.
Copper 17 The reason is that brass expands more than iron on
heating. The coeficient of linear expansion of brass
Steel 13
is about twice that of iron. Thus, when the
Iron 12 composite bar is heated, it acquires a curved shape
0-9
as shown in the Fig. 6.6(b).
Invar
Brass

Note : 1. Invar is an alloy which

almost does not expand on heating. This is Iron

Why the pendulum of a clock is made up of

invar. (a) Before heating (b) After heating

2. Pyrex glass also expands negligibly on Fig. 6.6 Different metals on heating expand
by different lengths.
heating.
111
Heat Transfer
 (ii) The material of the solid :A
Superficial expansion of solids brass
increases in volume more than an
bal|
When a metal plate is heated, its length iron
and breadth, both increase. This increases the ball of same radius for the same rise
area of the plate. temperature.
Experimentally it is observed that the If V, is the volume of a solid at 0°C and
increase in area of a metal plate depends on: V, the volume at t°C, then increase in
volume
Is given as :
(i) The initial area of the plate : Larger
the initial area of plate, more is the V, -Vo= Vort
increase in its area on heating. where y is called the coefficient of cubical
(iü) The increase in temperature : More expansion of a solid. It is different for
is the rise in temperature, more will be different materials.
the increase in area of plate. Relationship between a, B and y:
(iii) Material of the plate : A brass plate The three coefficients a, B and y are
expands more than an iron plate of same related as B = 2o. and y = 30.
dimensions for the same rise in
or a:B: y= 1:2:3
temperature.
If A, is the area of plate at 0°Cand A, Some Applications of Thermal Expansion
the area of plate at t°C, the increase in of Solids in Daily Life
area is given as 1. Construction of a bridge : In
A, - Ay = Aßt the construction of a bridge, steel
girders are used. One end A of the girder
where B is the coefficient of superficial is fixed in concrete, but the other end
expansion which is different for different
solids/materials.
B is not fixed into concrete (or pillar).
It is supported on rollers as shown in
Cubical expansion of solids Fig. 6.7 so that if there is any rise (or
When a solid is heated, it expands in all fall) in temperature during summer (or
directions i.e., its length, breadth and winter),girder may expand (or contract)
thickness increase. Thus, the volume of the without affecting the pillar and bridge.
solid to0 increases.
-Girder
Experimentally it is observed that the B
Gap
increase in volume of a solid depends on : Rollers

(i) The initial volume of solid : More is

the initial volume of solid, more is the
increase in its volume.
Fig. 6.7 In abridge oneend of a girder
(ii) The rise in temperature : More is the is kept on rollers for expansion or contraction
rise in temperature, more is the increase
in its volume. 2. Railway tracks : The rails of railway
tracks are made up of steel. While
112 School -8
Concise PHYSICS- Middle
 their
laying the railway trackS on wooden or contract but they cannot regain
been
concrete planks, a small gap is left original size as they have
between the successive lengths of rail hammered so they bring the plates
as shown in Fig. 6.8. The reason is that closer and firmly grip them together
in summer due to considerable
rise in making the joints water-proof
used
atmospheric temperature, each rail (or steam-proof). Such riveting is
tends to increase in its length, so a gap in joining steel girders, boiler plates,
otherwise
is left between the two rails,
etc.

the rail will bend sideways. 4. Electric cablesand telephone wires :

Theelectric cable in an overhead power
transmission line and the telephone
Gap wires between two poles may break in
Rail
winter due to contraction and may sag
Therefore,
Fish plate in summer due to expansion.
two
Rail while putting up the wires between
they
poles, care is taken that in summer,
are kept slightly loose so that they may
contraction
not break in winter due to
Fig. 6.8 Gap between the two rails and while laying them in winter, they
for expansion in summer are kept tight so that they may not sag
3. Riveting : For joining two steel plates, too much in summer due to expansion
and (Fig. 6.10).
they are placed one above the other
holes are drilled through them. The
rivets (small steel rods) are heated red
holes
hot and then they are inserted in
of the plates (Fig. 6.9(a)]. On heating,
ends
the rivets become soft, so their
heads.
are easily hammered as (b) Electric wires in winter
[Fig. 6.9(b)]. Now the rivets are
allowed (a) Electric wires in summer

to cool [Fig. 6.9(c)]. On cooling, they Fig. 6.1OIn summer electric wires are kept loose
while in winter they are kept tight
HEAD
5. Fitting the steel rim on ahorse cart
RED HOT RIVET

PLATE wheel : The wooden wheel of a horse

cart is fitted with a steel rim to make it
HEAD
PLATE
(a) On inserting the red hot (b) On hammering the red
rivet
hot rivet
strong and smooth. To ensure a tight fit
of steel rim over the wooden wheel, the
(c) On cooling the rivet rim is made slightly smaller in diameter
than the wooden wheel. Then to fit the
Fig. 6.9 Riveting
113
Heat Transfer
 rim, it is first heated uniformly along If there is a metal screw cap on
its circumference till its diameter
the neck
of a glass bottle, the screw cap is heated
becomes slightly more than that of the On heating. the screw cap expands
it gets loosened. and
wooden wheel. The rim is then slipped
over the wooden wheel before allowing 9. Cracking of thick glass tumbler .
to cool. On cooling, the rim contracts When a hot liquid is poured into a thick
and makes atight fit over the wooden glass tumbler, it cracks. The
that glass is a poor conductor reason
is
wheel as shown in Fig. 6.11. of heat
When hot liquid is poured into a
Steel rim
tumbler, the inner surface of tumbler
Wooden becomes hot, while its outer surface
wheel remains at the room temperature.
Therefore, the inner surface of tumbler
Fig. 6.1I Steel rim fitted over the wooden wheel expands, while its outer surface does
6. Glassware used in kitchen : The not expand. This unequal expansion
glassware used in kitchen are generally cracks the tumbler.
made up of pyrexX glass. The reason is THERMAL EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS
that the pyrex glass has a very low Like solids, liquids also usually expand
coefficient of cubical expansion, so the
on heating. Liquids expand much more than
glassware on being heated, do not
expand much and therefore they do not
the solids when heated. Liquids do not have
crack.
adefinite shape, but they have a definite
7. Pendulum of aclock is made of
volume, therefore the liquids have only
cubical expansion.
invar : Invar is an alloy of iron and Exception : Water contracts on heating
nickel, and it has a negligibly it from 0°Cto 4°C and then beyond 4°C on
small coefficient of linear expansion
(=9x 10 per C). The pendulum of further heating, it expands. This is called
anomalous behavior of water.
invar helps the clock neither to lose
time in summer due to expansion, nor The cubical expansion of aliquid on
to gain time in winter because of
being heated can be demonstrated by the
contraction. following simple experiment.
8. Loosening a glass stopper or a metal Experiment
screw cap : Aglass stopper on a bottle (i) Take an empty bottle with a tight fitting
is loosened by warming the neck of the Cork having a hole drilled in its middle.
bottle. The reason is that on warming a drinking straw, two bricks, a wire
the neck of the bottle, the neck expands guaze and a burner.
and the glass stopper in it gets space to (ii) Fill the bottle completely with water
loosen. and add few drops of ink in it to make
it coloured for easy contrast.
114 Concise PHYSICS- Middle School
 ii) Fix the cork in the mouth of the bottle Explanation of thermal expansion of liquid
and pass the drinking straw through the by molecular motion
cork. Put some molten wax around the In a liquid, the molecules are free to
hole so as to avoid the leakage of water. move anywhere within the liquid. When a
(iv) Pour some more water into thedrinking liquid is heated, the average kinetic energy of
straw so that water level in the straw its molecules increases. As a result, the
can be seen. Mark the water level in the molecules begin to move more vigorously
straw as shown in Fig. 6.12(a). thereby increasing the inter-molecular
(v) Place the bottle on the wire gauze kept separation. Thus, the Iiquid expands on
over the two bricks as shown in heating.
Fig. 6.12(b). Heat the bottle using a Factors affecting the cubical expansion of
burner.
a liquid
Final
level
Drinking The cubical expansion of a liquid
straw
Initial
level Drinking straw Cork
depends on the following three factors :
Bottle
(i) Original volume of the liquid :
Cork
Coloured Larger the volume of liquid taken, more
Bottle water
is the increase in its volume, onheating.
Coloured Wire (ii) Rise in temperature :
water gauze
Burner
Greater the rise in temperature of a
liquid, more is the increase in its
Bricks
volume.
(a) Before heating (b) After heating
(iii) Nature of liquid :
Fig. 6.12 Thermal expansion of liquid Equal volumes of different liquids
(vi) Look at the level of water in the straw. when heated to the same temperature,
You will notice that as the water is undergo different increases in their
heated more and more, the level of water in volumes.
the drinking straw rises. This shows that water If V, is the volume of liquid at 0°C and
expands on heating. V, the volume of liquid at t°C, then increase
in volume of liquid is given as
Do Vou Know ? V,- Vo=VoYt
When a liquid contained in a vessel is heated, first where y is the coefficient of cubical expansion
the vessel will get the heat so it will expand due to of liquid.
which the levelof liquid will fall. Thereafter when heat Different liquids have different cubical
reaches the liquid, it will expand, so the level of liquid
expansions
willrise. Since liquids expand more than solids, the liquid
level rises above its initial level. Thus, the real expansion Experimentally it is observed that equal
of liquid is more than the observed expansion. volumes of different liquids when heated to
Heat Transter 115
the same temperature, expand by different Application of thermal expansion of liania.
amounts. This can be easily demonstrated by in daily life
the following activity. Thermal expansion of liquids is used in
ACTIVITY 4
working of amercury thermometer. We have the
read that a mercury thermometer consists of .
Take four identical glass bottles each fitted with a capillary tube with one end
narrow glass tube through a cork at its mouth. Fill Cvlindrical bulb at the other end. The bulh io
closed and a
them up to the same level with different liquids say
water. kerosene, alcohol and benzene. Place them in
filled with mercury. Mercury is a shiny liqujd
a common water bath containing boiling water as
so its level can be seen easily in the capillan
tube. When the bulb of the thermometer
shown in Fig. 6.13. is kept
After some time, you will notice that different in contact with a hot body, mercury expands.
liquids rise to different levels.Benzene expands the The level of mercury rises in the capillary tube.
most, then alcohol and kerosene, water expands the The tube is graduated to read the temperature,
least. For each degree rise in temperature, mercury
expands by the same volume, so the calibration
of thermometer becomes easier.
A B D
THERMAL EXPANSION IN GASES

-HOT
Gases also expand when they are heated.
KEROSENE
WATER Gases expand much more than liquids and
WATER ALCOHOL BENZENE
solids. Like liquids, gases do not have a
Fig. 6.13 Expansion of different liquids definite shape, so they also have only the
cubical expansion.
The table given below gives the coefficient
of cubical expansion of some common liquids. Thermal expansion of gases can be
demonstrated by the following simple activity.
Coefficient of cubical expansion of
some liquids ACTIVITY 5

Coefficient of cubical () Take an empty bottle. Actually, the empty

Liquid bottle contains air. Attach a rubber balloon to
expansion y (x 104 per °C) Inflated balloon
Deflated balloon
Mercury 1-8
Paraffin oil 7-64

Turpentine 10
Bottle
Ethyl alcohol 10.9 Bottle
Water bath
Benzene 12-5 Air
Air
Boiling
Water does not have a fixed coefficient of water

cubical expansion. Its value varies with rise (a) Before heating (b) After heating

in temperature. Fig. 6.14 Thermal expansionof air

116 Concise PHYSICS- Middle School
 its neck as shown in Fig. 6.14(a). Initially, the VARIATION OF DENSITY WITH
balloon is deflated.
TEMPERATURE
(i) Place the bottle in a water bath containing When a substance is heated, its volume
hoiling water which heats the air contained in increases while its mass remains same,
the bottle. After some time you will notice
that the balloon gets intlated as shown in
therefore, the density of asubstance (being
the ratio of mass to its volume), decreases
Fig.6.14(b). This shows that on heating, the with the increase in temperature.
air enclosed in the botle expands and fills the
balloon. hence theballoon gets inflated. Thus In case of solids, when temperature
air expands on heating. increases, increase in volume is very small
and therefore, the decrease in density is not
Do Vou Know 2 appreciable. But in case of liquids and gases,
as temperature increases, volume increases by
Agas is heated by keeping either its volume or an appreciable amount and therefore decrease
pressure constant. In both cases, the expansion is same in their density is quite considerable.
ie.. increase in pressure when volume is kept constant Exception : Water contracts on heating
or increase in volume when pressure is kept constant. from 0°Cto 4°, so the density of water
are same).
increases on heating it from 0°C to 4°C. On
further heating above 4°C, the density of
Explanation of thermal expansion in gases water decreases. Thus, water has maximum
by the molecular motion density (= 1000 kg m) at 4°C.
In a gas, molecules have more inter
molecular spacing amongst them. On heating, Do Vou Know ?
the average kineticenergy of molecules of gas If an iron washer as shown in
increases and they begin to move violently in Fig. 6.15 is heated, its mass will
all space available to them for motion. As a remain unchanged. Its internal
result, the inter-molecular separation further diameter, its external diameter, its
thickness and its volume all will
increases, So they expand. Iron washer
increase but its density will decrease. Fig. 6.15

RECAPITULATION

P Matter is any substance which occupies space and has mass.

The three states of matter are (i) solid, (ii) liquid and (iii) gas.
Matter is composed of large number of molecules.
and it retains the properties of the
A molecule is the smallest particle which can exist freely in nature by itself
substance.
than that in solids, the inter-molecular
Ina liquid, the molecules are not rigid, the inter-molecular spacing is more
container, so the liquid has'a
forces are weak and the molecules are free to move within the boundary of the
definite volume, but it does not have a definite shape.
117
Heat Transter
 In gases, the molecules are not rigid, the inter-molecular spacing is more than that in solids and liquids, ,the
inter-molecular forces are the weakest,thus molecules are free to move anywhere inspace. So aggas
a definite volume nor a definite shape. has neither
In evaporation, a liquid changes intovapour or gas at alltemperatures.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon that occurs at alltemperatures.
In evaporation, some molecules near the surface of liquid acquire sufficient kinetic energy by
the other molecules,to reach the surface. These molecules absorb heat from the surroundings to
escape
collisions
with
out in
space.

> In boiling at afixed temperature, by absorbing heat from an external source, all molecules
throughout
liquid acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcomethe force of attraction of other molecules, So they the
escape
out from the liquid in form of vapour.
When a solid, liquid or gas is heated, it expands.
> The expansion of a substance when heated is called thermalexpansion.
º Asolid on being heated expands in length, area as well as in volume. Thus, a solid undergoes linear expansion
superficial expansion and cubical expansion.
The increase in length of a solid in form of a rod, on heating, depends on : (i) its original length, (iü) the rise
in temperature, and (iii) the material of the rod. Longer the rod, greater is the increase in its length. More the
rise in temperature of rod, more is the increase in its length. Equal lengths of rods of different materials expand
by different lengths, when heated to the same temperature.
The increase in length of a solid rod is given as L, - L = L at
The increase in area of aplate is given as A, -A =A Bt
The increase in volume of a solid is given as V,-Vo= Vo Yt
> The coefficients of linear expansion o, superficial expansion Band cubical expansion y are related as
a:B:y =l:2:3.
According tomolecular motion, the molecules of a solid on heating start vibrating about their mean positions
with greater amplitude. This changes the mean positions of the molecules so as to increase the inter-molecular
spacing and so the solid expands on heating.
Some solids such as invar, pyrex glass, quartz have negligible expansion on heating.
Liquids expand more than solids when heated.
Liquids have only cubical expansion.
The increase in volume of a liquid is given as V, - V, = t where yis the coefficient of cubical expanston
of liquid.
Different liquíds of same volume expand by different amounts when heated to the same rise in temperau
e.g. benzene expands much more than water.
Water contracts on heating from 0°C to 4°C and then it expands on further heating above 4°C.
Thermal expansion of liquids is used in the working of a mercury thermometer.
Gases expand much more than solids and liquids, when heated. They also have only cubical expansion.
On heating, density of solids, liquids and gases decreases.
Water has maximum density at 4°C which is equal to 1000 kg m3
School8
118 Concise PHYSICS Middle
 TEST YOURSELF
Questions : (i) Alcohol expands than
A.Objective water.
Write true or false for each statement :
() Iron expands than copper.
(a) Evaporation is rapid on a wet day.
Ans: (a) a fixed temperature (b) all temperatures
(b) Evaporation takes place only from the (c) absorb (d) absorbed (e) evaporation
surface of a liquid. (f) more (g) more (h) more
ic) All molecules of a liquid take part in the (i) more (i) less
process of evaporation.
3. Match the following :
(d) Temperature of a liquid rises during boiling Column A Column B
or vaporization.
(a) Blowing air (i) increase in inter
ie) All molecules of a liquid take part in boiling. increases molecular separation
() Boiling is a rapid phenomenon. (b) Increase in (ii) pendulum of a clock
(g) All solids expand by the same amount when pressure increases
heated to the same rise in temperature. (c) Thermal (iii) cooking utensils
(h) Telephone wires are kept tight between the expansion
twopoles in winter. (d) Invar (iv) boiling point
(i) Equal volumes of different liquids expand by (e) Pyrex glass (V) evaporation
different amounts when they are heated to Ans: (a)-(v), (b)iv), (c)-i), (d)(ii), (e)-(ii)
the same rise in temperature. 4. Select the correct alternative
() Solids expand the least and gases expand the
most on being heated. (a) In evaporation :
(k) A mercury thermometer makes use of the
(i) all molecules of liquid begin to escape
out
property of expansion of liquids on heating.
1) KerOsene contracts on heating. (i) only the molecules at the surface
eScape out
Ans: True(b), (e), (), (h), (i), (), (k)
Falsea), (c), (d), (g), () (ii) the temperature of liquid rises by
absorbing heat from surroundings.
2. Fill in the blanks :
(iv) the molecules get attracted within the
(a) Boiling occurs at liquid.
(b) Evaporation takes place at (b)The rate of evaporation of a liquid increases
(c) The molecules of liquid heat when:
from surroundings in evaporation. (1) temperature of liquid falls
(d) Heat is during boiling. (ii) liquid is poured in a vessel of less
(e) Cooling is produced in surface area
() A longer rod expands than a
(ii) air is blown above the surface of liquid
shorter rod on being heated to the same
temperature. (iv) humidity increases.
(g) Liquids expand than the (c) During boiling or vaporization :
solids. (i) all molecules take part
(h) Gases expand than the (ii) temperature rises
liquids.
Heat Transfer 119
 (iii) no heat is absorbed (ii) the rise in temperature only
(iv) the average kinetic energy of molecules (iii) the material of rod only
Increases. (iv) all the above three factors.
(d)The boiling point of a liquid is increased by: (i) The correct statement is:
(i) increasing the volume of liquid (i) Iron rims are cooled before
(i1) increasing the pressure on liquid placed on the cart wheels. they are
(ii) adding ice to the liquid (ii) Aglass stopper gets
warming the neck of the tightened
On
(iv) decreasing pressure on liquid. bottle.
(e)Two rods Aand B of the same metal, but of (iii) Telephone wires sag in
become tight in summer. winter,
but
length 1m and 2 m respectively, are heated
from 0°C to 100°C. Then : (iv) A little space is left between two
rails
(i) both the rods A and B elongate the on a railway track.
same
Ans.: (a)-(ii), (b)-(ii), (c)-), (d-i), (e-i
(ii) the rod A elongates more than the (-(iv), (g)-iv), (h)-(iv), (i-iy
rod B
B. Short/Long Answer Questions :
(iii) the rod B elongates more than the
1, What is matter ? What is it composed of?
rod A
(iv) the rod A elongates, but the rod B 2. Name the three states of matter and distingujsh
contracts.
them on the basis of their (i) volume. and
(f) Two rods A and B of the same metal, (ii) shape
same 3. Distinguish between liquid and vapour (or gas)
length, but one solid and the other hollow,
are heated to the same rise in states of matter on the basis of the following
Then:
temperature. factors :
(i) the solid rod A expands more than the (a) Arrangement of molecules
hollow rod B (b) Inter-molecular separation
(ii) the hollow rod B expands more than (c) Inter-molecular force, and
the solid rod A (d) Kinetic energy of molecules
(iii) the hollow rod B contracts, but the 4. What is evaporation ? Explain it on the basis of
solid rod A expands molecular motion.
(iv) both the rods A and B expand the 5. Do all the molecules of a liquid take part in
Same. evaporation ? If not, explain your answer.
(g)A given volume of alcohol and the same 6. No heat is supplied to a liquid during evaporation.
volume of water are heated from the room How does then the liquid change into its vapour :
temperature to the same temperature then : 7. Comment on the statement 'evaporation sa
(i) alcohol contracts, but water expands surface phenomenon'.
() water contracts, but alcohol expands 8. Why is cooling produced when a liqud
(iii) water expands more than alcohol evaporates ?
(iv) alcohol expands more than water. 9. Give reason for the increase in rate of evaporatio
(h) The increase in length of a metal rod depends of aliquid when
On: (a) air is blown above the liquid
(i)) the initial length of the rod only (b) surface area of liquid is increased
(c) temperature of liquid is increased.
120 Middle School-8
Concise PHYSICS
 Explain it on the basis of in the neck of a bottle
What is boiling ? A glass stopper stuck water onthe
10. molecular motion. can be removed by pouring hot
neck of the bottle.
does bubbles appear when a liquid is with
Why
11. heated ? (e) Acement floor is laid in small pieces
gaps in between.
What is the change in average kinetic energy of
12. molecules of aliquid during boiling at its boiling 25. Why is one end of a steel girder in a bridge kept
point? on rollers instead of fixing it in a pillar ?
heat energy supplied to a liquid used 26. A metal plate is heated. State three factors on
13. Howisthe temperature ? which the increase in its area will depend.
during boiling at a fixed will
27. A cubical metal solid block is heated. How
14. Name
two ways of changing liquid state to the its volume change ?
them.
vapour state and distinguish liquids
What do you understand by thermal expansion
28. Describe an experiment to show that
15. ? expand on heating.
of asubstance of
substances which 29. State one application of thermal expansion
I6 Give two examples of the
expand on heating. liquids.
expands
demonstrate the 30. Describe an experiment to show that air
17 Describe an experiment to
on heating.
thermal expansion in solids. narrow tube
18 State three factors on which the linear expansion 31. An empty glass bottle is fitted with a kept in
at its mouth. The open end of the tube is
of a metal rod depends on heating. a beaker containing water. When
the bottle is
one 10 m long and the other heated, bubbles of air are seen escaping into
19. Two iron rods
5 m long, are heated to the same rise in water. Explain the reason.
temperature. Which will expand more ?
32. Which of the following will expand more, when
20. Two identical rods of copper are heated to heated to the same temperature : (a) solid
different temperatures one by 5°Cand the other (b) liquid or (c) gas ?
by 10°C. Which rod will expand more ? 33. Describe an experiment to show that same
21. One rod of copper and another identical rod of volume of different liquids heated to same rise
iron are heated to the same rise in temperature. in temperature expand by different amounts.
Which rod will expand more ? Give reason.
34. 100 ml of each of the following liquids is heated
22. Two identical rods - one hollow and the other from 10°C to 50°C. Which will expand more:
solid, are heated to the same rise in temperature. (a) water (b) benzene (c) alcohol ?
Which will expand more ? 35. Water is heated from 0°C to 4°C. Will it
23. In the ball and ring experiment, if the ball after expand?
heating is left to cool on the ring for some time, 36. What do you mean by anomalous behavior of
the ball again passes through the ring. Explain water ?
the reason.
37. Howdoes the density of a substance (solid, liquid
24. Explain the following : and gas) change on heating ?
(a) The telephone wires break in winter.
38. An iron washer is heated. State the effect on its
(b) Iron rims are heated before they are fixed (i) mass, (ii) internal diameter, (iii) external
on the wooden wheels.
diameter, and (iv) density.
(C) Gaps are left between the successive rails
on a railway track.

Heat Transfer 121

 Project Work
To prepare a model of fire alarm.
1. Take a bimetallic strip made of brass and iron,
two vertical stands, a metal rod, a dry cell, an VERTICAL STAND
electric bell, aspirit lamp and some connecting A BRASS B METAL
Wires. ROD
IRON
2. Clamp one end (say, A) of the bimetallic strip
AB on one vertical stand such that the metal
SPIRIT LAMP
brass that expands more is kept on the outer VERTICAL
STAND
side as shown in Fig. 6.16.
DRY CELL
3. Clamp the metal rod on the other vertical stand
and place it such that the rod is just below the ELECTRIC
BELL
free end (say, B) of the bimetallic strip. The
bimetallic strip is attached such that the end B Fig. 6.16 A model of fire alarm
of the strip does not touch the rod, but it is just
about to touch.
4. Connect one terminal of the cell to the clanmped end A of the bimetallic strip and the
other terminal of the cell to the electric bell and then to the metal rod.
5. Burn the spirit lamp and place it just below the bimetallic strip. You will notice that on
heating the bimetallic strip, the bell rings. The reason is that on heating, the bimetallic
strip expands. Since brass expands more than iron, it bends inwards and the end B comes
in contact with the metal rod. This comnpletes the circuit and the bell rings.

122 School
Concise PHYSICS- Middle