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Php/c/44c/a8c/6875ae

RE-THINKING SOCRATIC METHOD AS A SIGNIFICANT FACTOR FOR

PROMOTING CRITICAL THINKING AMONG STUDENTS OF NIGERIAN
TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
Rev. Fr. Dr. Greg Ekeh
Department of Educational Foundations,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka
Abstract
Critical thinking is an important factor in learning, particularly in the universities and
other tertiary institutions in Nigeria. One of the methods that promote critical thinking is
questioning method. This method is traced to Socrates; and it is known as Socratic Method.
This study focused on re-thinking this Socratic Method as a significant factor for promoting
critical thinking. The purpose of the paper was to establish that Socratic Method is a
significant factor in promoting critical thinking among students in Nigerian tertiary
institutions, and ascertain its adaptability and applicability to the modern day learning
process in these institutions. The study was a qualitative one. It made use of conceptual
framework, philosophical reflection and literature review in its approach. Areas of
discussion included teaching method, Socratic Method and critical thinking. Also
considered was how Socratic Method can be adapted and applied in this modern era. The
findings of the study showed that Socratic Method is catalytic to critical thinking. In other
words, Socratic Method is a significant factor for promoting critical thinking among
students of Nigerian tertiary institutions. I was also discovered that the method can be
adapted and applied to today’s learning process. Based on this, it was suggested, among
other things, that greater emphasis be placed on this adaptation and application of
Socratic Method. Lecturers in Nigerian tertiary institutions are therefore urged to make
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use of this method, following the two principles underlying it: Socratic didactic method
and Socratic irony.
Key words: Re-thinking, Socratic Method and Critical thinking

Introduction
Thinking faculty is a distinguishing characteristic of humans among all the created beings
in this world. Only human beings have the capacity to think, and this is what sets them
apart from the lower animals. It is in the nature of human beings to think; so, every human
being thinks, in the ordinary sense of it. However, much of human thinking is usually prone
to bias, prejudice, partiality, and distortion. That is why lots of things go wrong in the
society, because what we do and the way we live and interact with our environment depend
heavily on the quality of our thinking. To overcome this inherent weakness requires the
cultivation of critical thinking, the purpose of which is objectivity in every aspect of human
endeavours. In the institutions of learning, especially in higher institutions, critical thinking
is truly critical. This is because this is the final level of education, after which the learners
transit to real life in the society with its multifaceted expectations and challenges.
In Nigerian tertiary institutions, there is no doubt that critical thinking is of paramount
importance for effective learning and objective analysis of issues in education, since the
products of these institutions will definitely have effects on the society at large. Learning
has been part of human experience at all times and throughout the entire globe. In their
efforts to learn, human beings use various approaches or methods that would enhance their
knowledge and increase their thinking and reasoning capacity. These methods have been
in use from the ancient times, though in informal and non-formal ways, sometimes even
without the teachers or instructors being conscious of the fact that they are using this or
that method.
Things started taking shape from the times of the ancient Greek philosophers and
educators, notably Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, among others. They contributed greatly to
the development of education. Socrates used a method of dialectic or dialogical
questioning, known as Socratic Method. Plato used play method which, for him, was the
only way to discover new truth. Aristotle made use of inductive and deductive methods,
both in objective and subjective discourses. This earned him the sobriquet of father of
modern sciences. He also used the peripatetic method, in which he, while teaching, walked
around with his students out of respect for dialogue (Gikas, 2019) and interaction. The
point to be delineated from these ancient methods is that teachers and students should be
seen as companions in search of knowledge for mutual enrichment and social benefits.
Since the time of these early Greek philosophers, exploring various methods of teaching
has been one of the preoccupations of educators. In this modern time, such teaching
methods include questioning, lecture-based, demonstration, doing, story-telling, play and
discussion methods, among many others. Each of the methods is designed to achieve
particular aims, while the overall aim of all the methods is to facilitate learning. Of all these
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methods, questioning is traced to the Socratic Method, which propels critical thinking. It
is hoped that re-thinking and applying Socratic Method will enhance critical thinking. In
Nigerian tertiary institutions, there is an apparent diminution of students’ capacity for
critical thinking. This may not be so surprising, given the spate of distractions that have
invaded our university environments, especially those emanating from social media, quest
for excess freedom and material pursuits. Moreover, in Nigerian tertiary institutions,
lecture method is the most used. This method does not encourage students’ active
participation and critical thinking, since their major role is to listen and take notes where
necessary. One of the ways to arouse students to active participation and critical thinking
is asking them questions. It is against this backdrop that the paper focuses on re-thinking
Socratic Method so as to stimulate critical thinking among students. To achieve this, the
paper employs conceptual framework, theoretical framework and literature review. The
paper discusses the concept of teaching methods, Socratic Method, critical thinking, steps
in critical thinking, benefits of Socratic Method, benefits of critical thinking, and
application of Socratic Method. The aim of the paper is to encourage lecturers to apply the
Socratic Method so as to stimulate and enhance students’ capacity for critical thinking,
which will in turn help them to be objective in their approach to issues, both within the
school environment and in the wider society.

Conceptual Framework
Teaching Method
Teaching method refers to the way teachers teach their students that would enhance their
understanding of whatever they are being taught. According to Teach.com (2023), the term
teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies for
classroom instruction. This means that teaching methods are carefully planned and
accepted as a guide for effective teaching and learning in the process of disseminating
knowledge. Teaching method comprises the principles and methods used by teachers to
enable student learning, and these methods are partly determined by the nature of the
subject matter and the nature of the learner (Pruitt, 2015). The emphasis of this definition
is on the intention, for which methods come into play, that is, the enablement of students’
learning. Also, it is important to study the subject matter and the nature of the learner before
making use of a particular method of teaching. Bello (1981) is of the view that teaching
method is a systematic way in which a teacher uses to transfer or receive or share
information, and it also implies theories of instructions, and can include class participation,
demonstration and recitation. Teaching methods can also be understood as ways to instruct
students in the classroom, so as to help them comprehend and remember what they have
learned (Indeed Editorial Team, 2023). Right teaching methods help teachers to impart
knowledge to learners with greater clarity. This would make it easier for learners to
understand the teaching better.
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There are various concepts and explanations of teaching methods, just as there are many
kinds of teaching methods. However, all the concepts and explanations point towards the
same directions, and have almost the same attributes. There is a consensus among all the
views that teaching methods are systematic and principled in nature. They are well
organized with the interests of the learner in mind, and their aim is to help students to
learner better and do better in their academic endeavours. From the views under
consideration, one can unarguably state that teaching method is a way or manner in which
teachers systematically and carefully transmit knowledge, skills and values to students in
order to help them easily understand what they are being taught and also be able to recall
and put them into practice when and where necessary.

The Teacher and the Choice of Method to Use

To decide on what teaching method to use, the teacher has to put a lot of things into
consideration. Such considerations as the teacher’s philosophical ideas, academic standing,
intuition and instinct, the structure of the classroom, the subject areas to be taught, the
vision and mission of the school, the age and interest of the learner, are very vital to the
choice of teaching method in any teaching-learning encounter. According to Westwood
(2008), a teaching method should take into consideration the learner, the nature of the
subject and the expected learning outcomes. The choice of teaching method is very
necessary, for it is also meant to make learning lively, interesting, inspiring and engaging
for students. In teaching-learning episodes, students’ mental, emotional and social
developments are usually at stake. This is also a point to be considered before deciding on
the type of teaching method to adopt and apply, so as to provide proper guide to students
in these aspects.
Although instructors may prefer one teaching method to another, it often happens that
several methods can be made use of even in one teaching-learning episode. In view of this,
knowing many teaching methods places the teacher at an advantage, since exigencies may
require a change of method even in the middle of a lecture. Learning to use a variety of
methods by teachers is very important so as to take care of a wide range of learning needs
as they present themselves within the classroom environment (Ojumu, 2016).
Socratic Method
Socratic Method is a system or manner of teaching which originated from Socrates. It was
an alternative method in response to the sophists’ way which was characterized by their
use of philosophical argument and rhetoric to make impressions on the audience and
persuade them to accept the view of the speaker. What the sophists were saying might not
be true, but they capitalized on their fluency in language speech and manipulation of words
to prod people, especially the not-so-critically-minded, to accept their sophistry as truth.
Socratic Method is an educational technique where a teacher poses questions for students
to answer, focusing on the dialogue between the teacher and the students (Mastrangelo,
Serva & Airth, 2022). The reason for this type of question is to enable students to think and
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come up with answers by themselves. Upon giving the answer, further question is asked,
based on the answer, or some words, concepts or phrases used. This follow-up question is
for the purpose of clarification, to be sure of the meaning being conveyed. Questions and
answers would continue until a correct, clear and convincing answer is reached through the
efforts of both the teacher and students working together.
Socratic Method is also known as method of Elenchus, Socratic debate, dialectical method
of inquiry, or elenctic method. It is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue among
or between individuals, characterized by asking and answering questions so as to stimulate
critical thinking and to draw out ideas that underlie propositions (Pruitt, 2015). The purpose
of the method is to sift precise definitions that are latent in the participants’ beliefs and
opinions, and help them to deepen their understanding. In this method, ambiguities and
contradictions are persistently and carefully identified and removed until the truth of
proposition stands out convincingly clear to the disputants. This commonly held truth will
now shape the participants’ viewpoints and beliefs, and also ascertain their consistency in
relation to other beliefs or opinions.
The method originated from Socrates, and he used it to help people to clarify their beliefs,
and understand their assumptions, reasons and evidence employed to support them. In this
method, any inconsistency, fallacy, or contradiction that clings to individual’s or group’s
thinking is exposed.
Steps in Socratic Method
Elenchus (ελεγxοϛ in Greek), is the key technique used by Socrates in his Socratic method.
It is the argument of disproof or refutation which involves cross-examining, testing, and
scrutinizing, for the purpose of refutation (Liddell, Scott & Jones, n.d.). Vlastos (1983)
identifies the following steps used by Socrates in examining concepts:
1. Socrates’ interlocutor asserts a thesis, for example “Courage is endurance of the soul”.
2. Socrates decides whether the thesis is false and targets the refutation.
3. Socrates secures his interlocutor’s agreement to further premise, for example “Courage
is a fine thing” and “Ignorant endurance is not a fine thing”.
4. Socrates then argues, and the interlocutor agrees, these further premises imply the
contrary of the original thesis; in this case, it leads to: “Courage is not endurance of the
soul”.
5. Socrates then claims he has shown his interlocutor’s thesis is false and its negation is
true.
In the light of these steps, it can be seen that one examination leads to another, and the
movement continues until the end becomes a sort of puzzle, referred to as “aporia” – an
improved state of knowledge, but one in which there is still no certainty. However, there
is more refined scrutinization of the subject under consideration, and examination of a
further claim can be invited, such as “courage is informed endurance of the soul”, since
ignorant endurance is not a fine thing, as seen in the steps above. “Informed courage” as
endurance of the soul is clearer and more reasonable than just “courage” as endurance of
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the soul. While these steps may not be suitable to this modern age in their entirety, they
help the interlocutors to come to terms with their own ignorance and shortcomings
regarding knowledge claims, and so they should leave no stone unturned in their efforts to
arrive at the true knowledge, rather than stopping at the periphery.

Two basic principles underlying the Socratic Method:

For practical purposes and profitable use of Socratic Method, it is important to bear in mind
the principles on which rests the method. These principles also play guiding roles in the
application of the method in the classroom setting or any formal learning encounter
between the teacher and students. There are two such principles: Socratic didactic method
and Socratic irony.
1. Socratic Didactic Method: Under this principles, it is believed that knowledge is a
result of dialogue. In other words, knowledge should be interactive and not one-way
dimensional. This belief is informed by the idealists’ concept of innate ideas, which holds
that there is seminal knowledge in every human being right from birth. As such, no one is
completely devoid of knowing something. Through questioning, these innate ideas are
tapped and activated in the students. The teachers do not pose as ‘I know it all’. They are
really to learn even from their students.
2. Socratic Irony: In this principle, the teacher assumes the position of knowing nothing
or knowing much. This stance, though unknown to students, paves the way for others (the
students) to be inspired and motivated to discover knowledge by themselves. This
motivation comes by questioning method. This questioning will propel the students to think
and figure out possible answers.
The understanding behind the above principles is that students should not be taught to
accept knowledge as a dogma, without questions, doubts or objections; they are to be taught
how to think rather than how to accept (Gikas, 2019). This is not the case regarding lecture
method, where students are expected to accept the lecturer’s views. Usually much time or
consideration is not given to students to air their own views or ask many questions.
Lectures do not always allow students to have a direct interaction with the learning material
(Mastrangelo, Serva & Airth,2022), hence they are not well equipped and adequately
informed in a way that would enable them to air their own views, and actively participate
in the discussion of the subject matter.
Philosophical Reflection and Critical Observation on Socratic Method
Despite the acceptance that Socratic Method enhances critical thinking and creativity, some
scholars hold that there are some disadvantages found in the method. For instance, Delic,
Becirovic, Haris, and Senad (2016) argue that those who use this method are intent on
pointing out the students’ mistakes, and this can give rise to negative feelings among
students. Such students may feel they are being exposed to ridicule, embarrassment and
humiliation. However, this may not be the intendment really. Again, fear of public speaking
is common among students. Also there is often no right answer, and it is sometimes difficult
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to handle multiple answers for a single question (Scholle 2020). However, some scholars
have different opinions. According to Furman (2013), and Mangrum (2010), Socratic
circles, practised within the Socratic Method as Socratic seminar, specify three types of
questions, thus:
1. Opening question, which generates discussion at the beginning of the seminar in order
to elicit dominant themes.
2. Guiding questions, which help deepen and elaborate the discussion, keeping
contributions on topic and encouraging a positive atmosphere and consideration for
others.
3. Closing questions, which lead participants to summarize their thoughts and learning
and personalize what they have discussed.

In this form of setting, it can be seen that the class is discursive, and that whatever questions
and answers generated belong to the entire class as a body. Again, since every person is
given the opportunity to participate, there is no room for singling a particular person out
for any possible ridicule or embarrassment. The method is rather intended for mutual
exploration, understanding and intellectual growth. There is no doubt that this method
generating questions and answers is helpful in improving critical thinking, without which
there can be no refinement in knowledge. In addition to these, gaining active learning and
listening skills, as well as promotion of critical thinking, learning how to face challenges
and discovering many ways to approach a problem and examine issues with in-depth
thought (Scholle, 2020) lend credence to the need for Socratic method.
Benefits of Socratic Method
From the discussions so far, it is clear that Socratic Method has many advantages or
benefits, which can be stated as follows:
It helps in clarification of ideas, opinions and beliefs. Human beings normally have their
opinions and convictions, and beliefs about things around them. They also exhibit some
evidences to back them. The evidence and reason adduced may be porous and fallacious.
These are eliminated through this method of asking and answering questions.
Unlike the lecture method where students are passive, this method makes students active
participants in the teaching and learning encounter. It also enhances critical thinking. It
again improves the students’ ability to ask questions that are relevant, constructive and
thought provoking.
Socratic Method exposes students to their ignorance and the extent they know whatever
they claim to know. Intellectual humility is one of the hallmarks of an educated person.
This method helps people to achieve that. It helps human beings to be aware of their
limitations.
The method encourages cooperation, where the teacher and students work together both in
asking and answering questions, thereby encouraging further dialogue and mutual
understanding. Moreover, it reduces sense and feeling of superiority and inferiority, ‘’I am
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here you are there’’ syndrome between teacher and students. Socratic Method not only
improves critical thinking, but also helps people in discover their shortcomings in
particular courses or topics of discussion. It helps students to be fast and intelligent
thinkers, with increased understanding.

Critical Thinking
Critical “thinking” is based on thinking. The term thinking is “skepsi” in Greek, and it
means questioning, re-examining, re-considering, or re-evaluation. “Critical” is “kritikos”
in Greek, meaning ability for sound or discerning evaluation or judgment, to make sense
of, to analyze. The Greek “Skepsi kritikos” is therefore translated “critical thinking” in
English. It is difficult to grasp a precise definition of critical thinking. It has rather been
defined and explained in various ways. However, attempts have been made at giving some
technical definitions by some scholars. According to Paul and Scriven (2003), critical
thinking is an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, synthesizing, and /or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief and
action. The emphasis of this definition is on the use of the intellect in a systematic and
consistent manner in all aspects of thinking so as to eliminate all possible errors, and this
is an ongoing activity, hence it is a process. For Facione (1990), critical thinking is a
purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation,
and inference, as well as explanation of evidential, conceptual, methodological, criterial,
or conceptual considerations upon which the judgment is based. Facione’s view indicates
that critical thinking is more of personal efforts than anything else. It does not leave
anything to chances, but digs into all possible sources of error to ensure that any judgment
or conclusion reached is valid and correct.
Critical thinking is an organized thoughtful manner of carefully considering any matter of
importance as if affects human knowledge and other activities. It is being responsive to
variables in the subject matter, issues and purposes (Onuoha & Amadi, 2017, p. 226).
Critical thinking is most often constructive, unlike criticism which can sometimes be
destructive (Lau, 2011). For Giancarlo and Facione (2002), critical thinking is conceptually
connected with reflective judgment, framing of problems, higher thinking order, logical
thinking, informed decision making problem solving and scientific method. On their own
part, Watson and Glaser (2000) see critical thinking as a blend of knowledge, attitude and
performance in each individual which include ability in comprehension skills, identifying
hypothesis, inference, analysis and evaluating rational arguments. Critical thinking is also
known as high order thinking, or complex thinking. This is far beyond the ability to
recollect past events or pieces of information. It is the capacity to go beyond the surface
and the ordinary to a deeper level of constructive reasoning and arguments. Critical
thinkers do not just accept information, but endeavour to analyze it, determine its validity
and fittingness to a wider context.
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Critical thinking rests on the objective analysis and evaluation of issues before reaching a
judgment. Critical thinking is devoid of emotional entanglements, and focuses only on the
measurable evidence and facts in real life situations. Critical thinking requires quick
thinking and decisiveness in actions, self-evaluation and proof of one’s own opinions,
arguments, beliefs and assumptions (Valenzuela & White, 2022). For John Dewey (1910,
pp. 74, 82), who is regarded as the father of critical thinking, critical thinking is an active
process which requires students to think through, raise questions and search for information
to address their queries rather than learning passively from someone else. Critical thinking
is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of
quality in a fair-minded way (Elder, 2007).
From the different definitions, views and explanations, it is good to note that critical
thinking has many connotations, such as the ability to engage in deep reflections, asking
deep-rooted questions on issues of importance, questioning and probing the existing
assumptions or conclusions taken for granted for the purpose of arriving at a better
clarification of meanings and a better understanding. It involves a painstaking examination
of ideas, beliefs, knowledge and points of view so as to expose some flaws which otherwise
would not be noticed, and thus could lead to errors in thought and judgments.

Steps in Critical Thinking

Many philosophers, educators and scholars have discussed and offered a good number
steps in cultivating critical thinking. Some presented four steps (Kavanaugh, 2018), some
five (Collins, 2016), six, seven (Vaishali, n. d.), or eight (Tomaszewski, 2023); and there
can be more. For this paper, the 8 steps of Tmaszewski are adopted, and they are stated as
follows:
1. Analysis: This is one’s ability to gather and process information and knowledge.
2. Interpretation: Here the meaning of the gathered and processed information is sought.
3. Inference: This involves ascertaining whether the knowledge obtained is adequate and
reliable.
4. Evaluation: Evaluation in this context is the ability to make decisions based on the
information.
5. Explanation: This entails communicating the findings and clearly reasoning through
them.
6. Self-Regulation: This step consists of the impetus to steadily monitor and correct one’s
ways of thinking.
7. Open-Mindedness: Here one is ready to consider the possibility of other viewpoints
than one’s own.
8. Problem-Solving: This is the final step, and it is the ability to tackle problems and
resolve conflicts, even when they are unexpected.
The above steps are meant to be practised with consistency and carefulness. The steps show
that a great deal of efforts is required for one to cultivate critical thinking. The process may
Journal of Theoretical and Empirical Studies in Education, Vol. 8 No. 1, May, 2023 247

appear to be cumbersome, but it is worth the price, cognizant of the benefits that accrue
from critical thinking, especially among students of tertiary institutions, who are the leaders
of tomorrow, and who are on the threshold of life of reality in the wider society, worlds
apart from school life.

Benefits of Critical Thinking

A popular saying has it that thinking makes a man. If thinking makes a man, then, it stands
to reason that critical thinking makes a higher man. It elevates people to a higher level of
existence, because it is a thinking in a higher level. There are many benefits of critical
thinking. Among the benefits are the following, as presented by JetLearn (2023).
Critical thinking encourages creativity and curiousity, promotes research skills, elevates
autonomous learning, enhances good communication, promotes problem-solving,
facilitates sense of information, provides capacity for decision making, helps in analyzing
arguments, helps students to ask right questions, and fosters independent thinking, and
equips for a life-long learning.
Creativity and curiosity go together. They complement each other. Curiosity is a very
important factor in human life, for it brings about creativity. Without curiosity, learning
would be fruitless. Curiosity is the eagerness to know, and to know the right thing, the
correct thing, the truth. Curiosity paves way for a deeper understanding of the various
topics of learning and various areas of interest in the process of education. With curiosity,
further inquiries are carried out in virtually all areas of human life, such as cultures, beliefs,
politics, and so on. Critical thinking helps people to be always eager to know more, and
never satisfied with the current situation of tings. Critical thinkers always ask questions
such as Why? What? Who? When? Where? How? These questions lead to more
constructive reasoning and creative input to improve the situation at hand.
With regard to research, critical thinking is very relevant to improving skills. Such
important factors as observation, analysis, synthesis, experiment and evaluation, which are
indispensable in the field of research, are greatly enhanced by critical thinking. With these
factors properly organized and implemented, research findings become more valid,
objective and reliable.
Critical thinking also elevates autonomy in learning. This has to do with self-confidence
and self-reliance. This means that critical thinking empowers thinkers for independent
thinking, thereby increasing self-worth and output. In a similar manner, critical thinking
enhances good listening habit, which makes communication with others easier and more
meaningful. This is because critical thinking makes the thinker more open-minded and
amenable to the views of others.
The essence of education is to acquire knowledge for the purpose of solving personal and
social problems. Critical thinking equips thinkers with the ability to dedicate themselves to
solving perceived problems, both on the individual and social levels. Those who want to
profit from critical thinking should learn to be persistent in dealing with issues of
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importance. Problem-solving requires endurance and consistent attention. Most of the

challenging problems facing the world can more advantageously addressed through critical
thinking than ordinary approaches. If the world is to be better transformed than what we
witness today, stronger emphasis should be placed on critical thinking in the process of
education.
Every information we receive usually contains some core elements and other elements that
may not be so important. It takes critical thinking to sift such core elements from the less
crucial ones. Critical thinking, therefore, equips thinkers with a keen sense of information,
and this entails the reception, analysis and proper application of information.
Those who practice critical thinking find themselves in better positions to make good
decisions. This is because critical thinking gradually builds into the subconscious, so that
the thinker can easily and almost effortlessly come up with the best amidst many
alternatives. We are daily confronted with issues as we carry out our daily activities. So,
critical thinking can help us to be in touch with our true selves so that even our instincts do
not deceive us in matters of decision making.
In matters of arguments, critical thinkers usually gain upper hands than the rest, since they
are always open-minded and ready to listen, analyze and understand the viewpoints of
others. This is an advantage. It makes the thinker to focus on the issue of discussion rather
than pursuing irrelevances. Arguments are based on logical and correct reasoning, among
other things. Since critical thinking enhances reasoning, it definitely promotes valid
arguments.
It is unarguable that questions are veritable ingredients for the growth of knowledge. The
important thing, however, is not just asking questions, but asking correct and relevant
questions. To ask correct and relevant questions requires deep thinking. Asking many
questions and attempting to provide answers to them are products as well as handmaids of
critical thinking. This also encourages the ability to analyze situations and topics of
discussion by the students. Finally, critical thinking helps people to think faster and to think
widely. The more one thinks critically the more they generate various ideas which can be
applied to the solutions of diverse problems.

Literature Review
Socratic Method and Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has continued to be seen and priced as an important factor in learning.
According to the findings of a study by Jensen (2015, p. 19), “Socratic improves
instruction, instructional dialogue, and continued development of critical thinking skills for
all students”. “The Socratic method is made up of a teaching and assessment strategy.
When both are used together, critical thinking skills are developed” (Jensen, 2015, p. 29).
In the qualitative study carried out by Facione (1990), in which he used forty-six people
consisting of researchers, scholars and educators it was discovered that critical thinking
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skills can be grouped into six characteristics; interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference,
explanation and self-regulation. These characteristics show how people receive
information, how they react, and what they do with the information. Invariably questions
do arise in these characteristics, leading to further strengthening of critical thinking.
For Bowne and Keely (2001), critical thinkers are like those panning for gold. First, they
get big bundle of material, then they tore all the material, searching for gold within, until
they find it. In like manner, when critical thinkers get a piece of information, they dissect
it, analyze and probe all of its aspects, searching for answers to all the why, how, where,
when and what contained in the information. This approach opens a vista of avenues to
approach the issues involved, which in turn leads to an increase of knowledge based on
deep thinking.
Using Socratic Method improves one’s thinking, since one can assess one’s own levels of
thinking. In this method, the quality of questions and answers are thoroughly examined. In
this way the precision, clarity, depth, accuracy, relevance and validity of students’
reasoning can be ascertained (Paul & Elder, 2007).
From the view of scholars so far reviewed, it can be noted that there is scarcity of literature
on the matter under discussion as it relates to Nigerian tertiary institutions and students.
Nevertheless, it is unarguably clear that questioning promotes critical thinking on the part
of the students. Hence the need to re-think the Socratic Method in this connection, which
is the focus of attention in this paper. Based on the foregoing, it can be convincingly argued
that Socratic Method is intricately tied to critical thinking. One of the issues about this
method is how to apply it in this modern era, the age of information and communications
technology, where trends are constantly changing and lots of new ideas evolving in the
field of learning.
Application of Socratic Method
There are certain requirements for the application of Socratic Method, for it to be effective
and rewarding. The first requirement is that both the teacher and students should be
interested in knowing the truth. They have to be curious querulous in seeking the truth.
They should equally be ready and willing to cooperate, and be disposed to ascertain
whether the reason they have for their assumptions or beliefs are genuine, and be ready
accept the truth and give up such in the face of clear contradiction or inconsistency.
There is also the need to be intellectually honest. The participants should be sincere in
asking genuine questions and proffering reasonable answers to the best of their ability,
without pretending or making bogus claims of any sort. They should endeavour to remove
contradictions and inconsistencies in their thinking and arguments. The learning
environment should be made comfortable for the participants, who should feel at home
with one another and be willing to open up regarding their views on the issues under
consideration. The time at which the method is applied is of importance. It should be done
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when students have not become tired. This will make them participate actively, both in
generating and answering questions.
Using Socratic Method should be laced in genuine sense of respect. It should be dialogical,
not interrogatory. Socratic questions should always be open-ended. This will arouse
curiousity and give room for answers from various perspectives. The questioner should not
interrupt the answerer or help them in answering. They should rather wait till the end, then
further exploits on the issue can continue, such as asking more questions, seeking
clarifications or substantiations. Socrates used his method where there were no definite
definitions of key concepts, especially those pertaining to virtues of piety, wisdom,
courage, justice and temperance. In the days of Socrates, many people claimed deep
knowledge of these concepts. A close examination revealed the inadequacy of such claims.
On his own part, Socrates claimed ignorant, which allowed him to discover his own
shortcomings and errors. The Delphic Oracle affirmed that no man was wiser than Socrates,
and Socrates used this as the foundation of his moral admonition. For instance, he claimed
that wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and all other blessings,
both to the individual and the society.
In this modern era, Socratic Method can also be effectively used, even with the touch of
modern techniques. Application of Socratic Method presupposes that all new knowledge
has connection to prior knowledge that all thinking comes from asking questions, and that
asking one question should lead to further questions (Copeland, 2010). Further questions
will definitely lead to further answers, and further answers will lead to further discoveries.
In this context, a lecturer can point at a student at random and ask them to give a summary
of a previous lecture. The student’s response can trigger further questions from both the
lecturer and other students. Other students should also be allowed to air their views on the
issue. The lecturer can equally divide the students into groups and give them questions for
discussion under a time frame. After the group discussion, all will come together again and
each group would present their results. Questions and answers can be generated from these
presentations, and so the students’ capacity for critical thinking will be broadening. This
encourages collaborative learning, which is of great importance in today’s world.
The above modern approach is an outcome of re-thinking Socratic Method. It encourages
a formulation of questions that present students with a specific idea or set of ideas It does
not rely solely on the answers given by students, but rather exposes them to exciting
engagement in the discussion of issues, and so helps them to actualize their potentials to
think deeply, open-mindedly and independently so as to come up with relevant questions
and answers, or proffer solutions to identified problems. Being thus helped to be engrossed
in the subject matter, students will hardly forget what they learn, as is often the case with
pure lecture method where they easily forget after examinations, since they are not active
participants during lectures.
Conclusion
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From the findings gathered in this discourse, it can be concluded that critical thinking is
very crucial in the process of education, since it empowers people with the ability to
delineate important and relevant issues for decision making. It enhances creativity, and
provides guidance in the maze complex information-laden world of ours. Without critical
thinking, one can easily get lost in the midst of conflicting views, beliefs and tenets, due to
the volumes and sources of information we have today. It has also been clear that
questioning is one of the factors that are strategic to enhancing critical kinging. The
application of Socratic Method with a touch of modern techniques is, therefore, sure to
improve critical thinking among students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
Recommendations
Based on the study, the following recommendations were made:
1. Greater emphasis should be placed on using questioning methods in Nigerian tertiary
institutions.
2. Lecturers in Nigerian tertiary institutions are urged to adapt and apply Socratic Method
in their teaching and learning episodes.
3. Following the principles of Socratic Method, namely, Socratic didactic method and
Socratic irony, will be of immense help in adapting and applying the method.
4. Students should be encouraged to be active participants in learning by being disposed
and willing to ask and answer questions as well as airing their own views on issues or
topics of discussion.

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