FACTORS AFFECTING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN KENYA: A

CASE OF LIVE WITH HOPE NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION,

KERICHO COUNTY, KENYA

VIOLET CHERONO CHEPKWONY

A Research Project Report Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the
Award of Degree of Master of Arts in Project Planning and
Management,

University of Nairobi

2016

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 DECLARATION

This research project report is my original work and has not been submitted for any award in any
other degree in the University or any other Institution of higher learning.

Signature…………………. Date…………………

CHEPKWONY VIOLET CHERONO

L50/82813/2012

This research project report has been submitted for examination with my approval as the
University supervisor.

Signature…………………….. Date…………………...

Dr. Elisha Opiyo

Senior Lecturer
School of Computing and
Informatics University of Nairobi

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 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Joel Chepkwony, who never failed
to teach me and guide me; my siblings Risper, Vincent, Felix, Patricia and Rhema, whose
patience, love and encouragement gave me the support and motivation and most of all to the
Almighty God who gave me the strength and good health.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement go to all the people who assisted me make this research a success. Dr. Elisha
Opiyo my supervisor for his guidance, his valuable and constructive suggestions during the
planning and development of this research work. I would also like to thank my lecturers who
took me through the coursework and equipped me with knowledge that I will apply and utilize
for many years to come. I also thank the University of Nairobi for giving me the opportunity to
partake this course. I would also take this chance to thank my colleagues in the project planning
and management class Raphael and Michelle for their contributions, suggestions and the moral
support they offered me in the journey to complete this course.

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 Table of Content
DECLARATION..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
DEDICATION.................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................ vii
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................. viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................ ix
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................... x
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE:................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background to the Study................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Purpose of the Study.......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objective of the Study....................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research Questions............................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Significance of the Study................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 5
1.8 Delimitations of the Study................................................................................................. 5
1.9 Assumptions of the Study.................................................................................................. 6
1.10 Definition of Significant Terms of the Study.................................................................. 6
1.11 Organization of the Study................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER TWO:................................................................................................ 8
LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Concept of Violence agasnt women.................................................................................. 9
2.3Education interventions and Violence against women..................................................... 19
2.4Group interventions and Violence agaisnt women........................................................... 20
2.5 Free Legal Counsel and Violence agaisnt women........................................................... 21
2.6 Rehabilitation Center Programs and Violence agaisnt women....................................... 22
2.5 Theoretical Framework.................................................................................................... 25
2.6 Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................... 26

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 2.7 Knowledge Gap............................................................................................................... 27
2.8 Summary of literature reviewed...................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER THREE:........................................................................................... 29
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................... 29
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Research Design.............................................................................................................. 29
3.3 Target Population............................................................................................................ 29
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure............................................................................. 30
3.5 Methods and Instruments of Data Collection.................................................................. 31
3.6 Data Collection Procedure............................................................................................... 32
3.7 Data Analysis Techniques............................................................................................... 32
3.8 Ethical Considerations..................................................................................................... 33
3.9 Operational Definition of Variables.................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER FOUR:............................................................................................. 35
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION............................ 35
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Response Rate.................................................................................................................. 35
4.3 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents...................................................... 35
4.4 Interventions on Violence agaisnt women....................................................................... 38
4.6 Response from Executive staff and Project Investigators of Live with Hope Non-
Governmental Organization.................................................................................................. 43
CHAPTER FIVE:............................................................................................... 44
SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......... 44
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 44
5.2 Summary of Findings...................................................................................................... 44
5.3 Discussion of Findings.................................................................................................... 45
5.4 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 47
5.5 Recommendations........................................................................................................... 48
5.6 Suggested areas for further research................................................................................ 49
REFRENCES.................................................................................................... 49
APPENDICES................................................................................................... 54
Appendix I: Letter of Introduction............................................................................................ 54
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Appendix II: Questionnaire....................................................................................................... 54
Appendix III: Interview Guide.................................................................................................. 60

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual framework…………………………………………………………36

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 2.1 Knowledge gap 37

Table 3.1 Target population of the study 40

Table 3.2 Sample size of the study 40

Table 3.3 Operational definition of variables 44

Table 4.1Gender of respondents 45

Table 4.2 Marital status of respondents 46

Table 4.3 Occupation of respondents 46

Table 4.4 Level of education 47

Table 4.5 Type of VAW experienced 48

Table 4.6 Education Intervention and VAW 49

Table 4.7 Rehabilitation programs and VAW 50

Table 4.8 Free Legal Counsel and VAW 51

Table 4.9 Group Interventions and VAW 52

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 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACORD Agency for Cooperation and Research in Development

BIP Batterers Intervention Programs

FGM Female Genital Mutilation

FIDA (K) Federation of Women Lawyers, Kenya

GVRC Gender Violence Recovery Centre

GBV Gender Based Violence

GoK Government of Kenya

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

IGWG Interagency Gender Working Group

IPV Intimate Partner Violence

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections

TCC Thuthuzela Care Centres

US United States

VAW Violence against Women

WHO World Health Organization

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 ABSTRACT

Gender Based Violence also referred to as Violence against Women (VAW) and girls continues
to be a global epidemic that kills tortures and maims physically, psychologically, sexually and
economically. It is one of the most pervasive of human rights denying women and girls‟ security,
equality, self-worth and their right to enjoy fundamental freedoms. This study focuses
specifically on Violence against women initiated by an intimate partner, the most prevalent yet
relatively hidden and ignored form of violence against women and girls. The study thus sought to
examine the factors affecting violence against women in Kenya. The study was conducted at the
Live with Hope NGO in Ainamoi constituency, Kericho County and the research was guided by
the following objectives; to assess how education interventions affect violence against women in
Kenya, to establish how rehabilitation center programs affect violence against women in Kenya,
to assess how group interventions affect violence against women in Kenya and to determine how
free legal counsel affect violence against women in Kenya. The study adopted a descriptive
survey design to carry out the research. The target population for the study was sourced from
Live with Hope NGO staff and domestic violence victims, whom the organization provided. The
respondents totaled 150 individuals of whom 107 successfully filled the questionnaires and were
interviewed as the census sample since the population was small and manageable. Data collected
was obtained from secondary and primary sources. In relation to that, the instruments used in the
collection of data comprised of interviews and questionnaires for primary data and scrutiny of
existing records for the secondary data. The data obtained was analyzed through the application
of descriptive statistics tools and SPSS software. The outcomes of the study were indicated in
percentages and descriptive statistics. Information obtained from the study is beneficial to the
Government of Kenya (GoK) through planning and rolling out of programs to aid in the
reduction of domestic violence, universities and consultancy firms. From the findings, the
researcher concluded that rehabilitation programs had moderate effect on violence against
women. Victims of domestic violence are economically empowered and the programs provide
temporary shelters for victims. The services provided however were not all free according to the
respondents. Education interventions such as the social gatherings to create awareness and media
provides information on domestic violence to the public for the victims. Members of the society
still stigmatizes gender violence victims. Group interventions such as couple counseling and
anger management provide short term solutions while free legal counsel helped victims get out
of abusive marriages faster. Free legal services to get government benefits for domestic violence
survivors was hard to find. This could be due to the fact that lawyers who provide free legal
counsel are not many.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Gender based violence (GBV) is a serious, preventable public health problem that affects
millions of people in the world. The term “intimate partner violence” describes physical, sexual
or psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse. One of the most common forms
of Violence against Women (VAW) is that performed by a husband or intimate male partner.
Women can be violent in relationships with men and violence is also found in same-sex
relationships but partner violence is overwhelmingly experienced by women at the hands of men.
We will focus on intimate partner male initiated abuse against women.

Violence against Women is a fundamental violation of women‟s rights. A report developed by

World Health Organization (WHO) for 2013 found that 30% of women worldwide have
experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence. Globally, as many as 38% of
murders of women are committed by intimate partners. Women who have experienced domestic
violence report higher rates of important health problems. 16% are more likely to have a low-
birth-weight baby, 32% are likely to have an abortion, 32% are likely to experience depression
and 24% are likely to acquire HIV, as compared to women who have not experienced partner
violence. According to an article in the Huffington Post for 2014, in the United States three
women are murdered everyday by a current or former male partner while 38,028,000 women
have experienced physical intimate partner violence in their lifetimes. African American women
experience intimate partner violence at rates of 35% higher than white women. In 2011, 1509
women in the US were recorded to have been killed by an intimate partner. Worldwide, men who
were exposed to domestic violence as children are three to four times more likely to perpetrate
intimate partner violence as adults than men who did not experience domestic abuse as children.

In recent history, there has been a growing recognition of women‟s rights with the international
community, adopting laws and measures that protect women from gender based violence,
including IPV. Despite these initiatives however, women in developing countries, including
Kenya, continue to experience IPV at high rates. According to Federation of Women Lawyers in

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Kenya (FIDA (K)), it is estimated that nearly half of Kenyan women have experienced VAW in
their lifetime. In Kenya VAW is still regarded as a private family matter. Violence against
women by an intimate partner has strong traditional and cultural considerations in Kenya. In a
study conducted by FIDA (K) in 2002, it is demonstrated that women are most often violated by
their male relations mostly because of a skewed power equation at the domestic level. These
women are discriminated against, as they are not economically empowered to adequately meet
their own basic needs and therefore, take charge of their sexuality and livelihoods. This situation
predisposes them to mistreatment in key aspects of their lives.

There have been several initiatives to prevent and help reduce VAW in Kenya. Initiatives by law
makers such as “the protection against domestic violence bill” which was signed into law by
President Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya in 2015, rehabilitation shelters and centers for GBV victims,
Gender Based Violence desk in police stations strictly for reporting GBV cases, economic
empowerment programs, civic education on women‟s rights for both men and women, societal
civic education on the consequences of domestic violence.

The major concern of this study therefore, was to find out from the victims of violence against
women and Live with Hope NGO employees, based in Kericho that deals with GBV, on the
factors affecting violence against women in Kenya. Live with Hope organization run by Sister
Placida, is a community faith based organization located in the Motobo area at the heart of the
biggest informal settlement on the outskirts of Kericho. In August 2000, the Franciscan Sisters of
the Immaculate Conception arrived in Motobo at the invitation of the parish to educate the
community on HIV/AIDS awareness while visiting the sick. At the time, the level of stigma for
those living with HIV/AIDS was very high. This led to the development of support groups for
HIV infected persons; the name “Live with Hope” was introduced, and the center was registered
in 2001. Due to numerous cases of domestic violence reported in Kericho and little assistance
provided to victims of domestic violence, especially women, the organization took it upon itself
to provide temporary shelter and rehabilitation services to help in the recovery of domestic
violence victims.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
The overall research problem addressed in this study is that violence against women cases
continue to increase in Kenya. In 2006 there were 299 reported cases, 412 cases in 2007 and 400
in 2008 (GVRC, 2010). Although there are no recent tabulated statistics for gender violence for
Kenya, according to GVRC report 2013, the center treats 15 cases of rape and domestic violence
daily. The Gender Violence Recovery Centre (GVRC), a department of the Nairobi Women‟s
Hospital report that the total number of gender violence cases reported in 2011-2012 increased
by 45 cases from 2909 to 2954 and therefore an urgent need to reduce the number of these cases.
In Kenya women are discriminated against, as they are not economically empowered to
adequately meet their own basic needs, (FIDA, 2002). This situation predisposes them to
mistreatment from their male counterparts. There are various initiatives that are being undertaken
on gender issues to address the causes of domestic violence. However, despite these initiatives
little has been done to analyze the factors affecting violence against women in Kenya. VAW is
still largely experienced by women across Kenya and therefore an urgent need for effective ways
of reducing its prevalence. The stigma faced by the victims of intimate partner violence has made
it difficult for such studies to be carried out as these victims are not willing to come forward and
provide the required information.

There have been studies on the causes of intimate partner violence, there is a gap on ways of
reducing this type of violence. This study can help in determining whether the efforts and
strategies used have a positive impact and which strategy affects violence against women by an
intimate partner most in Kenya.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the factors affecting violence against women in Kenya.

1.4 Objective of the Study

The study was guided by the following objectives;

1. To determine education interventions affecting violence against women in Kenya.

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 2. To establish rehabilitation center programs affecting violence against women in
Kenya.
3. To assess group interventions affecting violence against women in Kenya.
4. To determine free legal counsel affecting violence against women in Kenya.

1.5 Research Questions

To address the objectives, the study was guided by the following research questions;

1. How do education interventions affect violence against women in Kenya?

2. How do rehabilitation center programs affect violence against women in Kenya?
3. How do group interventions affect violence against women in Kenya?
4. How does free legal counsel affect violence against women in Kenya?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of the study may be useful for the stakeholders to identify the strategies that have of
the country therefore empowering the victims of violence against women economically,
physically and emotionally. This study can also encourage the government in creating awareness
of the dangers of violence against women especially by the intimate partner which would in turn
aid in the reduction of this type of violence. County governments are ideal in implementing the
recommendation of this study as it is easy to reach the victims of intimate partner violence
victims in rural areas of every county.

The findings of the study may help education officials to consider introducing domestic violence
study in the Kenya‟s school curriculum therefore creating awareness of this issue at an early age.
This makes the students more aware of the effects and consequences of domestic violence to the
victims and offenders of domestic violence.

The research may also produce a document containing useful information that can be used for
future by scholars, students and other NGOs serving as a basis of reference for conducting
research, which in turn, will lead to better understanding of domestic violence reduction. This
still remains a serious problem that needs to be further investigated into. Future researchers will

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be able to refer to the study to understand social relationships and seek answers to various social
problems that will arise from recommendations.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

The researcher faced challenges of finding victims of violence against women by the intimate
partner who were willing to provide the information needed. The researcher sought assistance
from Live with Hope organization in Motobo area, Kericho County, which is a local
nongovernmental organization dealing with the victims to provide the respondents. The
researcher also established rapport with the respondents, exercised patience and offered clear
explanation to the significance of conducting the study. Time was also a limiting factor since the
victims of VAW were not always available for data collection process and not all who had
previously confirmed availability for this process showed up for the process.

1.8 Delimitations of the Study

The study focused on Live with Hope organization, a non-governmental organization in Ainamoi
constituency, Kericho County which provides assistance for HIV/AIDS and domestic violence
victims. The organization has branches in Malawi and Rwanda. The organization has a total of
100 employees in its Kericho office with five executive staff, according to statistics provided by
the organization. The study was deliminated into specific areas of the study, educational
interventions, group interventions and rehabilitation programs and how they affect violence
against women by the intimate partner in Kericho County. The site was selected because little
studies has been carried out in that part of the county. The researcher also had easy access to the
area using matatu and motorcycle transport.

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1.9 Assumptions of the Study

It is assumed that by studying VAW a broad understanding of ideas and approaches for
organizations, government and victims to solve problems related to domestic violence would be
achieved.

Moreover, the respondents under study were assumed to represent the other victims of intimate
partner violence and the situation of domestic violence in Kenya. It was also assumed that the
time period of three months allocated to the study was adequate to enable the undertaking of all
the activities to completion of the study. Finally, the study assumed that all the information given
by the respondents was true and accurate and that secondary data used is accurate and reliable.

It is also assumed by studying VAW, getting an integrative Kenyan perspective on domestic

violence issues would be achieved.

1.10 Definition of Significant Terms of the Study

Discrimination

This is treating a person unfavorably. In this study it means looking down on the victims and
stigmatizing them based on their gender violence experience.

Education
Education is a means of acquiring knowledge which may be through formal or informal
initiatives aimed at transferring skills and technical know-how to victims of violence against
women by an intimate partner to help stop domestic violence.

Empowerment

These are systems, practices, activities and programs designed the intimate partner violence
victim‟s status and conditions of living.

Intervention

This means to intentionally become involved in a difficult situation such as domestic violence in
order to improve it or prevent it from getting worse.

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Intimate Partner Violence

This is when one person in a relationship purposely hurts another person physically or
emotionally. It is called intimate partner violence because it is caused by a husband or a
boyfriend.

Legal counsel

This means services given to the victims of violence against women by an intimate partner by an
attorney.

Non-Governmental Organization

This refers to an organization not affiliated to the government, works independently to improve
the lives of vulnerable victims of violence of violence against women by an intimate partner in
Kericho County.

Rehabilitation center programs

These are programs provided in rehabilitation centers that provide therapy, treatment and
training for victims of violence against women.

Social Norms

These are rules of behavior that are considered acceptable in the society. People who do not
follow these rules may be shunned or suffer some kind of consequence.

Violence against women

These are any forms of gender based violence that would result in physical, sexual or
psychological suffering to women.

1.11 Organization of the Study

This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One that entails the study background,
problem statement, purpose of the study, objectives, significance, delimitations, limitations and
assumptions of the study. Chapter Two reviews literature relevant to the study. It also focuses on
the theoretical framework and the conceptual framework. Chapter Three highlights the study

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methodology with a key emphasis on design, population, sampling procedure, methods of data
collection, validity, and reliability of instruments, data analysis and ethical considerations.
Chapter Four focuses on the results collected from the field and a brief discussion while Chapter
Five dwells on the detailed summary, discussion, conclusions and recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This section reviews the existing theoretical and empirical literature on the factors affecting
violence against women in Kenya. The chapter reviews the concept of violence against women
by an intimate partner, the scope of violence against women by an intimate partner, primary and
secondary interventions affecting violence against women in Kenya. It also reviews the empirical
literature with emphasis from previous studies. The chapter finalizes by giving the conceptual
framework, summary of the literatures and the research gap.

2.2 Concept of Violence against Women by an Intimate Partner

Violence against women, also known as domestic violence, is a type of Gender Based Violence
that involves “physical, mental, or social abuse directed against a person by their spouse or
boyfriend. In these cases, a person has no choice to refuse or pursue other options without severe
social, physical, or psychological consequences” (IGWG, 2006).

GBV includes a range of mechanisms that can be subtle or obvious, including but not limited to
physical violence: slapping, kicking, hitting, or use of weapons, emotional violence: systematic
humiliation, controlling behavior, degrading treatment, threats, sexual violence: coerced sex,
forced sexual activities considered degrading or humiliating and economic violence: restricting
access to financial or other resources with the purpose of controlling a person (World Bank
Gender and Development Group, as cited by the Population Council, 2008).

These closely interrelated and mutually reinforcing types of abuse may occur separately, in
sequence, or in combination and essentially serve as mechanisms to perpetuate and promote
hierarchical gender relations and to maintain control over resources and power (Maynard, 1996),
and GBV functions as a systematic wearing down of women‟s autonomy and self-esteem.

Patterns of GBV vary from place to place, as do cultural and legal understandings of its
acceptability. At the community and societal levels, definitions of wrongdoing through violence

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vary according to shifting patterns of class, race, and gender relations rather than being founded
on a universal notion of intrinsic harm (Green, 1999).

Domestic violence occurs in every corner of the world and its manifestations and prevalence
rates vary. For example, the UN Secretary General's report (2006) cites in-country studies
estimating that from 10 to 70 percent of women have experienced violence. GBV targeting
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people is also endemic. Approximately 80 countries
criminalize consensual homosexual acts and multiple countries fail to prosecute crimes against
those who identify as gay, lesbian, or transgendered.

The United Nations' 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines
violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result
in physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
coercion or arbitrary deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life." This
declaration explicitly covers a broad range of acts, including marital rape, sexual abuse of
female, sexual harassment, trafficking in women, forced prostitution, and violence perpetrated by
the state. The UN definition of violence against women is important because it recognizes the
responsibility of the state to address the human rights of women, and recognizes that violence
against women is gender-based, and that it goes beyond the private problems of individual
victims (Levy, 2008).

According to a global review of over 50 population-based surveys over the past 16 years,
between 10% and 60% of adult women have been hit or otherwise physically assaulted by an
intimate male partner at some point in their lives. This same review indicates that between 3%
and 52% of women reported physical violence in the previous year (Heise et al, 1999). Research
has shown that physical violence is accompanied by sexual abuse in a third to over half of the
cases (WHO, 2002).

The FIDA report of 2002, for example, show that 39 percent of women aged 15-49 years have
experienced some form of physical violence from the age of 15 while 45 percent have
experienced either physical or sexual violence. Among ever married women aged 15-49 years,
47 percent have experienced physical, sexual or emotional violence from husband or live-in
partner. Over the years, the need to improve access for survivors of GBV services in sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) has received increased attention, given the reported linkage between GBV and
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reproductive health problems. GBV has, for instance, been associated with short birth intervals,
increased infant mortality, under nutrition among children of abused mothers, and increased
incidence of HIV/AIDS and sexually trans-mitted infections (STIs). The prevalence of violence
against women by an intimate partner is on the higher end of this spectrum in East Africa, with
in-country demographic and health surveys indicating that approximately half of all women
between the ages of 15-49 in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania having experienced physical or
sexual abuse within a partnership. It is now widely accepted that preventing VAW is possible
and can be achieved through a greater understanding of the problem; its risk and protective
factors; and effective evidence-informed primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies.
On August 11-12, 2014, the Institute of Medicine‟s (IOM‟s) Forum on Global Violence
Prevention, in a collaborative partnership with the Uganda National Academy of Sciences
(UNAS), convened a workshop focused on informing and creating synergies within a diverse
community of researchers, health workers, and decision makers committed to promoting VAW-
prevention efforts that are innovative, evidence-based, and crosscutting. This collaborative
workshop also fulfills the forum‟s mandate, which in part requires it to engage in multi-sectoral,
multidirectional dialogue that explores crosscutting approaches to violence prevention.

When President Uhuru Kenyatta signed into law the Protection against Domestic Violence Bill
in 2015, victims of domestic violence had a reason to smile. The law recognizes that domestic
violence, in all forms, is an unacceptable behavior. It also detailed all the 21 forms violence.
Under the new law, police officers do not require a warrant to arrest a person suspected to have
assaulted a family member. Victims of domestic violence who suffer injuries or damage to their
property are also liable for compensation at rates determined by the courts. In this case, the court
may take into account the pain and suffering of the victim, the nature of the injury, cost of
treatment, any loss of earnings and the value of the property destroyed or damaged. They are also
entitled to payment for their expenses on rent, transport and costs of moving houses. Even with
all these „entitlements‟ under the law, victims are somehow condoning violence one example
being 22-year-old Justa Kawira, who was recently beaten by her husband until she fell
unconscious. In a video that went viral on social media, Kawira is seen being beaten by her
husband all because she asked him why his friend was taking pictures of their household items.
Shortly after, Kawira is slapped by her husband and she retaliates. The end result is a bloody
scene after the husband strips her half naked, beats her while dragging her on the floor into the

11
house. Kawira is writhing in pain. The whole scene was recorded by her neighbor who claims to
have gotten tired of intervening whenever they got into an argument. He decided to record it so
that people would see and hopefully help her by reporting the matter to the police. Previously,
nothing could be done because the victim had not pressed any charges. She was rushed to
hospital unconscious but doctors were able to stabilize her and avoid a miscarriage of her six-
month pregnancy. In this scenario, the Nyumba Kumi approach worked. The neighbors were
their brother‟s keeper. They had sufficient evidence to present to the police officers.

According to section 6(1) of the Protection against Domestic Violence Act, a police officer may,
without a warrant of arrest, prefer charges against a person suspected to have assaulted or
threatened to assault another person however the act does not state what happens if a witness
presents evidence against the accused. A Lawyer Allan Otieno, who practises at Moseti Odongo
Waithaka Advocates, said the police could have started investigating the offence. Otieno further
noted that even when the victim does not want to press charges, as long as the state can get
witnesses for that particular offence, they can still proceed with the case, though it may be weak.
Kawira's case is among the many that go unreported. Having the video shared on social media
enlightens people to the reality that domestic violence is still taking place.

In Khorof Harar, Wajir, Fatuma Ibrahim was stabbed by her husband deep into her cheek, during
a family dispute. When asked about the incident, the mother of four admitted that she has been a
victim of domestic violence a number of times but would not leave the marriage because of her
children. According to Agnes Kola, an advocate for women rights at Action Aid, violence is
condoned in some families because some women want to make people believe they have a good
relationship with their husband but in reality they are suffering in silence. The reason many
women don‟t report when they are abused has a lot to do with people‟s perception. They are
trying to create a scenario that they are in a happy relationship. The moment they come out and
say that you are walking out of the relationship, they are usually judged by family members and
society. Condoning violence has nothing to do with the magnitude of the battering but rather
what they psychologically and emotionally go through. Such people need a very strong support
structure. Most women fear reporting such cases because they don‟t know what would happen to
them after the accused has been released from prison.

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Given that IPV is an important risk factor for a range of health problems, there has been growing
awareness of the need for health providers to be able to respond better to cases of violence that
they encounter, and to help identify women experiencing violence and refer them to specialized
services. This referral is very important, as many women experiencing violence will never seek
help from a legal or stand-alone service, but will probably go to a health service during their
adult life. Women may access the health system at a range of potential entry points for service
provision and may have a range of presenting health needs. Some women experiencing partner
violence will present at primary care, while women experiencing serious injuries may present to
hospital emergency services. Given that coerced sex and violence in pregnancy is widespread,
ante- and postnatal care, family planning or post-abortion care are also potentially important
entry points. Therefore, it is important that the health sector ensures not only the efficient
delivery of health-related services to victims of violence, but also facilitates these women‟s
access to non-health services.

Some women may disclose violence without being questioned, while others may not openly
disclose the cause of their presenting problem. Much of the debate regarding the health-sector
response has focused upon whether women should be “screened” for violence, and whether such
interventions impact on women‟s future risk of violence. There has been much less debate about
what may be the most important entry points for health-sector involvement in different settings,
or consideration of what may be the most feasible ways for health services in low- and middle-
income countries to integrate responses to violence into the health sector.

In view of the prevalence as well as the pervasiveness of domestic violence, many researchers in
the past have attempted to assess the situation besides exploring its possible cause and
subsequent consequences for society in general and women in particular. INCLEN (2000), found
it as a problem that cuts across age, education, social class and religion in India. The same study
is of the view that 40 percent women had experienced at least one form of physical violence in
their married life. Murthy et al. (2004) is of the view that numbers of family members, type of
marriage and husband‟s education besides menstrual problems have significant influence on
domestic violence. While many researchers come out with findings that lifestyle of men such as
smoking, alcoholism and drugs promote men to commit domestic violence (Leonard, 1992;
McKenry et al., 1995; Rao, 1997 and Bhatt, 1998), some are of the view that masculinity and

13
domestic violence are closely interlinked (Duvvury and Nayak, 2003 and Hamberger et al.,
1997). Again, persons with lower socialization and responsibility are found to be the enhancers
of the problem (Barnett and Hamberger, 1992). Studies have also revealed that sons of violent
parents (Straus et al., 1980 and Martin et al, 2002), men raised in patriarchal family structure that
encourages traditional gender role (Fagot et al., 1998 and Malamuth et al., 1995) are more likely
to abuse their intimate partners. Gendered socialization process is what mainly responsible for
domestic violence (Sahu, 2003). Another study among Uttar Pradesh men by Gerstein (2000) is
of the view that low educational level and poverty are important reasons for domestic violence.
Further, marriage at a younger age makes women vulnerable to domestic violence (Mishra,
2000; Hindin, 2002 and Rao, 1997). Besides this, the role of inter spousal relationship, sex of the
children, ownership of property, dowry, working status, autonomy, religion and caste of the
person can‟t be ignored (Sahu, 2003; Swain, 2002 and Jejeebhoy, 1998).

Many studies are of the view that violence by intimate partner most likely undermines the sexual
and reproductive health of the women. This extensive violence has significant harmful effects
like unwanted pregnancy (Khan et al., 1996), gynecological disorders (Golding and Taylor 1996)
and physical injuries to private parts (Starck et al., 1979) besides large-scale mental health
impacts (UNICEF, 2000). Again, many of the commonly associated disorders/problems are
found to be inadequately addressed (Mitra, 1999; Visaria, 1999; Dave and Solanki, 2000 and
Jaswal, 2000). Further, as Freedman has written, violence by husbands against wife should not
be seen as a break down in the social order rather than an affirmation to patriarchal social order
(Travers, 1997). Similarly, Jejeebhoy (1998) is of the view that not only wife beating is deeply
entrenched, but also people justify it. Thus, domestic violence is simply not a personal
abnormality but rather it roots in the cultural norms of the family and the society. Again, looking
from another angle, it is found that many of the victims of domestic violence has either refused
to name the perpetrator of the assault or attributed the injuries to other reasons (Daga et al.,
1999).
Many men continue to hold power and privilege over women, and seek to safeguard that power.
But there are other men who reject fixed gender divisions and harmful versions of masculinity,
and who are more open to alternative, „gender-equitable‟ masculinities. Seeing the effects of
gender discrimination on women they care deeply about, or becoming more aware of the benefits

14
of involved fatherhood, for example, may motivate some men to change (Ruxton, 2004). In
various settings, small numbers of men and boys are changing their attitudes and behaviour
towards women - supporting opportunities for women to earn an income outside the home, or
speaking out against gender-based violence. But what makes resistance to rigid views of gender
possible? How can development policies and programmes stimulate or build on these positive
attitudes and behaviours to achieve gender equality for all? What works with men in practice?

Initiatives need to engage men as allies, using positive and relevant messages which also address
their specific concerns. By highlighting the costs of gender inequality, as well as the benefits of
gender equality - both for men as individuals, and as members of families and communities -
program can support men to reflect on, and ultimately resist, harmful constructions of
masculinity
Studies have shown that fathers who are positively engaged in the lives of their children are less
likely to be depressed, to commit suicide, or to be violent towards their wives. They are more
likely to be involved in community work, to be supportive of their partners, and to be involved in
school activities (Morrell, 2003). When fatherhood is privileged as a central aspect of
masculinity, everybody benefits.

However, in most cultures, children are taught from a young age that men‟s role in the family is
that of provider and protector. Childcare, by contrast, is seen as a „job for women‟. Studies from
a range of settings find that fathers contribute about one-third to one-fourth of the time that
mothers do to direct childcare (Population Council, 2001). Yet as increasing numbers of women
enter the labour force, many women are being left with a double work-burden - being expected
to earn an income in addition to carrying out their existing domestic chores and childcare
responsibilities. As the AIDS epidemic leaves growing numbers of children vulnerable and
orphaned, women‟s unpaid work burdens are intensifying. An important step in alleviating the
burden of care and support borne by women is thus to challenge rigid ideas about masculinity
which disassociate men from caring roles (Peacock, 2003). It is essential that interventions seek
to engage men in childcare and domestic chores and encourage fathers and husbands to play a
more active role in caring for and safeguarding their children‟s futures. For programmes to be
effective, it is important that we listen to the voices of fathers, recognise their own needs and

15
interests, and make it clear how men themselves will benefit when they are actively engaged as
fathers (Barker, in Correia and Bannon, 2006).

Salud y Genero, discussed above, has found that talking about fatherhood is a good entry point
for men who might feel threatened by topics such as violence, sexuality or alcohol. Fatherhood is
seen as a socially desirable role for men in Mexico and it is central to male self-esteem. It is also
a good point of intervention for strengthening equitable relationships through sharing in
childcare (IGWG 2003). The “How Daddy Looks to Me” campaign was conducted at national
level in 2000 with support from local, state and national government, and produced nearly a
quarter of a million pictures from primary and pre-school children across the country which were
displayed widely. Many drawings were about love, but a prominent number featured controlling
attitudes and even violence. Very few of the drawings were about fathers‟ presence in domestic
life. The objective of the campaign was to facilitate consciousness-raising among men in order to
foster fuller paternal responsibility and emotional commitment towards children.

The Fatherhood Project in South Africa aims to promote positive images of men as fathers, and
foster a more conducive policy and programmatic environment for men‟s involvement with their
children. The project is based on a travelling photo exhibition which contains over a hundred
images revealing the possibilities and challenges of men‟s closer involvement with their children
(Barker and Ricardo, 2005).

In 1997, the PAPAI Institute founded the first Brazilian Adolescent Father‟s Support Programme
which provides information to help young men take on responsibility for their own sexuality and
its consequences, and supports teenagers who are already parents. Weekly workshops are held in
hospitals and public health centres with young fathers and the partners of pregnant adolescents,
focusing on issues relating to pregnancy, childbirth, childcare, and paternal responsibilities.
PAPAI also uses art education to encourage the participation of men in childcare - for example
by bringing out a 3.5 metre-high mascot at public events which represents a young man carrying
his child in a baby-bag (Lyra 2005).
A group of women in the dry heartland of central Kenya have almost entirely excluded men from
their lives to protect themselves from domestic violence and rape. The small community of Unity

16
Village is one of several women-only settlements surrounding Archer's Post in the country's
central region. The women live in traditional homes made from green branches, reeds and
whatever they can find to make the roof watertight. Nkamasioi Lembwakita, a Samburu woman
who lives in Unity women's village said that there is no-one who can rape them in the village
since there are no men who reside in the there. (ABC News: Elphas Ngugi, 2016)
It is still a widely held belief by both men and women in Kenya that a husband should discipline
his wife with his fists. Most of the women in the village have been subjected to violence by men.
Others have been raped. The women from Unity village make handicrafts and beaded jewellery
to generate a little income. (ABC News: Elphas Ngugi). A series of tribal disputes between the
Samburu, the Pokot and the Turkana tribes has spilled over into violence with people shot dead
in clashes over grazing lands and during cattle thefts. The fact some women have abandoned
men may be seen as a sign of enlightenment. They realise that life does not have to be violent.
Attitudes appear to be changing, but it is a slow transformation. A big percentage of young men
nowadays are trying to be modern. They are more aware of consequences of intimate partner
violence because they went to school and they know the rights. They have learnt a lot about the
rights of the women and the rights of the men and the rights of all human beings."

In order to develop effective intervention program and policy, it is vital to know the attitude and
perception of the women towards the issue in-depth. Most of the studies conducted in the past
are small in nature and reflects the regional picture that might not be a true picture of the whole
country. In view of the above discussion, it seems essential to understand the women‟s viewpoint
besides the assessment of the problem and its correlates at national level. Further, in the present
world, where gender equality and justice have become the buzz words, examining the domestic
violence in the largest democracy of the world appears worthy for the betterment of half of its
citizens.
Research has identified factors associated with domestic violence at the individual and
situational and various academic disciplines and practitioners weight each level differently in
their theories and the design of interventions. For example, clinical psychologists and legal
scholars have often focused on the individual level, specifically on the pathological personality
traits of GBV perpetrators as a means to identify, counsel, or prosecute potential or previous
perpetrators (Fischel, 2010)

17
From a social psychological perspective, societal factors will be most predictive of a GBV event
when they are salient in the immediate situation. Such societal factors include power
asymmetries, gender norms, roles, scripts, societal representations of women, and armed conflict or
other crises, among others.

Power Asymmetries: Across many different literatures, GBV is understood as partially arising
from power inequity. Violence is a mechanism for the social control of the less powerful and
serves to maintain male dominance and female subordination (Pratto, 1996). Men enjoy greater
economic, political, and social power in the vast majority of human societies, but there also
exists variability in these power inequities. Scholars have used this variation to study the
circumstances under which power or motivation to gain power leads to GBV. Due to power
differences, the targets of harassment are unlikely to report the harassment, and in some
experimental settings participants have reacted to harassment with polite smiles (LaFrance
&Woodzicka, 2005), demonstrating the extent to which power reproduces cycles of harassment.

Gender Roles, Scripts, and Norms: Gender roles are socially shared expectations about behavior
that apply to individuals based on socially identified sex (Eagly, 1987). For any given person,
gender roles exist as abstract knowledge structures about groups of people. For instance, as men
are more likely to occupy roles that wield power, individuals often expect and socialize males to
behave in dominant, assertive manners. As women are more likely to occupy roles as caretakers,
individuals often expect and socialize women to be passive, communal, and responsive
(Anderson, John, Keltner&Kring, 2001).

Societal gender roles have been linked directly to GBV, serving to justify behavior or define
relationships. Interview studies have revealed that men who beat their wives justify the violence
by citing “unwifely” behavior (Adams, 1988). Other scholars conclude that masculine gender
roles have become defined in part by sexual access to and dominance over women (Koss et al.,
1993). Indeed, research has shown that “sex role stress,” i.e. when men feel they are inadequately
meeting prescribed masculine gender roles, predicts sexual aggression (Anderson & Anderson,
2008)

Alongside media that depicts GBV, alcohol consumption is an example of a societal

phenomenon that influences GBV directly. Half of all sexual assaults in the United States and the
United Kingdom are committed by a perpetrator who has been drinking alcohol (Abbey,

18
Zawacki, Buck, Clinton, &McAuslan, 2004; Bowen, 2011). Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)is
more likely on days when alcohol was consumed than on days when it was not (Bowen,
2011).Alcohol consumption often interacts with other situational and individual factors to
facilitate GBV.

Interventions for violence against women by an intimate partner

Many interventions have been designed to combat and reduce domestic violence. The
interventions include both primary and secondary elements. Primary interventions seek to
prevent violence before it has begun by targeting social norms or through educational outreach
while secondary interventions address or “treat” violence once it has occurred, often at the
situational or individual level.

2.3Education interventions and violence against women

The main difficulty with assessing educational interventions is that most empirical studies omit
curricular details, making it difficult to place the program in the social psychological context of
GBV. We focus on a few studies offering program details in order to examine the potential
mechanisms for behavior change and explain uncertainty in results.

2.3.1Programs Directed toward Likely Targets of GBV

Some programs focus on potential targets of violence, seeking to help them avoid future
violence. The design and implementation of target-oriented programs can be controversial in the
context of GBV, because frequently targets of violence are blamed for their suffering based on
their failure to conform to societal norms. We discuss two types of preventive interventions that
aim to reduce the prevalence or severity of GBV by reaching potential targets prior to
victimization.

Rape and assault prevention interventions: The primary preventive strategy to reduce rape and
sexual assault among adults in the United States is self-defense instruction (Brecklin, 2008).
Empirical studies of self-defense programs show a range of effects on women's "rape avoidance"
in the event of assault (Brecklin& Ullman, 2008). Although studies also examine attitudinal
outcomes, including assertiveness and self- esteem, such effects typically disappear within six
months of the program's conclusion (Brecklin, 2008).

19
2.3.2 Media and Social Norms Marketing Campaigns
As we noted at the outset, the perception of community disapproval may affect behavior, despite
personal attitudes and beliefs to the contrary. Rather than directly targeting personal attitudes or
beliefs, social norms marketing targets perceptions of the prevalence of certain attitudes or
beliefs in the community. Social norms interventions are supported by research showing that
social norms affect behavior change more dramatically than personal attitudes (Paluck, 2009).
Social norms can sustain GBV rooted in community customs, including Female Genital
Mutilation (FGM) (a custom in which girls' sexual organs are cut as a rite of passage).FGM also
happens in marriages whereby the husband forces the wife or girlfriend who has not undergone
FGM to have it done. Usually the husband threatens to divorce the wife if they do not agree to go
through with it. Even when partners oppose FGM, they may have their daughters and wives cut
because they perceive that other community members view it as normal or desirable.

Media campaigns targeting individuals suffering GBV: Secondary interventions to mitigate GBV
or reduce its prevalence often promote help-seeking behavior. Paradoxically, campaigns that
encourage help seeking by making targets feel they are not alone may promote the negative
descriptive norm that GBV is common or even normal. These descriptive norms, as described in
a previous section, may even increase the frequency of GBV. Where GBV is highly prevalent
and services are available but underutilized due to lack of awareness or stigmatization of GBV,
awareness or stigma-breaking campaigns may be critical. However, such campaigns should be
limited to the early stage of information dissemination and breaking down stigma; years later, the
risks of perpetuating a negative descriptive norm may outweigh the benefits of a message
emphasizing that targets are not alone.

2.4Group interventions and violence against women

While social norms marketing campaigns seek to reach a broad audience that includes actual and
potential perpetrators and targets of violence, other secondary interventions focus on actual
offenders and aim to reduce repeat GBV. Many states in the United States mandate specific
interventions for various perpetrators of GBV, such as those convicted of IPV or sex offenses.

Therapeutic interventions: Couples counseling, typically cognitive-behavioral therapy, is an

alternative to group interventions for perpetrators of IPV. Counseling at the couple level
generally seeks to develop anger-management techniques (Maiuro, 1991). Such counseling

20
frequently attempts to assist an abusive individual in distinguishing between (permissible)
negative emotional responses and aggressive (impermissible, violent) behavioral responses.
Couples counseling also focus on specific tools like taking a "time out" when the individual
recognizes signs of anger or arousal to de- escalate conflict. This intervention thus focuses on the
individual factors leading to abuse, but also points out situational triggers of those individual
factors.

Couples counseling has been criticized for "encouraging the underlying inequity of power
between the partners," and perhaps pressuring the target of abuse to remain in the relationship
(Lawson, 2003). Some studies have concluded that couples counseling, particularly when paired
with individual counseling, "may be safe and beneficial" (Klein, 2008, p. 46, citing
Johannson&Tutty, 1998). However, one meta-analysis found that while all forms of group
interventions have some non-zero effect as compared to mere arrest, cognitive-behavioral
therapy has no effect (Babcock et al., 2004). In addition, another study concluded that men who
violated protective orders but were assigned to anger-management interventions had higher re-
offense rates than those assigned to Batterer Intervention Programs (BIPs), which is a program
that batterers attend, usually as part of the legal system response to domestic violence. BIP is
mostly found in the United States and Europe. Attendance and completion of the program is
monitored by the legal system.

2.5 Free Legal Counsel and violence against women

Law enforcement interventions are perhaps the easiest to implement, but many legal
interventions are also known to exacerbate tense situations. Mandatory arrest and restraining
orders allows for a period of relative calm in which the abuser and victim are separated,
decreasing recidivism compared to law enforcement inaction or spontaneous counseling
(Wanless, 1996). However, one study found the effect of mandatory arrest transitory (Tauchen&
Witte, 1995), and another showed mandatory arrest laws correlated with an increase in intimate
homicide due to decreased reporting and increased reprisal (Iyengar, 2009).

In Kenya, the Sexual offences Act (2006), makes provisions about sexual offences, their
definition, prevention and protection of all persons from harm from unlawful sexual acts. This
act was created to enhance the penalties imposed upon offenders and in a sense deter them from
committing the offences in light of the stiff penalties. The constitution has a law called The

21
Prevention of Domestic Violence Act which focuses on the precaution against and prevention of
domestic violence. There is also the setting up of Gender violence desks in most police stations.

Lawyers are expensive, and women who need them often can‟t afford them. Without legal
counsel it can be harder for women to get protective orders, leave their abusive partners and
escape the cycle of violence. Women stuck in abusive relationships tend to miss work because of
injury or rack up hospital bills they can never pay off according to The Institute for Policy
Integrity US report.

2.6 Rehabilitation Center Programs and violence against women

In most cases the best treatment for domestic violence is to get out of an abusive relationship.
Although it can be difficult to leave an abusive relationship the alternative is too dangerous and
is often deadly. Various types of rehab centers are offered for victims of intimate partner
violence. These rehab centers provide programs that offer assistance to move on from the
victims‟ abusive life. Services such as legal services, job training and domestic abuse shelters are
included in the programs. Gender Violence Recovery Center (GVRC) and Centre for Assault
Recovery of Eldoret (CAR-E) are examples of centers that assist intimate partner violence
victims.

Intimate partner violence and/or sexual assault centres, also referred to as One-Stop Centres,
provide multisectoral case management for survivors, including health, welfare, counselling, and
legal services in one location (Colombini et al., 2008). These crisis centres are typically located
in health facilities, including the emergency departments of hospitals, or as stand-alone facilities
near a collaborating hospital (United Nations, 2006). These centres can be staffed with
specialists 24 hours or can maintain a core group of staff with specialists on call.

One-stop Centres

According to the United States Secretary-General's in-depth study on violence against women,
2006, one of the best-known good practices in service provision involves bringing together
services in one location, often called the “One-stop center”, an interagency unit for
victim/survivors of domestic or sexual violence. Such a service was first developed in the largest
Government-run general hospital in Malaysia. The victim/survivor is first examined and treated

22
by a doctor and is seen by a counsellor within 24 hours in a separate examination room that
protects privacy and confidentiality. If it appears that the victim will be in danger if she returns
home, the doctor or counsellor arranges for her to go to an emergency shelter or admits her to the
accident and emergency ward for 24 hours. If the patient chooses not to seek shelter, she is
encouraged to return to see a social worker at the hospital at a later date. She is also encouraged
to make a police report at the police unit based in the hospital. In a case involving severe injury,
the police see the patient in the ward to record her statement and start investigations. This model
is currently being replicated in many parts of the world. It has been shown that when
comprehensive one-stop shops are adequately resourced, staffed and managed, reporting and
demand for services increases. For example, following the introduction of comprehensive post-
rape care services, the reporting of rape was ten times higher in the following three months at a
district hospital in Kenya (Taegtmeyer et al., 2006). However, one-stop centres require the
commitment of administrators in order to be effective, as well as training and support for all staff
working within the centre. Key lessons learned from an implemented a one-stop centre in
Thailand include: Hospital management must be involved in the establishment of one-stop crisis
centres, teamwork among various hospital personnel is crucial and training for various hospital
staff should focus not only on technical aspects of violence against women, but should also cover
issues such as power, relationships, gender and sexuality. Sensitization of police on the same
issues is also important. Visits to other crisis centres can be a useful starting point for designing
services.

Initially, health care providers may identify only the most obvious cases of abuse, but sharing of
experiences between personnel in various departments of the hospital can improve screening
skills in general. Adherence to a standard protocol for various health care workers is necessary.
(Excerpted from WHO, 2007). One-stop Centres for South Africa‟s Survivors of Sexual
Violence South Africa has created the Thuthuzela Care Centres (TCC) that facilitate multi-
sectoral collaboration between health, police, courts, and social services to provide quality,
sensitive treatment for rape survivors. The goals of Thuthuzela Care Centres are to reduce
secondary victimization, reduce waiting times and increase conviction rates. The ten centres
spread throughout the country provide survivors with a range of services, including: emergency
medical care; testing for pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections and HIV; post exposure
prophylaxis, antiretrovirals, trauma counselling; court preparation, referrals and follow up

23
support. Survivors are entitled to services even if they do not wish to prosecute the perpetrator
(Vaz, 2008). Successful implementation of Thuthuzela Care Centres is ongoing with growing
public awareness of the centres. An analysis of 10 Thuthuzela Care Centres conducted in 2008
found the following challenges: staffing shortages, a need for increased training, inconsistencies
in sexual assault management, including HIV testing and provision of post-exposure
prophylaxis, limited access to psychosocial counseling and inconsistent survivor follow-up
systems. Improvements to the centres include provision of equipment, such as sterilizing
machines; increased training for survivors; creating child-friendly spaces; and making
Thuthuzela Care Centres more survivor-friendly (Vaz, 2008).

The United Kingdom has created a system of Sexual Assault Referral Centers, safe locations
where victims of sexual assault can receive immediate and longer-term medical care and
counseling. The referral centers bring together all of the relevant legal and medical agencies and
departments in a single center, which provides better assistance for the victim and aids criminal
investigation. The system is modeled after the St. Mary‟s Sexual Assault Referral Centre in
Manchester, which has been recognized as a model of good practice in providing immediate and
“one-stop” services. The St. Mary‟s Center opened in 1986 and was the first such center in the
United Kingdom to provide comprehensive and coordinated forensic, counseling and medical
services to adults who had experienced rape or sexual assault. For victims the referral centers
system reduces the stress of having to deal with multiple service providers and criminal
investigators. Furthermore, practice has shown that victims who receive immediate care and
counseling recover more steadily and are less likely to need long-term care. From the perspective
of law enforcement, the centers assist the police by providing a centralized facility where they
can meet with the victim and gather evidence.

The President‟s Family Justice Center Initiative, a $20 million USD federal programme to create
specialized “one stop shop” multi-disciplinary service centers in the US for victims of family
violence and their children, was launched in 2003. The centers are modeled after the San Diego
Family Justice Center, which is considered a good practice in the field of victim services. The
San Diego Family Justice Center model reduces the number of institutions that a victim of
domestic violence, sexual assault and/or elder abuse must go to in order to receive assistance.
The family justice center model has several effective features. For example, all relevant partners

24
to a multi-disciplinary approach are co-located at the center (law enforcement, prosecutors,
probation officers, victim advocates, attorneys, healthcare professionals as well as staff
representing other community organizations and faith groups). The communities in which these
centers are located have policies that emphasize arrest and prosecution of offenders- as well as a
history of collaboration among law enforcement, government agencies and civil society. Victim
safety, advocacy and confidentiality are the highest priorities under the family justice center
model. The family justice centers are located in communities with well-developed specialized
services for domestic violence victims and also receive local support from policymakers and the
community at large.

Rehabilitating criminals is a highly debated topic in the US. With the majority of criminals being
repeat offenders, the correctional institution has made rehabilitation a top priority. Research over
the years has shown that some programs are more effective than others. These programs are
created for domestic violence perpetrators. Men who violated protective orders but were
assigned to Batterer Intervention Programs (BIPs),which is a program that batterers attend
usually as part of how the legal system response to domestic violence, had lower re-offence
rates (Klein,2008). Attendance and completion of program is monitored by the legal system.
BIPs are mostly found in the United States and Europe.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

This study is guided the feminist theory in an attempt to explain factors affecting violence
against women. The theory aims to understand the nature of gender inequality which is the
source of violence against women and the social institutions of marriage and family are special
contexts that may promote, maintain and support men‟s use of physical force against women.
The theory also focuses on the societal messages that sanction a male‟s use of violence and
aggression throughout life and the prescribed gender roles that dictate how men and women
should behave in their intimate relationships (Pence & Paymar, 1993). Understanding the cause
aids in finding the solution to the problem. It sees the root causes of intimate partner violence as
the outcome of living a society that condones aggressive behaviors perpetrated by men while
socializing women to be non-violent.

25
2.6 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework displaying the relationship of the variables is as shown in the
diagram.

Figure 1 Conceptual framework

Independent Variables Moderating Variable Dependent Variable

Education Government policies

Intervention
 Sexual offence bill,2006
 Media  Protection against domestic violence
bill
campaigns
 Public education Violence against
 Awareness
women
programs
in schools  Physical harm

Rehabilitation  Sexual violence

center programs  Psychological
•Domestic abuse shelters harm
•Legal services  Emotional
Job trainings suffering

Group Intervention
• Couples counseling
• Anger management classes
 Culture
 Lack of
knowledge on
Free legal counsel
human rights
• Obtaining a restraining order  Lack of
against perpetrator awareness Intervening
variables
• Assistance in divorce process
• Government benefits access
26
2.7 Knowledge Gap
Little study has been done on the factors affecting violence against women in Kenya. Most of the
studies carried out focus on the causes and effects of domestic violence.

Table 2.1 Knowledge gap

Study Findings Gap

Muchane, 2011 Poverty and alcohol as the This study only focused on
highest cause of family causes and effects of intim
disturbances. Women in poor partner violence wit
families lacked the ability to stating what could be don
access legal representation and reduce it.
faced barriers to employments.
Cases were mostly not
reported due to stigmatization.
ACORD, 2007 Stigmatization is the main This study mostly focused
reason why victims do not the legal response to reduc
report GBV cases. It concluded gender based violence
that the formal justice system
is weak.

2.8 Summary of literature reviewed

The chapter discusses factors affecting violence against women at large across the globe and
highlights statistics of selected areas and the prevalence of domestic violence. The factors
affecting violence against women by their intimate partners and the strategies used to try and
reduce the number of gender violence cases. The causes of violence against women have also

27
been discussed as one needs to assess the causes to find the solutions. Literature gaps have been
identified which deserves further probing through research on the factors affecting violence
against women. Theory of change has also been adopted as a framework to guide the study and
conceptual framework discussed.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the methodology that was used in this study. The chapter details the
research design, the target population, sampling procedures, data collection instruments, data
collection procedures, data collection techniques, ethical considerations and operationalization of
the variables in the study.

3.2 Research Design

This study adopted the descriptive survey. A descriptive survey method entails a method of data
collection by interviews and questionnaires to a sample of individuals and is not only restricted
to fact findings. Moreover it enables one to draw valid conclusions from facts discussed where
possible. This study intended on capturing the information on the factors affecting violence
against women, taking a case of Live with Hope NGO, Kericho County. This design enabled
close analysis of association between the two variables at that given point without any alteration
to the conditions hence more appropriate. Also the design is appropriate since it helped to
determine the characteristics of the partner violence victims and the frequency of violence they
encounter. Data was collected using questionnaires and field observations and was analyzed
using descriptive statistics such as frequency of occurrence and percentages.

3.3 Target Population

Target population is a group of individuals, objects or items that have common characteristics
from which sample are taken for measurement. The population targeted by the study consisted of
the staff of Live with Hope NGO and victims of IPV assisted by the NGO. The sample was
derived from the NGO‟s staff and identified victims of IPV which totals to a population of 150.

29
Table 3.1 Target population of the study by Live with Hope Organization

Category of Population Frequency %

Executive staff 5 3
Department staff 11 7
Project investigator 15 10
IPV victims 119 80
Total 150 100

3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

The researcher used census method. This is the method of gathering information of every
individual of a population. The sample size of the study was 150 respondents. A census study
occurs if the entire population is very small or it is reasonable to include the entire population.
The use of census method is ideal in the fact that the population of this study is already small.
Censuses are more accurate and thus eliminating bias.

Table 3.2 Sample size of the study by Live with Hope organization

Category of Population Frequency % Sample size

Executive staff 5 3 5
Department staff 11 7 11
Project investigator 15 10 15
IPV victims 119 80 119
Total 150 100 150

30
3.5 Methods and Instruments of Data Collection
Data was sourced from both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources were obtained
through administering of questionnaires to respondents, question guide for some staff members
and interviews. The study adopted a semi-structured questionnaire. They were administered to all
respondents and interviews conducted with key informants to supplement what was elicited from
the questionnaire. Focus group was also used in getting more information on specific questions
an issues. Secondary data sources were obtained from existing studies, reports and journals. They
are the foundation on which the theoretical and conceptual framework of the research will be
built.

3.5.1 Pilot Study

According Connelly (2008), extant literature suggests that a pilot study sample should be 10%
of the sample projected for the larger parent study. The sample was 10% of the census sample of
150 respondents, which is a sample of 15 respondents. The study was carried out at an NGO in
Kibera called Carolina for Kibera. The questionnaires were pilot tested on the 15 respondents
and the results obtained were sufficient to the subjects. During the reconnaissance the
questionnaire was amended before the actual data for the study was collected to ensure validity
and reliability of the data.

3.5.2 Validity of the Instrument

The researcher checked the instruments for content validity, the extent to which the research
instrument measures what it purports to measure. Specifically, the representation of the content
on the dependent and independent variables through relevant questions were checked. The
validity of the research questions were ascertained by consultations with experts in which the
researcher was advised on items to be corrected. The corrections on the identified questions were
incorporated in the instrument to increase validity.

3.5.3 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement to another. A research instrument is reliable
if it produces consistent results or data after repeated trials (Gibbs, 2007). In order to test the
reliability of the instruments in this study, Cronbach‟s Alpha was used. Cronbach‟s Alpha
measures the internal consistency of the data and ranges between 0 and 0.9 with reliability
increasing with the increase in value. Coefficient of 0.6 to 0.7 is commonly accepted rule of the
thumb that indicates acceptable reliability and 0.8 or higher indicates good reliability. A high
31
value of alpha (>0.9) may suggest redundancies and shows that the test length should be
shortened. This ensured that the instrument captured all the required data. All the study
constructs indicated Cronbach‟s Alpha of above 0.6 and hence the measurements constructs were
reliable.

3.6 Data Collection Procedure

The researcher obtained an introduction letter from the University of Nairobi allowing the
researcher to go to the field and a research permit from the National Council for Science,
Technology and Innovation. The permit was presented to the County Education Officer Kericho
County so as to allow to conduct the study. The questionnaires were then distributed to the
respondents with the help of one research assistant. The researcher paid a visit to the respondents
on designated dates during which the questionnaires that had earlier been distributed, were
collected for analysis. Interviews conducted to a specific set of respondents to get clarifications
of some significant issues that arose from responses.

3.7 Data Analysis Techniques

The completed questionnaires were checked for completeness and comprehensibility to ensure
consistency. The data was edited, classified and coded. The researcher used both the qualitative
analysis and the quantitative analysis techniques.
The open-ended items helped in collecting qualitative data. The qualitative data was analysed by
grouping quotations from the respondents by categories and coding of the particular common
responses was done so that the quotations from particular themes and was presented as frequency
distributions and percentages in thematic forms according to research questions.

Data collected using closed-ended questions was directly analyzed using descriptive statistics by
tallying and forming frequency distributions and percentages, which are easy to read and
interpret. Data analysis was facilitated by the use of Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS) software.In each case of analysis of data from a research question, the researcher sought
to determine the strength of the association between the independent variables and dependent
variable.

32
3.8 Ethical Considerations
Researchers whose subjects are people or animals must consider the conduct of their research
and give attention to ethical issues associated with carrying out their research (Kombo and
Tromp, 2006). Only people conducting the survey knew the identity of the participants. The
researcher obtained informed consent from subjects used in the study and ensured that all
subjects participated voluntarily. The researcher fully explained the research in advance and
debriefed the subjects afterwards. Researcher accepted individual responsibility for the conduct
and consequences of this research and maintained openness and honesty in dealing with research
subjects.

33
3.9 Operational Definition of Variables
Table 3.3 Operational definition of variables

Objectives Types of Indicators Measurement Scale To

Variables an
To assess how Independent- -Media -increased help Ordinal De
education education Campaigns seeking Sta
interventions interventions -Public behaviour Fr
affect violence education -societal Di
against women -GBV support of n
awareness VAW victims M
Dependent- Of
Intimate Te
Partner No. of reported Rate of Nominal De
violence cases occurrence of sta
cases
Reduced re- Success rate Ordinal De
offences sta

To establish how Independent- -domestic abuse -success rate Ordinal De

rehabilitation rehabilitation shelters -Level of Sta
center programs center training Fr
affect violence programs -job trainings Di
against women n
-legal services M
Of
Te
To assess how Independent- -couple -success rate Ordinal De
group group counselling Sta
interventions interventions Fr
affect violence -anger Di
against women management n
classes M
Of
Te

To determine Independent- -Obtaining - success rate Ordinal De

how free legal free legal restraining Sta
counsel affect counsel orders
violence against -Assistance in
women divorce process
-Access to
government
benefits

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results based on the study and discusses its interpretation. The chapter
begins by presenting these findings highlighting the key determinants and their effects on
violence against women by their intimate partners. This is presented and discussed in line with
the objectives of this study and the analysis tends to answer the research questions.

4.2 Response Rate

Out of 150 questionnaires that were issued 107 were filled and returned. This represents a
response rate of 71.3%. The remaining questionnaires were never returned.

4.3 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

As part of general information, the respondents were requested to indicate their gender, marital
status, occupation and level of education. This was necessary in shedding light on characteristics
of respondents.

4.3.1 Gender of the Respondents

Among the respondents, female and male shared the platform unequally on 15.9% and 84.1%
basis respectively. This basically implies that the number of female respondents was higher than
that of their male counterparts. This is due to the high number of IPV victims being female. The
findings are contained in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Gender of respondents

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 17 15.9

Female 90 84.1

Total 107 100.0

35
4.3.2 Marital status of respondents

The study sought to establish the marital status of the respondents. The results were as indicated
in Table 4.2

Table 4.2 Marital Status of respondents

Marital status Frequency Percentage

Married 72 67.3
Single 32 29.9
Other 3 2.8
Total 107 100.0

Among the respondents 67.3% were married, 29.9% single and 2.8% divorced. Most of the
respondents were married. This finding implies that most intimate partner violence occur in
marriages.

4.3.3 Type of Occupation

The study sought to establish the source of livelihoods of the respondents. The results were as
indicated in Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Occupation of respondents

Occupation Frequency Percentage
Wage worker 53 49.5
Casual worker 45 42.1
Business person 9 8.4
Total 107 100.0
Forty nine point five percent of respondents were wage workers, 42.1% casual workers and 8.4%
are business persons. Approximately half of the respondents were employees of different
organizations.

36
4.3.4 Level of Education Attained

The study sought to establish the level of education of the respondents. The results were as
indicated in Table 4.4

Table 4.4highest academic qualification

Academic level Frequency Percentage
Degree 25 23.4
Diploma 35 32.7
Primary 47 43.9
Total 107 100.0

Among the respondents 23.4% had degrees as their highest level of education, 32.7% had
diplomas and 43.9% has secondary education as their highest level of education. None of the
respondents attained education lower that secondary level. With a cumulative percentage of
56.1%, more respondents had acquired tertiary education. This indicates that most respondents
were literate and with grasp on Intimate Partner Violence issues.

4.3.5 Type of Violence Experienced

The study sought to establish the type violence experienced by the respondents. The results were
as indicated in Table 4.5

37
Table 4.5 type of abuse experienced
Type of abuse Frequency Percent
Physical 29 27.1
Verbal 18 16.8
Sexual 16 15.0
Emotional 37 34.6
Psychological 7 6.5
Total 107 100.0

Twenty seven percent of the respondents had experienced physical violence, 16.8% verbal
violence, 15% sexual violence, 34.6% emotional violence and 6.5% psychological violence.
Majority of the respondents had experienced emotional violence and the second most
experienced type of violence was physical violence.

4.4 Interventions to reduce Intimate partner violence

The study sought to determine the factors that influence the reduction of intimate partner
violence. The four factors studied include, educational interventions, rehabilitation center
programs and free legal counsel. The results are discussed below.

4.4.1 Educational Interventions and Intimate Partner Violence

The study sought to determine educational interventions to reduce intimate partner violence. The
respondents were required to indicate different educational interventions they have come across.
The information obtained was presented in Table 4.6

38
Table 4.6 Education Interventions
Factor Mean Standard
deviation
The definition of Violence against women is well understood 2.9720 0.98534

The media airs and prints information and documentaries on 2.7290 1.15391
violence against women

Public gatherings are held to inform the community on violence 3.6355 1.05859
against women

Members of the society support victims of violence against 3.7103 1.24392

women

Both local primary and secondary schools educate children on 3.5047 1.31302
violence against women

From the findings presented in table 4.6, to a large extent respondents understood the definition
of Violence against women, the mean was 2.972. To a large extent the media also airs and prints
information and documentaries on VAW with a mean response of 2.729.This indicates that the
media does inform its audience on issues of VAW and most of respondents have access to
different types of media. To a moderate extent public gatherings are held to inform the
community on violence against women. The mean of responses was 3.6355. Denoting
disagreement, organization of public gatherings are essential by community leaders and other
stakeholders to ensure that the community is well informed.

39
However, members of the society support to the victims of violence against women was a low
mean of 3.7103. More information should be provided to the society to reduce stigmatization. To a
moderate extent primary and secondary schools educate students on the issue of violence
against women. The mean of responses was 3.5047. Gender Based Violence education needs to
be introduced in the school curriculum.

4.4.2 Rehabilitation Center Programs and Violence against Women

The study sought to establish how rehabilitation center programs have affected the lives of the
respondents. The information obtained was presented in Table 4.7

Table 4.7 Rehabilitation programs

Factor Mean Standard deviation

Domestic violence shelters are 3.5701 1.30393

available in your area and
accessible to all

The rehabilitation programs 2.6729 1.06200

are helpful to VAW victims

The trainings provided are 2.9533 1.13589

economically empowering

Legal services are available 3.4019 1.13154

The services provided in the 3.5234 1.20020

program are free

To a large extent the domestic violence shelters were available in their area. The mean score was
3.5701. Rehabilitation programs are helpful to Violence against Women victims to a large extent

40
with a mean of 2.6729. To a large extent the training provided in the programs were
economically empowering, the mean was 2.9533. To a moderate extent the legal services are
available in the programs. The mean was 3.4019. The services provided in the program were
however not free with a mean of 3.5234.

4.4.3 Free legal counsel and Violence against Women

The study sought to determine how free legal counsel provided for the respondents affected the
lives of the respondents. The information obtained was presented in Table 4.8

Table 4.8 Free legal counsel

Factor Mean Standard deviation

There are lawyers who provide legal services for
free 3.9533 1.08492

These free Lawyers helped you obtain a restraining 3.7103 1.18169

order against my abusive partner

The Lawyer helped you divorce your partner faster 4.4953 0.70542
and successfully

Through the lawyer you were able to get 4.1682 0.88473

government benefits that you previously struggled
to get

To a moderate extent the lawyers who provided legal services were readily available. The mean
response was 3.9533. The lawyers helped to obtain restraining orders against abusive partner to a
large extent with a mean of 3.7013. The lawyers however did not often help the victims to
divorce their partners faster, the mean response was 4.4953. The lawyers helped the victims to

41
access government benefits to a moderate extent with a mean response of 4.1682. These findings
implies that majority of violence against women victims have had access to free legal services
but those who no longer want to remain married to their partners have had hard time getting a
divorce from their partners faster due to no legal representation.

4.4.4 Group Interventions and Violence against Women

The study sought to assess group interventions in violence against women. The information
obtained was presented in Table 4.9

Table 4.9 Group Interventions

Factor Mean Standard deviation

Are you still living with your 1.4364 0.49820
partner?

Did you and your partner seek 1.8545 0.35417

assistance from a professional
guidance and counselor?

Did you and your partner 1.9455 0.22813

benefit from the counseling?

Have you experience abuse 1.6636 0.47463

since going for counseling?

Was anger management 1.7364 0.44262

included classes provided by
the counselor?

Would you recommend 1.3091 0.46423

couples counseling and anger
management classes to other
victims?

42
To a large extent a majority of respondents still lived with their partners at a mean of 1.4364. To
a moderate extent the victims of violence against women sought couples counseling at a mean of
1. 8545, Respondents did not benefit from the counseling with a mean of 1.9455. To a moderate
extent the victims have experienced abuse from their parents after going for counseling at a mean
of 1.6636. The respondents did not attend anger management sessions with a mean of 1.7364.
Respondents would recommend couples counseling and anger management sessions to other
victims of intimate partner violence with a mean of 1.3091. This implies that despite the fact that
the majority of respondents have had little results with counseling, they would still recommend it
to VAW victims as some outcomes proved positive in the lives of some victims.

4.6 Response from Executive staff and Project Investigators of Live with
Hope Non-
Governmental Organization

The response to the interview guide by the officials revealed by respondent A that the main cause
of violence against women is power asymmetries in households with the most common type of
abuse being physical abuse. She further explained that the majority of those who experience
physical violence also experience emotional abuse. According to executive staff respondent D of
Live with Hope NGO, majority of victims of VAW are referred to the organization by the
hospital where they were treated in. The NGO provides shelter for victims who no longer have
homes to go back to and those who are scared to go back to their homes. The victims receive
trainings on different economic empowering activities such farming and sewing of clothes.
Respondent A, who is the Chairperson of the organization, insist that they encourage those who
want to go back to their partners to go through couples counseling with their partners as this
would help bring calm in the relationship. Respondent A however stated that the organization
has not partnered with any Law firm to provide legal counsel for free for victims of violence
against women they work with. The respondents insist that they are considering that option. The
respondents insist that re-offences are common but majority of victims who had previously
sought help in the NGO do not come back as most of them feel embarrassed. The respondents
also implied that some secondary school students volunteer in the NGO during the holidays and
in the process these students get to learn on the issue of Violence against women.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
The chapter discusses summary of findings, discussions, conclusions, contribution to the body of
knowledge and suggested areas for further research.

5.2 Summary of Findings

The study had the following objectives: To assess how education interventions affect violence
against women, to establish how rehabilitation center programs affect violence against women,
to assess how group interventions affect violence against women and to determine how free legal
counsel affect violence against women. There was an indication that more females participated in
the study. Majority of the respondents were married at 67.3% this shows proves that most of the
respondents have experienced living with a partner and the challenges they face. The majority of
respondents attained tertiary education of education as the highest level at 56.1%. There were no
respondents who stated that they attained education lower than the secondary level.
Rehabilitation programs had the highest effect at 50.5% of respondents agreeing, followed by
media campaigns at 44%. Free legal counsel had the least influence with 44.9% of respondents
strongly disagreeing to getting free legal counsel.

Education intervention through media campaigns also had an effect on violence against women
with a mean 3.3103. The society, with the media informing the public on factors affecting
violence against women, still provides little support for the victims of violence against women.
Not all members of the society have access to mainstream media channels.

Rehabilitation programs had affected violence against women with a mean of 3.22432. These
programs assist the victims to rebuild their lives by offering trainings that empower them with
skills that would eventually economically empower them. These programs provide shelter for the
victims of domestic violence so that they get some space from their abusive partners. To a
moderate extent services provided in the program are free with a mean of 3.5234. The findings

44
show that the training provided in the program empower the victims of violence against women
economically with a mean of 2.9533.

Group interventions such as couples counseling also had affected violence against women with a
mean of 1.60879. To a moderate extent couples counseling affected violence against women by
an intimate partner between couples but only for a period of time as the abusive partner goes
back to their habit of violence against the female partner. Anger management counseling is also a
short term solution. Couples counseling is however highly recommended to victims of violence
against women and their partners with a mean of 1.3091. To a large extent the victims continue
to live with their abusive partners.

Free legal counsel had affected violence against women with a mean of 4.081775. Free legal
counsel for victims could be a good solution but the lawyers that provide free legal services are
not many and thus majority of violence against women victims have not been able to access
these free services to guide them into knowing their rights and steps to take when one is a victim
of domestic violence. The lawyers however do not however help the victims to divorce their
partners faster thus leading to some victims continue to live with their abusive partners and
experience more abuse.

5.3 Discussion of Findings

This study attempts to determine the factors affecting violence against women in Kenya. An
important finding is that explanatory variables in the model result in direct influence on violence
against women. The paper also provides preliminary evidence regarding the relative importance
of the explanatory variables on factors affecting violence against women in Kenya.

5.3.1 Education Intervention

Education intervention through media campaigns also affects violence against women. The
media and public gatherings education informs the public on intimate partner violence but some
members in the society still judge the victims of violence. According to the findings victims of
IPV still face stigma and judgement from the society. This findings concur with Paluck, 2009
that social norms affect behavior change more dramatically than personal attitudes. A few people
might want to provide support for the victims but are afraid to do so because the society still
perceives intimate partner violence a private family matter that should be handled privately. The
society should continue to be educated on the dangers that victims of gender based violence face

45
if they do not get support from the society. The example of Kawira, an intimate partner violence
victim, whose story was aired in the media of the husband physically harming her. The neighbors
were aware of her troubles but kept to themselves until one neighbor uploaded a footage of the
abuse. Were it not for tha t one neighbor Kawira would have been dead. The society should be
made more aware of intimate partner violence and its consequences.

5.3.2 Rehabilitation Centre Programs

Rehabilitation programs affected violence against women with a mean of 3.22432. These
programs assist the victims to rebuild their lives by offering trainings that empower them with
skills that would eventually economically empower them. These programs provide shelter for the
victims of gender based violence so that they get some space from their abusive partners. The
services provided in the program are moderately free. The findings in the study concur with Vaz,
2008 that survivors are entitled to services even if they do not wish to prosecute the perpetrator.
The rehabilitation center programs according to the findings does provide training, counselling
and healthcare for the survivors of VAW. The findings in the study also agrees with Columbini,
2008 that one stop centers or rehabilitation centers provide multi-sectoral case management for
survivors such as legal services, health services, counselling and trainings. Rehabilitation center
programs are important to help VAW survivors pick up the pieces in their lives and to get
empowered both psychologically and economically so that they are dependent on themselves and
do no go back to their abusive partners.

5.3.3Group Interventions
Group interventions such as couples counseling also had an influence on reduction of IPV with
mean of 1.60879. Couples counseling helps to reduce cases of intimate partner violence between
couples but only for a period of time as the abusive partner goes back to their habit of violence
against the female partner. Anger management counseling is also a short term solution. Couples
counseling is however highly recommended to victims of IPV and their partners. The findings in
the study however differs with the study done by Maiuro, 1991 that couples counselling provides
solutions to relationship problems between the victims and their partners. Couple counselling
from the study had little help to avoid reoccurrence of the abuse. According to Lawson, 2003,
couples counselling has been criticized for encouraging the underlying inequity of power
between the partners and perhaps pressuring the victims of violence against women to remain in

46
the relationship. The findings from this study concurs with Lawson, 2003 findings. Couples
counselling may provide temporary solutions to relationship problems.

5.3.4 Free Legal Counsel

Free legal counsel affected violence against women the least with a mean of 4.1682. Free legal
counsel for victims could be a good solution but the lawyers that provide free legal services are
not many and thus majority of VAW victims have not been able to access these free services to
guide them into knowing their rights and steps to take when one is a victim of domestic violence.
The findings of the study concurs with Wanless, 1996 that mandatory arrests and restraining
orders against abusive partners provide relative calm in which the abused and abuser are
separated. The free legal services provided provides for the action of separating the abused and
abuser to take place fast. The findings of this study states that to a large extent the lawyers
helped the victims get restraining orders against their abusive partners.

Free legal counsel is an important factor to influence the reduction of intimate partner violence in
Kenya. Gender violence recovery centres and One Stop centres should strive to provide free
legal for victims of VAW initiated by an intimate partner especially those who are not
economically empowered or financial stable.

5.4 Conclusions
The number of female respondents was higher than that of their male counterparts. This was due
to the fact the victims of Intimate partner initiated violence against women in the NGO are
mostly females. Approximately all of the respondents were literate and with a fast grasp on
violence against women issues with 56.1% of respondents having acquired tertiary education.
Majority of respondents experienced emotional abuse and physical abuse at 34.6%.

The researcher concluded that rehabilitation center programs interventions had an effect on
violence against women through its empowering programs such as the trainings and shelters for
the victims.

Group interventions such as couple counseling and anger management provide short term
solutions, the victims of VAW however recommend that other victims should try the counselling
because it might just work for different couples.

47
Free legal counsel helps victims to be separated from their abusive partners faster and the victims
can divorce their abusive partners easily with the right legal counsel. The services are not
necessarily useful when it came to accessing government benefits faster. This could be due to the
fact that unfortunately lawyers who provide free legal counsel are not many or do not make
follow ups on the cases.

5.5 Recommendations

Based on the findings, the study makes various recommendations:

1. Education intervention is important in the prevention and reduction of intimate partner

violence. This study recommends that the Government of Kenya come up with an
awareness campaign domestic violence to be run in all 47 counties. These awareness
campaigns can be implemented by county governments since the county governments
can reach the people in interior parts of every county. Awareness will help reduce
ignorance in the society and stress on the dangers of IPV to the victims.
2. The study recommends that media campaigns are run in all media outlets regularly. This
media campaigns can be funded by the Ministry of Labour, Social Security and Services.
Constant reminder of the issue of intimate partner violence through the media.
3. The study recommends gender based violence issues to be included in both primary and
secondary school curricula so that children are aware of GBV at a young age.
4. The study also recommends that the government to hire lawyers in every police station to
provide free legal services for those victims who cannot afford Lawyers. Guidance and
counseling people can also be placed in police stations in order to speak to and guide the
victims ones they report their cases in police stations. The findings in the study indicated
that victims who had access to free legal counsel had an easier time separating from the
perpetrators. With this in mind, Lawyers and law firms should strive to handle domestic
violence pro bono cases to help reduce cases of IPV and preventing the abusers from
getting away with the crime.

48
5.6 Suggested areas for further research

The objectives of this study were clear and successfully accomplished; however, several areas
remain unclear and require further research. First the study focused only on few aspects of
intimate partner violence reduction. Other measures of intimate partner violence reduction
should be incorporated in future studies. This will enable a distinctive and broad understanding
on the factors influencing intimate partner violence.

Additionally, this study was conducted in Live with Hope organization only and may not be an
equal representation of all areas in Kenya. This is because of the possibility that each and every
part in Kenya has distinct futures. Therefore to enable generalization of the research findings, the
researcher suggests that a survey of other parts of Kenya should be explored to provide more
robust insights on the topic.

From the study and subsequent conclusions, the researcher recommends a further research on:

1. The effects of economic empowering programs on the victims of Intimate Partner

Violence
2. Impact of government policies on reduction of intimate partner violence.
3. Factors contributing to lack of societal support for victims of intimate partner violence.

49
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New
York, USA

Tauchen, H., & Witte, A. D. (1995).The dynamics of domestic violence. American Economic
Review

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The Declaration on the Elimination on Violence against Women (DEVAW) United Nations
General Assembly Resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993

The Star Newspaper, Why women put up with domestic violence. 24 th February, 2016

The Sexual Offences Act, Act No 3 of 2006

Tony Draper, An Introduction to Jeremy Bentham‟s Theory of Punishment, Bentham Project,

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Tony Johnson 2002 “Domestic Abuse in Kenya” in Population Communication Africa Gender
series: A Briefing Handbook; Nairobi: Executive Printers.

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Response Analysis in Kenya, June 2006

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 APPENDICES

Appendix I: Letter of Introduction

University of Nairobi
P .O Box 30197-
00100,
Nairobi.
Dear
respondent,
Re: Research.
I am a student at the above named university undertaking a Master of Arts Degree in Project
planning and Management. As a requirement for this course, the university expects me to submit a
researched project as a partial fulfillment for the award of the degree.
To fulfill this requirement, I have decided to carry out a study on Factors Influencing the
Reduction of Domestic Violence: a case of Live with Hope non-governmental organization,
Nyagacho Area, Kericho County.
I kindly request you to fill in the questionnaire attached. The information provided will be used
with confidentiality and will only be used for the intended purpose of this study.
As you participate in this study, do not indicate your name. I highly appreciate your participation
towards the success of this study. Thanking you well in advance for your kind participation.
Sincerely Yours,

Violet Cherono
L50/82813/2012

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Appendix II: Questionnaire
Questionnaire for Violence against women victims

Section A: Background information

1. Please indicate your Gender.

a) Male [ ]
b) Female [ ]

2. Indicate your marital status

a) Married ( )
b) Single ( )
c) Divorced ( )

3. Indicate your category of occupation as in:

a) „Wage worker‟ ( )
b) „Casual worker‟ ( )
c) „Business person‟ ( )
d) Other (s) specify ( )

4. What is your highest academic qualification?

a) Degree ( )
b) Diploma ( )
c) Secondary ( )
d) Other(s) specify……………………….…………………………………

5. Which type of violence experienced?

Physical [ ] Verbal [ ] Sexual [ ] Emotional [ ]

Economic [ ] Psychological [ ]

55
 Section B: Education interventions and violence against women

Please tick (√) your answer

6. Please react to the statements about education intervention and Violence against women
by indicating whether you strongly agree, Agree, Disagree or strongly disagree. Please
tick (√) against each statement your best opinion.

Factors Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Stron

Agree Disag
The definition of violence against women

The media airs and prints information and

documentaries on VAW
Public gatherings are held to inform the
community on VAW

Members of the society support victims of

VAW
Both local primary and secondary schools
educate children on VAW

56
 Section C: Rehabilitation Centre Programs and violence against women

7. Please react to the statements by indicating whether you strongly agree, Agree, Disagree
or strongly disagree with the following factors?

Factors Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disa

Agree
Domestic violence shelters are
available in your area and
accessible to all
The rehabilitation programs are
helpful to VAW victims
The trainings provided are
economically empowering
Legal services are available

The services provided in the

program are free

57
 Section D: Group Intervention and violence against women

8. Please react to the statements by indicating whether you strongly agree, Agree, Disagree
or strongly disagree with the following factors?

Factors Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Stron

Agree Disag

Live in the same household with an abusive

partner

Sought assistance from a professional

guidance and counselor
Benefit from the couples counselling

Experienced abuse after couples counselling

Was anger management classes included in

the counselling
Would recommend the couples counselling
and anger management classes to other
victims

58
 Section E: Free Legal counsel and violence against women

9. Please react to the statements by indicating whether you strongly agree, Agree, Disagree
or strongly disagree with the following factors?

Factors Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strong

Agree Disag
There are lawyers who provide
legal services for free
These free Lawyers helped you
obtain a restraining order against
my abusive partner
The Lawyer helped you divorce
your partner faster and
successfully
Through the lawyer you were
able to get government benefits
that you previously struggled to
get

Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Your participation is very much
appreciated.

59
Appendix III: Interview Guide
To: The executive staff and Project Investigators of Living with Hope NGO.
Please respond to the following questions
1. What do you think is the main cause of Violence against Women(VAW)?
2. Which is the most common type of VAW reported?
3. Are most victims brought to your organization by the police, hospitals or they come by
themselves?
4. Does your organization do campaigns on VAW to educate the society?
5. Do you provide rehabilitation programs for the victims?
6. Are you aware of other organizations that provide rehab programs?
7. Have you had successful rehabilitated victims? Are they economically empowered when
they leave your organization?
8. Do you encourage couples counseling and anger management classes to the victims?
Have they provided positive results?
9. Have you partnered with Lawyers in order to provide legal counsel for the victims of
VAW?
10. Do your lawyers give their services for free?
11. Do most rehabilitated victims leave their partners?
12. How many cases of re-offences have you received?
13. Does your organization work closely with the police?

60