EE205 DCMT

DC MACHINES A = Number of parallel path in the armature.

N = Rotational speed of armature in revolutions per
Faculty: Nimisha Ravi minute (r.p.m)

1.1 DC GENERATOR-Principle of operation Time for ‘N’revolutions=1minute or 60 seconds

 Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N sec.
.
D.C generator is a machine that converts mechanical
energy into DC electrical energy. Generator is based on the Generated e.m.f , E or Eg = e.m.f generated/parallel path
principle that whenever a magnetic flux is cut by a moving E or Eg= e.m.f generated per conductor x Number of conductors
conductor a dynamic emf is induced in the conductor, as per
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The emf so in each parallel path
induced is an alternating emf. It is made unidirectional with the By Faraday’s law,
help of commutator and brushes. This emf causes flow of current
in the external circuit if the circuit is closed. The direction of this E.M.F generated per conductor,e = dФ/dt = ФPN/60 volts
induced emf is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. According Number of armature conductors per parallel path = Z/A
to this rule, if the middle finger, forefinger and thumb of right
hand are at right angle to each other and if the forefinger E or Eg= Ф Z NP/[60A] volts
represent the direction of magnetic field and the direction of For a wave-
motion respectively, then the middle finger will indicate the
direction of the induced emf. wound generator, Number of parallel paths A = 2
1.2 E.M.F Equation E = ФPN .(Z/2)/60 = ФZNP/120 volts

Let, P = Number of poles

For a lap-wound generator, Number of parallel paths, A = P
Ф = Flux/pole in weber
 Change in flux d Ф = ФP webers Equation becomes
E = ФPN .(Z/P)/60 = ФZN/60 volts
Z = Total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots x Number of conductors per slot (Parallel path:no.of path for current between terminals of a
machine,denoted by A)

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1.3Constructional Details of DC Generator  outermost protective cover of the d.c.

machine
 It provides mechanical support to the poles
and act as a protecting cover for the whole
machine
 It provides path for flux produced by poles
- In Small machines, cast iron yokes are used because of
cheapness.
In Large machines, yoke is made of fabricated steel due to its
high permeability.
(2) Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
Pole core
- Function: It carries the field winding
- It is made from cast steel
Pole shoe - Each Pole core has a pole shoe having a curved
structure
- Functions:
 It spreads out the flux over the armature periphery
more uniformly
 It acts as a support to the field coils
MAIN PARTS  To reduce the reluctance of magnetic circuit
1. Magnetic frame or yoke - It is laminated and fixed to the pole core
2. Pole cores and pole shoe
3. Pole coils or field coils (3) Field Coil (or Field Winding or exciting winding)
4. Armature - They are mounted on the pole cores
5. Commutator - Function: It carries d.c. exciting current.
6. Brushes & Bearings - When current is passed through these coils, it
7. Interpoles electromagnetizes the poles which produce the necessary flux
that is cut by revolving armature conductors
- Field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have
(1) Yoke (or magnetic Frame) opposite polarity
- It is made of copper

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(4)ARMATURE  The number of segment is equal to number of

- It is the rotating part of dc machine called rotor. armature coils
- The purpose of armature is to rotate the conductors in the
uniform magnetic field.
Armature is divided into two parts (6). Brushes & Bearings
(i) Armature core
(ii) Armature winding - Functions: (i) Collect current from the commutator
(i) Armature Core (ii) Supply it to the external load circuit
- Cylindrical in shape with slots in its outer periphery  Made of carbon or graphite
- Functions: Purpose of bearing is to provide free and smooth rotation of
 Houses armature conductors in the slots the armature
 Provide low reluctance path to the magnetic flux (7)Interpoles
 Made of steel laminations  Placed in between the main poles and provide
(ii) Armature Winding smooth rotation to armature
- Slots of armature core hold insulated conductors which is It reduces cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction
known as armature winding
- This is the winding in which working emf is induced.
- made of copper 1.4 TYPES OF D.C GENERATORS (Classifications)
 The armature conductors connected in series parallel, the Dc generators are classified according to the method of
conductors being connected in series so as to increase the excitation to their field winding. The production of the magnetic
voltage and in parallel so as to increase the current flux in the generator by circulating current in the field winding is
 Two types of armature windings-lap & wave winding called excitation and the way of supplying exciting current is
(5) Commutator called method of excitation.
Generators are usually classified according to the way in which
- Function: Mechanical rectifier which converts alternating their fields are excited. The generators are classified as follows:
voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage
across the brushes.

- Commutator is made of copper segments insulted from

each other by mica sheets & mounted on the shaft of the
machine.

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Armature current Ia = IL , IL – load current

E= V+ IaRa V – terminal voltage (voltage across the
load)
=> V= E- IaRa. Ra – resistance of armature winding
Electric power developed =EIa
E – e.m.f generated
Power delivered to load = VIL =VIa
2. SELF EXCITED DC GENERATORS
If the field windings are excited by generator itself,it is called
self excited generator.
There are three types of self excited d.c generators depending
upon the manner in which the field winding is connected to the
armature, namely;
(i) Shunt generator
1. SEPARATELY EXCITED D.C. GENERATORS
(ii) Series generator
When the field winding is excited from a storage battery (iii) Compound generator
or from a separate dc source, the generator is called a
(i) Shunt Generator
separately excited dc generator.
Field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding.(Shunt means parallel).
 The shunt field winding consists of a large number of
turns of fine wire carrying small field current.

When armature current Ia flows through armature winding, due

to armature winding resistance Ra, there is a voltage across the
armature winding equal to IaRa volts. So, the induced e.m.f has
to supply this drop along with the terminal voltage V.

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Armature current Ia = IL+ Ish , Ish – shunt field current with the armature. A compound wound generator may be either
Shunt field current Ish = V/ Rsh Rsh – resistance of shunt
short shunt or long shunt.
field winding
E= V+ IaRa => V= E- IaRa (a) Short shunt -In this type, the shunt field winding is
Electric power developed =EIa
connected in parallel with the armature alone.
Power delivered to load =VIL
(ii) Series Generator
Field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
 The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire
(having low resistance) as the whole of the armature
current passes through it.

Ia = Is+ Ish, Is = IL
E= V+ IaRa+ IsRs => V= E- IaRa- IsRs
 ISh=(V+ISRS)/Rsh
(b) Long shunt in this type, shunt field is in parallel with
both series field & the armature winding.

Armature current Ia = IL
E= V+ IaRa+ IaRs
=> V= E- IaRa- IaRs, Rs – resistance of series field winding
(iii) Compound Generator
In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of field
windings on each pole- one is in series and the other in parallel
Ia = Ish+ IL Ia = IS
E= V+ IaRa+ IaRs => V= E- Ia(Ra+Rs )

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 Ish=V/Rsh
 If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding aids
the flux produced by the shunt field winding, the
generator is said to be cumulatively compounded. If the
series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the
generator is said to be differentially compounded.

Brush Contact Drop-It is the voltage drop over brush contact

resistance when current passes from commutator segments to
brushes and finally to the external load. Its value depends on the 1.5.1 Copper loss:

amount of current and the value of contact resistance. This drop i. Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra where Ra = resistance of
armature interpoles and series field winding etc. This loss
is generally small and may neglected if not given.
is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses.
Vb=0.5V-for metal graphite brushes ii. Field copper loss: in the case of shunt generator, it is
= 2V-for carbon brushes practically constant and Ish2 Rsh (or VIsh). In the case of
series generator, it is = Ise2Rse where Rse is resistance of the
1.5 Losses and efficiency series field winding. This loss is about 20 to 30% of full-
load losses.
Losses iii. The loss due to brush contact resistance. It is usually
The various losses occurring in a generator can be included in the armature copper loss.
divided as follows: 1.5.2 Magnetic losses (also known as iron or core losses):
Due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the
magnetic flux of the field poles, there are some losses taking
place continuously in the core and are known as iron losses or
core losses. Iron losses consist of Hysteresis loss and Eddy
current loss.

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i. Hysteresis loss (Wh): This loss is due to the reversal of

magnetization of the armature core. The loss depends
upon the volume and grade of iron, maximum value of
where Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature
flux density Bmax and frequency of magnetic reversals.
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals= NP/120 where N is in
For reducing the hysteresis loss, those metals are chosen r.p.m.
for the armature core which has a low hysteresis V = Volume of armature in m3
coefficient. Generally, special silicon steels such as h = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
alloys are used which not only have a low hysteresis In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is
coefficient but which also possess high electrical made of such materials which have a low value of Steinmetz
resistivity. hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.

(ii) Eddy current loss (We): When the armature core rotates, it
also cuts the magnetic flux. Hence, an emf is induced in the body
of the core according to the laws of electromagnetic induction.
This emf though small, sets up large current (circulating current)
in the body of the core due to its small resistance. This current is
known as eddy current. The power loss due to the flow of this
current is known as eddy current loss (eddy current × emf
induced) This loss would be considerable if solid iron core were
used. If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to
eddy current path will be small due to large cross-sectional area
Fig. shows an armature rotating in two-pole machine. of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and
Consider a small piece ab of the armature. When the piece ab is hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy
under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half a current can be reduced by making core resistance as high as
revolution later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and practical. The core resistance can be greatly increased by
magnetic lines pass from b to a so that magnetism in the iron is constructing the core of thin, round iron sheets called
reversed. In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets laminations . The laminations are insulated from each other with
in the armature core, some amount of power has to be spent a coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high resistance,
which is called hysteresis loss. It is given by Steinmetz formula. so very little current flows from one lamination to the other.
This formula is Also, because each lamination is very thin, the resistance to
current flowing through the width of a lamination is also quite

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large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which Various power stages in the case of a DC generator are
decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy current loss. shown below:

t = Thickness of lamination in m
It may be noted that eddy current loss depends upon the square
of lamination thickness. For this reason, lamination thickness
should be kept as small as possible. Efficiency (output/input) or
1.5.3 Mechanical losses: output/[output+losses]
Mechanical losses are about 10 to 20% of full-load Following are the three generator efficiencies:
losses. These consist of: i. Mechanical efficiency (B/A)
i. Friction loss at bearings and commutators ηm = Total power generated in armature/mechanical input
ii. Air friction or windage loss of rotating armature power
Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as ii. Electrical efficiency(C/B)
stray losses or rotational losses. Wstray = Wiron+Wmech. Field ηe = Output electrical power/total power generated in
copper loss is constant for shunt and compound generators. armature
Hence, stray losses and shunt Cu loss are constant in their iii. Overall or commercial efficiency:(C/A)
case. These losses are together known as standing or constant ηc = Output electrical power/mechanical input power
losses Wc. hence, for shunt and compound generators: It is obvious that overall efficiency ηc = ηm . ηe. For good
Total loss = armature Cu loss+Wc = Ia2Ra+Wc = (IL+Ish) 2 generators, its value may be as high as 95%.
Ra+Wc Condition for maximum efficiency:
Armature Cu loss Ia2Ra is known as variable loss because it The efficiency of a dc generator is not constant but varies with
varies with the load current. load. Consider a shunt generator delivering a load current IL at a
Total loss = variable loss + constant losses (Wc) terminal voltage V.
Generator output = VIL
1.6 Power flow diagram

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Generator input = output + losses = VIL + Ia2Ra + Wc = The effect of magnetic field set up by armature current
VIL + (IL+Ish) 2 Ra + Wc on the distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The
*(Ia=IL+ Ish) armature magnetic field has two effects:
However, if Ish is negligible as compared to load current,
then Ia = IL (approx.) (i) It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux and
η = output/input = VIL/ (VIL + Ia2Ra + Wc) = VIL/ (ii) It cross-magnetizes or distorts it.
(VIL + I L2Ra + Wc) *(Ia=IL) 1.7.1Geometric neutral axis(GNA) & Magnetic neutral
Now, efficiency is maximum when denominator is axis(MNA)
minimum i.e. when
d/dt(I LRa/V + Wc/VIL) = 0 or Ra/V – Wc/VI L2 =  GNA is the axis of symmetry between adjacent poles.
0 or I L2Ra = Wc  Magnetic neutral axis may be defined as the axis along
Hence, generator efficiency is maximum when; which no emf is produced in the armature conductors
Variable loss = constant loss .Or M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular to the flux
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given passing through the armature.
by the relation Brushes are always placed along M.N.A. Hence, M.N.A. is
I L2Ra = Wc or IL = (Wc / Ra) also called ‘axis of commutation’ because reversal of current in
armature conductors takes place across this axis.

1.7.2Demagnetizing & cross magnetizing ampere-turns

1.7ARMATURE REACTION
All conductors lying within angles AOC = BOD = 2θ at
The current flowing through armature conductors creates
the top and bottom of the armature, are carrying current in such a
a magnetic flux (called armature flux) that distorts and weakens
direction as to send the flux through the armature from right to
the flux coming from the poles. This distortion and field
left. It is these conductors which act in direct opposition to the
weakening takes place in both generators and motors. The action
main field and are hence called the demagnetizing armature
of armature flux on the main flux is known as armature
conductors.
reaction
Effects of armature reaction

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Demagnetising amp – turns per pair of pole = 2θm

.ZI/360
Demagnetizing amp – turns per pole = θm .ZI/360
i.e., ATd /pole = θm .ZI/360

The conductors lying between angles AOD and BOC constitute

what are known as distorting or cross-magnetizing conductors.
Now consider the remaining armature conductors lying Their number is found as under:
between angles AOD and COB. These conductors carry current Total armature-conductors/pole both cross and
in such a direction as to produce a flux at right angles to the main demagnetizing = Z / P
flux. This results in distortion of the main field. Hence, these Cross-magnetizing conductors/pole = (Z/P) –
conductors are known as cross-magnetizing conductors and (2θmZ/360) = Z [(1/P) – (2θm /360)]
constitute distorting ampere-conductors. Since armature Cross-magnetizing amp-conductors/pole = ZI [(1/P) –
demagnetizing ampere-turns are neutralized by adding extra (2θm /360)]
ampere turns to the main field winding, it is essential to calculate Cross-magnetizing amp-turns/pole = ZI [(1/2P) – (θm /360)]
their number. But before proceeding further, it should be
i.e., ATc /pole = ZI [(1/2P) – (θm /360)]
remembered that the number of turns is equal to half the number
of conductors because two conductors-constitute one turn.
Let, Z = total number of armature conductors For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of armature-reaction,
I = current in each armature conductor an extra number of turns may be put on each pole.
= Ia/2 ... for wave winding No. of extra turns/pole = ATd / Ish for shunt generator
= Ia/P ... for lap winding = ATd / Ia for series generator
θm = forward lead in mechanical or geometrical or If the leakage coefficient λ is given, then multiply each of the
angular degrees. above expressions by it. If lead angle is given in electrical
Total number of armature conductors in angles AOC and degrees, it should be converted into mechanical degrees by the
BOD is 4θm .Z/360 following relation:
As two conductors constitute one turn,
θm = θe / (P/2) = 2θe / P
Total number of turns in these angles = 2θm .Z/360

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1.7.3Neutralisation of armature reaction These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in
 For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of armature between the main poles. They are wound with comparatively few
reaction, an extra number of turns may be provided on heavy gauge Cu wire turns and are connected in series with the
armature so that they carry full armature current. Their polarity,
each pole. in the case of a generator, is the same as that of the main pole
 For neutralizing cross magnetizing effect of armature ahead in the direction of rotation. The function of inter poles is
reaction, two-fold:
(i) As their polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead,
a)Compensating windings
they induce an emf in the coil (under commutation) which helps
These are used for large direct current machines which the reversal of current. The emf induced by the inter poles is
are subjected to large fluctuations in load i.e. rolling mill motors known as commutating or reversing emf. The commutating emf
and turbo-generators etc. Their function is to neutralize the cross neutralizes the reactance emf thereby making commutation
magnetizing effect of armature reaction. In the absence of sparkless. As interpoles carry armature current, their
compensating windings, the flux will be suddenly shifting commutating emf is proportional to the armature current. This
backward and forward with every change in load. These ensures automatic neutralization of reactance voltage which is
windings are embedded in slots in the pole shoes and are also due to armature current.
connected in series with armature in such a way that the current (ii) Another function of the interpoles is to neutralize the cross-
in them flows in opposite direction to that flowing in armature magnetizing effect of armature reaction. Hence, brushes are not
conductors directly below the pole shoes. to be shifted from the original position.

Fig: Compensating windings Fig: Interpoles

b) Inter poles

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1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATOR This curve lies below the internal characteristic because it
The speed of a dc generator is fixed by the prime mover. takes into account the voltage drop over the armature
For general purpose operation, the prime mover is equipped with circuit resistance. The values of ‘V’ are obtained by
a speed governor so that the speed of the generator is practically subtracting ‘IaRa’ from corresponding values of ‘E’.
constant. Under such conditions, the properties (performance) of
generators are analysed with the aid of characteristics which This characteristic is of great importance in judging the
gives the relation between fundamental quantities such as suitability of a generator for a particular purpose. It may be
terminal voltage V, field or exciting current If, armature current obtained in two ways
Ia. (i) By making simultaneous measurements with a
Following are the three most important characteristics or curves suitable voltmeter and an ammeter on a loaded generator
of a dc generator: or
i. No-load saturation Characteristic (E0/If): It is also (ii) Graphically from the O.C.C.
known as Magnetic Characteristic or Open-circuit
Characteristic (O.C.C.). It shows the relation between Critical Field Resistance for a Shunt Generator
the no-load generated emf in armature, ‘E0’ and the field If the field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA), then generator
or exciting current ‘If’ at a given fixed speed. It is just the will build up a voltage OM as shown in Fig. If the field circuit
magnetization curve for the material of the resistance is increased to R2 (tine OB), the generator will build
up a voltage OL, slightly less than OM. As the field circuit
electromagnets. Its shape is practically the same for all
resistance is increased, the slope of resistance line also increases.
generators whether it is separately-excited or self-excited. When the field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to
ii. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia): It gives the O.C.C., the generator would just excite. If the field circuit
relation between the emf ‘E’ actually induces in the resistance is increased beyond this point (say line OD), the
armature (after allowing for the demagnetizing effect of generator will fail to excite. The field circuit resistance
armature reaction) and the armature current ‘Ia’. represented by line OC (tangent to O.C.C.) is called critical field
Therefore, this curve will lie below the OCC. resistance RC for the shunt generator.
iii. External Characteristic (V/IL): It is also referred to as
performance characteristic or terminal characteristics
or sometimes voltage-regulating curve. It gives relation
between terminal voltage ‘V’ and the load current ‘IL’.

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BC /AC = Nc / N
Critical field resistance (Rc): the maximum field circuit Nc = N x BC/AC
resistance (for a given speed) with which the shunt generator
Conditions for Voltage Build-Up of a Shunt Generator:
would just excite is known as its critical field resistance.
Critical speed (Nc): The critical speed of a shunt generator is The necessary conditions for voltage build-up in a shunt
the minimum speed below which it fails to excite. Clearly, it is generator are:
the speed for which the given shunt field resistance represents  There must be some residual magnetism in generator
the critical resistance. In Fig. curve 2 corresponds to critical poles.
speed because the shunt field resistance (Rsh) line is tangential to  The connections of the field winding should be such that
it. If the generator runs at full speed N, the new O.C.C. moves the field current strengthens the residual magnetism.
upward and the  The resistance of the field circuit should be less than the
R'sh line represents critical resistance for this speed. critical resistance. In other words, the speed of the
Speed Critical resistance generator should be higher than the critical speed.
In order to find critical speed, take any convenient point C on
excitation axis and erect a perpendicular so as to cut Rsh and R'sh 1. Open Circuit Characteristic of a D.C. Generator
lines at points B and A respectively. Then, The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows. The
field winding of the d.c. generator is disconnected from the
machine and is separately excited from an external d.c. source as
shown in Fig. (ii). The generator is run at fixed speed (i.e.,
normal speed). The field current (If) is increased from zero in

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steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f. (E0) read Curve below shows the external characteristic of a shunt
off on a voltmeter connected across the armature terminals. On generator. It gives the relation between terminal voltage V and
plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the open circuit load current IL.
characteristic as shown in Fig. V = E – IaRa = E – (IL + Ish )Ra

There are three main reasons for the drop in terminal voltage of a
shunt generator when under load.
i) Armature resistance drop
V = E – IaRa
A voltage drop IaRa occurs across armature resistance.
ii) Armature reaction drop
Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction,pole flux(main
flux) is weakened and so the induced emf in the armature is
decreased.
(iii) As V decreases, the field current Ish ie.. V/Rsh decreases,
causing a further decrease in terminal voltage.
For obtaining the relation between the terminal voltage
The following points may be noted from O.C.C.: and load current, the generator is connected as shown below. The
(i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. shunt generator is first excited on no-load so that it gives its full
OA. This is due to the residual magnetism in the field poles. open circuit voltage = Oa. Then, the load is gradually applied
(ii) Over a fairly wide range of field current (upto point B in the and, at suitable intervals, the terminal voltage V and the load
curve), the curve is linear. current I are noted. The field current as recorded by ammeter A1
(iii) At some value of If , magnetic circuit gets saturated. is kept constant by a rheostat (because during the test, due to
Therefore further increase of If, heating, shunt field resistance is increased). By plotting these
does not increase the flux in the same proportion. readings, the external characteristic is obtained. The portion ab is
the working part of this curve. Over this part, if the load
2. External characteristic(V/IL)-Performance or resistance is decreased, load current is increased as usual,
Terminal characteristic although this results in a comparatively small additional drop in
& Internal or total characteristic voltage. These conditions hold good till point b is reached. This
(a): SHUNT GENERATOR point is known as breakdown point. It is found that beyond this
point, any effort to increase load current by further decreasing
load resistance results in decreased load current due to a very

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rapid decrease in terminal voltage. At this point,V is zero and (b)SERIES GENERATOR (OCC, Internal and External
there would be some value of E due to residual magnetism only. Characteristics)
Fig (i) shows the connections of a series wound
generator. Since there is only one current (that which flows
through the whole machine), the load current is the same as the
exciting current.(Ia=IL=IS)

Fig. External characteristics of shunt generator

Fig. Connection and characteristics of series generator

a. Open circuit characteristic: Curve 1 shows the open circuit

characteristic (O.C.C.) of a series generator. It can be obtained
experimentally by disconnecting the field winding from the
Fig. Internal or total characteristics of shunt generator machine and exciting it from a separate DC source.

Internal characteristic: When the generator is loaded, flux per b. Internal characteristic: Curve 2 shows the total or internal
pole is reduced due to armature reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. E characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between
generated on load is less than the e.m.f. generated at no load. As the generated e.m.f. E on load and armature current. Due to
a result, the internal characteristic (E/Ia) drops down slightly as armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than the
shown in Fig. (ii). flux at no load. Hence, e.m.f. E generated under load conditions
will be less than the e.m.f. Eo generated under no load
conditions. Consequently, internal characteristic curve lies below

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the O.C.C. curve; the difference between them representing the

effect of armature reaction [See fig (ii)].
c. External characteristic: Curve 3 shows the external
characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between
terminal voltage and load current IL.
V = E – Ia (Ra + Rse)
Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below internal
characteristic curve by an amount equal to ohmic drop [i.e., Ia (Ra
+ Rse)] in the machine as shown in Fig (ii).

(C) COMPOUND GENERATOR:

In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation
are combined as shown in Fig. The shunt winding can be
connected either across the armature only (short-shunt
connection S) or across armature plus series field (long-shunt
connection G). The compound generator can be cumulatively
compounded or differentially compounded generator. The latter
is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the
characteristics of cumulatively compounded generator. It may be
noted that external characteristics of long and short shunt
compound generators are almost identical.
(i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in
External characteristic: Fig.shows the external characteristics of load current the terminal voltage increases, it is called over-
a cumulatively compounded generator. The series excitation aids compounded generator. In such a case, as the load current
the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase
the increase in series excitation with the increase in load current. the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in
generated voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of
decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by curve A
in Fig.
(ii) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase
in load current, the terminal voltage substantially remains

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constant, it is called flat-compounded generator. The series

winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the
one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not
increase the flux as much for a given load current. Consequently,
the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as
indicated by curve B in Fig.
(iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a
flat compounded machine, the terminal voltage falls with
increase in load current as indicated by curve C in Fig. such a
machine is called under-compounded generator.
Fig Internal and external characteristics
1 Separately excited generator
1.9Applications of DC generator
DC generators are used only for certain special purposes.
a)Internal and External Characteristics: Let us consider a
Since DC generators require regular maintenance and
separately-excited generator giving its rated no-load voltage of
expenditure on replacement of parts such as commutator,
E0 for a certain constant field current [fig.(line I)]. But when the
brushes etc., the use is limited to the specific purpose only.
generator is loaded, the voltage falls due to armature reaction
Nowadays for obtaining DC, rectifiers are use. The various
and armature voltage drop, thereby giving slightly dropping
applications of DC generators are as detailed below:-
characteristics. If we subtract from E0 the values of voltage drops
due to armature reaction for different loads, then we get the
1. Shunt generator: Shunt generators with field regulators
value of E–the emf actually induced in the armature under load
are used for ordinary lighting and power supply purposes.
conditions. Curve II is plotted in this way and is known as the
They are also used for charging batteries because their
internal characteristic. The straight line Oa represents the IaRa
terminal voltages are almost constant or can be kept
drops corresponding to different armature currents. If we
constant.
subtract from E the armature drop IaRa, we get terminal voltage
V. Curve III represents the external characteristic and is obtained
2. Series generator: Series generators are not used for power
by subtracting ordinates the line Oa from those of curve II.
supply because of their rising characteristics. However,
their rising characteristic makes them suitable for being

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used as boosters in certain types of distribution systems F = B I l Newton

particularly in railway service. Where,
3. Compound generator: The cumulatively-compound B-Magnetic flux density
generator is the most widely used d.c. generator because I-Current through the conductor ,l-Length of the conductor
its external characteristic can be adjusted for Fleming’s left hand rule: This rule help us to determine the
compensating the voltage drop in the line resistance. direction of force acting on a current carrying conductor placed
Hence, such generators are used for motor driving which in a magnetic field. By this rule, if the middle finger, forefinger
require d.c. supply at constant voltage, for lamp loads and and thumb of left hand are at right angle to each other and if the
for heavy power service such as electric railways. The middle finger and forefinger represent the direction of current
differential-compound generator has an external and magnetic field respectively, then the thumb will indicate the
characteristic similar to that of a shunt generator but with direction of force acting on it.
large demagnetization armature reaction. Hence, it is 1.11 Working of D.C. motor
widely used in arc welding where larger voltage drop is Basically there is no constructional difference between a
desirable with increase in current. d.c. motor & a d.c. generator. When the terminals of the motor
are connected to an external source of d.c. supply, field magnets
are excited developing alternate N and S poles. Armature
4. Separately excited generator: these generators are used conductors under N pole carry currents in one direction while all
for (i) supplying DC motors whose speed in to be varied the conductors under S pole carry currents in the opposite
widely (ii) where a wide range of DC voltage is required direction. Since each armature conductor is carrying current and
for testing purpose. is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.
Referring to Fig. and applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is
clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the
DC MOTORS armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add
1.10 DC MOTOR-Principle of operation: together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to
in to mechanical energy. Its operation is based on the principle the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at the
that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of
field, it experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction of force on the
conductor remains the same.
force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is
given by;

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Consider a shunt wound motor shown in Fig. When a dc. voltage

V is applied across the motor terminals, the field magnets are
excited and armature conductors are supplied with current.
Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature which begins to
rotate. As the armature rotates, back e.m.f. Eb is induced which
opposes the applied voltage V.
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then,
 Applying KVL,V-IaRa-Eb=0
 Ia = (V – Eb) /Ra
BACK EMF Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine
When the armature of a d.c motor rotates under the influence of
the current drawn by the motor. During the starting of motor, Eb
the driving torque, the armature conductors cuts the magnetic
field and hence e.m.f is induced in them (by Faraday’s laws of will be very less and Ia will be more which produce necessary
electromagnetic induction) as in a generator. This induced e.m.f staring torque. When the motor speed up, Eb is large and hence Ia
in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the will be small ie, From the above equation it is clear that if the
supply voltage. This is according to Lenz’s law which states that speed is less, Eb is less and hence more armature current Ia flows
the direction of induced e.m.f is always oppose the cause that in the circuit which develops motor torque. So we find that Eb is
producing it. In a d.c motor, the electrical input i.e. the supply act like a governor ie it makes a motor self regulating in speed.
voltage is the cause and hence this induced emf opposes the
supply voltage. Since this emf always opposes the supply If there is no back emf, the armature may take very high current
voltage, it is called back emf and denoted as Eb. and winding may be damaged. At the time of starting, there is no
Eb = (ΦZNP)/60A volts back emf; therefore the motor takes high current. To avoid this
high current, starters are used with the motor for its safety.
1.12 Types of D.C. motors
Like generators, there are three types of d.c. motors
characterized by the connections of field winding in relation to
the armature viz.:
(i) Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature [See Fig.]. The current
through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature
current. Shunt field windings are designed to produce the
necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large number of turns

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of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is short-shunt connection. When the shunt winding is so connected
relatively small compared with the armature current. that it shunts the series combination of armature and series field
it is called long-shunt connection.
For Shunt motor
Shunt field current Ish = V/ Rsh
For short shunt connection,
Rsh – resistance of shunt field
Ia = Is- Ish, Is = IL
winding
Eb = V- IaRa-IsRs
Armature current, Ia = IL- Ish ,
Shunt field current, Ish = V/ Rsh V= Eb + IaRa+ IsRs
Eb = V- IaRa => V= Eb+ IaRa
 ISh=(V-ISRS)/Rsh
Ish – shunt field current

(ii) Series-wound motor in which the field winding is

connected in series with the armature Therefore, series field
winding carries the armature current. Since the current passing
through a series field winding is the same as the armature For long shunt connection,
current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer Ia = IL- Ish Ia = IS
turns than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f. Therefore, a Eb = V-IaRa- IaRs
series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+Rs )
thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low resistance.
 Ish=V/Rsh
For series motor,
Rs – resistance of series field
winding
Armature current Ia = IL
Eb = V- IaRa-IaRs 1.13 Voltage equation of DC motor:
 V= Eb +Ia(Ra+Rs), Let in a d.c. motor
V = applied voltage
(iii) Compound-wound motor which has two field Eb = back e.m.f.
windings; one connected in parallel with the armature and the Ra = armature resistance
other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor Ia= armature current
connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is
directly connected across the armature terminals it is called

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1.15 Condition for maximum power:

The mechanical power developed by the motor is
Pm = EbIa
Now, Pm = VIa – Ia2Ra
Since, V and Ra are fixed, power developed by the motor
depends upon armature current. For maximum power, dPm/dIa
Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the applied voltage V,
the net voltage across the armature circuit is V- Eb. The armature should be zero.
current Ia is given by; dPm/dIa = V-2IaRa = 0
Ia = (V-Eb) / Ra
Or V = Eb + Ia Ra -(1) Or IaRa = V/2
Now, V = Eb+IaRa = Eb+V/2
This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor.
{ IaRa = V/2}
1.14 Power equation:
Eb = V/2
If Eq. (1) above is multiplied by Ia throughout, we get,
Hence mechanical power developed by the motor is maximum
VIa = EbIa + Ia2Ra -(2)
when back e.m.f. is equal to half the applied voltage.
This is known as power equation of the d.c. motor.
VIa = electric power supplied to armature (armature input) 1.16 Torque equation
EbIa = power developed by armature (armature output) Torque is the turning or twisting moment of a force about an
axis and is measured by the product of force (F) and radius (r) at
Ia2Ra = electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss) right angle to which the force acts. Consider a pulley of radius r
Thus out of the armature input, a small portion (about 5%) is acted upon by a force of F Newton which causes it to rotate at a
speed of N rpm.
wasted as Ia2Ra and the remaining portion EbIa is converted into
mechanical power within the armature.

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Force on each conductor, F = B I l newtons

Torque due to one conductor = F x r newton- metre

Total armature torque, Ta = Z F r newton- metre
=ZBilr

i = Ia / A, B = Ф/a
T=F×r Where a is the x-sectional area of flux path per pole at a radius r.
Clearly a=(2πrl)/p

In dc motor, each conductor is acted upon by circumferential Ta = Z x Ф/ (2π r l /P) x Ia/A x l x r = ZФIaP/2πA N-m
force, F at a distance r,the radius of the armature. Therefore, Ta = 0.159ZФIa (P/A) N-m
each conductor exerts a torque, tending to rotate the armature.
Since Z, P and A are fixed for a given machine,
Sum of the torque due to all armature conductors is known as
gross torque or armature torque. Ta ФIa
Let in a DC motor,
For a shunt motor, flux is practically constant, Ta Ia
r = average radius of armature in m
For a series motor, flux is directly proportional to armature
l = effective length of each conductor in m current Ia , provided magnetic saturation does not take place,

Z = total number of armature conductors Ta Ia2

A = number of parallel paths Alternative expression for Ta

I = current in each conductor = Ia /A
B =average flux density in Wb/m2
Ф = flux per pole in Wb
P = number of poles

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The losses occurring in a d.c. motor are the same as in a

d.c. generator. These are:
(i) copper losses (ii) Iron losses or magnetic losses (iii)
mechanical losses
Efficiency:
Like a d.c. generator, the efficiency of a d.c. motor is the
ratio of output power to the input power i.e.
Efficiency, η = (output/input) x 100 =
output/(output+losses) x 100
As for a generator the efficiency of a d.c. motor will be
maximum when:
Variable losses = Constant losses
Shaft Torque (Tsh)
The torque which is available at the motor shaft for doing Therefore, the efficiency curve of a d.c. motor is similar in shape
useful work is known as shaft torque. It is represented by Tsh. to that of a d.c.generator.
The total or gross torque Ta developed in the armature of a
motor is not available at the shaft because a part of it is lost in 1.18 Power flow diagram
overcoming the iron and frictional losses in the motor.
The power stages in a DC motor are represented
Therefore, shaft torque Tsh is somewhat less than the armature
diagrammatically in Fig. (3.7).
torque Ta. The difference Ta Tsh is called lost torque.
A−B = Copper losses
B−C = Iron and friction losses

1.17 Losses and efficiency

Losses:

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in the selection of the motor for a particular application. This

curve is also known as speed characteristic of dc motor.
(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta): It is the curve
between speed N and armature torque Ta of a dc motor. It is also
known as mechanical characteristic.

Characteristics of shunt motor:

Fig. shows the connections of a d.c. shunt motor. The
Overall efficiency, ηc= C/A
field current Ish is constant since the field winding is directly
Electrical efficiency, ηe= B/A
connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be
Mechanical efficiency, ηm= C/B constant. Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is
approximatelyconstant.
1.19 Performance characteristics
There are three principal types of DC motors viz.,
shunting motors, series motors and compound motors. Both
shunt and series types have only one field winding wound on the
core of each pole of the motor. The compound type has two
separate field windings wound on the core of each pole. The
performance of a DC motor can be judged from its characteristic
curves known as motor characteristics; following are the three
important characteristics of a DC motor:
(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia): It is the
curve between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a
DC motor. It is also known as electrical characteristic of the
motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/Ia): It is the
curve between speed N and armature current Ia of a dc motor. It
is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding factor i) Ta/Ia Characteristic: We know that in a d.c. motor,

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Ta ФIa Fig(b)). It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the

load torque increases. It can be deduced from (i) & (ii).
Since the motor is operating from a constant supply
voltage, flux Ф is constant (neglecting armature
reaction).

Ta Ia
It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the load
Hence Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing torque increases.
through the origin as shown in Fig. The shaft torque (Tsh)
is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line. It is clear
from the curve that a very large current is required to
start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be
started on heavy load.

ii) N/Ia Characteristic: The speed N of a. d.c. motor is

given by;
N Eb/Ф
The flux Ф and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are
almost constant under normal conditions. Therefore,
speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the Fig(a)
armature current varies (dotted line AB in Fig(a)).
Strictly speaking, when load is increased, Eb (= V- IaRa)
and Ф decrease due to the armature resistance drop and
armature reaction respectively. However, Eb decreases
slightly more than Ф so that the speed of the motor
decreases slightly with load (line AC).

iii) N/Ta Characteristic: The curve is obtained by plotting

the values of N and Ta for various armature currents (See
Fig(b)

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Characteristics of series motor: saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve).It

may be seen that in the initial portion of the curve (i.e.
Fig shows the connections of a series motor. Note that upto magnetic saturation), Ta Ia2. This means that
current passing through the field winding is the same as that in starting torque of a d.c. series motor will be very high as
the armature. If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the compared to a shunt motor (where that Ta Ia).
armature current also increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor ii) N/Ia Characteristic: The speed N of a series motor is
increases with the increase in armature current and vice-versa
given by;
N Eb / Φ where Eb = V-Ia (Ra+Rse)
When the armature current increases, the back e.m.f. Eb
decreases due to Ia (Ra + Rse) drop while the flux Φ
increases. However, Ia (Ra + Rse) drop is quite small
under normal conditions and may be neglected.

N 1/ Φ
1/Ia upto magnetic saturation
Thus, upto magnetic saturation, the N/Ia curve follows
the hyperbolic path as shown in Fig (a). After
i) Ta/Ia Characteristic: We know that: saturation, the flux becomes constant and so does the
Ta ΦIa speed.
Upto magnetic saturation, Φ Ia so that Ta Ia2
After magnetic saturation, Φ is constant so that Ta Ia
Thus upto magnetic saturation, the armature torque is
directly proportional to the square of armature current. If
Ia is doubled, Ta is almost quadrupled.

Therefore, Ta/Ia curve upto magnetic saturation is a

parabola (portion OA of the curve in Fig. However, after
magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the
armature current. Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after magnetic Fig: (a) Fig(b)

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iii) N/Ta Characteristic: The N/Ta characteristic of a series i) Ta/Ia Characteristic: As the load increases, the series
field increases but shunt field strength remains constant.
motor is shown in Fig (b). It is clear that series motor
Consequently, total flux is increased and hence the
develops high torque at low speed and vice-versa. It is armature torque ( Ta ΦIa). It may be noted that torque
of a cumulative-compound motor is greater than that of
because an increase in torque requires an increase in
shunt motor for a given armature current due to series
armature current, which is also the field current. The field.
result is that flux is strengthened and hence the speed
drops ( N 1/Φ). Reverse happens when the torque be
low.
Characteristics of compound motor:
A compound motor has both series field and shunt field. The
shunt field is always stronger than the series field. Compound
motors are of two types: ii) N/Ia Characteristic: As explained above, as the load
(i) Cumulative-compound motors in which series field aids the increases, the flux per pole also increases. Consequently,
shunt field. the speed (N 1/Φ) of the motor tails as the load
(ii) Differential-compound motors in which series field opposes increases (See Fig (a)). It may be noted that as the load is
the shunt field. added, the increased amount of flux causes the speed to
decrease more than does the speed of a shunt motor. Thus
Differential compound motors are rarely used due to their poor the speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor is
torque characteristics at heavy loads. poorer than that of a shunt motor.
Characteristics of Cumulative Compound Motors:-
Fig shows the connections of a cumulative-compound motor.
Each pole carries a series as well as shunt field winding; the
series field aiding the shunt field.

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1.20 Starting of DC motors

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no

back e.m.f. in the armature. Consequently, if the motor is
directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a heavy
current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance. This
high starting current may result in:
(i) Burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) Damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy
sparking,
Fig(a) Fig(b) (iii) Excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is
connected. The result is that the operation of other appliances
connected to the line may be impaired and in particular cases,
iii) N/Ta Characteristic: Fig.(b) shows N/Ta characteristic they may refuse to work.
of a cumulative compound motor. For a given armature In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable
resistance (known as starting resistance) is inserted in series with
current, the torque of a cumulative compound motor is the armature circuit. This resistance is gradually reduced as the
more than that of a shunt motor but less than that of a motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is
cut out completely when the motor has attained full speed. The
series motor. value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current
is limited to 1.25 to 2 times the full-load current.

Types of D.C. Motor Starters

The starting operation of a d.c. motor consists in the insertion
of external resistance into the armature circuit to limit the
starting current taken by the motor and the removal of this
resistance in steps as the motor accelerates. When the motor
attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the
armature circuit. It is very important and desirable to provide the
starter with protective devices to enable the starter arm to return
Fig. Comparison of different types of motors to OFF position.

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 No-volt release coil- To bring the starter to OFF position Operation

when the supply is failed. If it remains in ON position, (i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the
the motor may be damaged when the supply is restored. OFF position.
 Overload release coil-when the motor becomes (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon
overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to take as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding
an excessive current. For bringing the starter to OFF is directly connected across the supply, while the whole starting
position, overload release coil is used. resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit.
There are two principal types of d.c. motor starters viz., three- (iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the
point starter and four-point starter. The two types of starters starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The
differ only in the manner in which the no-volt release coil is handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil
connected. which is energized by shunt field current.
a) Three-Point Starter (iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted, the no-volt
This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the
compound motors. OFF position under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil
Schematic diagram were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle would
Fig. below shows the schematic diagram of a three-point remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will
starter for a shunt motor with protective devices. It is so called be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive
because it has three terminals L, Z(or F) and A. The starter armature current.
consists of starting resistance divided into several sections and (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw
connected in series with the armature. The tapping points of the excessive current from the supply, the over-load release coil and
starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs. The pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the No-volt release
three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected coil. The No-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to
respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically
armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt disconnected from the supply.
field windings are connected to the negative terminal of the
supply. The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field
circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L
through the over-load release coil. The other end of the handle
moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud
during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting
resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction.

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b) Four-Point Starter
In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is
connected directly across the supply line through a protective
resistance R. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point
starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for
clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is
independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed
control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no-
volt release coil. Note that the only difference between a three-
point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-
volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two
starters is the same. This protection is not provided by the four-
point starter.

Drawback
In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is
connected in series with the shunt field circuit so that it carries
the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through
field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an
extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the
starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor
from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is
overcome in the four point starter.

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1.21 Speed Regulation 1.23 Applications of DC motors

The speed regulation of a motor is the change in speed from full-
load to no-load and is expressed as a percentage of the speed at 1. Shunt motors:
full-load i.e. The characteristics of a shunt motor reveal that it is an
approximately constant speed motor. It is, therefore, used
(i) Where the speed is required to remain almost constant from
no-load to full-load
(ii) Where the load has 10 be driven at a number of speeds and
any one of which is required to remain nearly constant
Industrial use: Lathes, drills, boring mills, shapers, spinning and
weaving machines etc.
1.22 Voltage Regulation of a dc generator 2. Series motors:
The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and
no load (at constant speed) is called the voltage regulation, It is a variable speed motor i.e., speed is low at high
usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage at full-load. torque and vice-versa. However, at light or no-load, the motor
tends to attain dangerously high speed. The motor has a high
starting torque. It is, therefore, used
(i) Where large starting torque is required e.g., in elevators and
electric traction
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the
VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full speed is automatically required to reduce at high torques and
load vice-versa.
Voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field Industrial use: Electric traction, cranes, elevators, air
circuit and speed held constant. If the voltage regulation of a compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair drier, sewing machines etc.
generator is 10%, it means that terminal voltage increases 10% 3. Compound motors:
as the load is changed from full load to no load.
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of
their poor torque characteristics. However, cumulative-

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compound motors are used where a fairly constant speed is placed in series with shunt field winding. The shunt field
required with irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads. rheostat reduces the shunt field current and hence the
Industrial use: Presses, shears, reciprocating machines Φ. There fore we can only raise the speed of the motor
above normal speed.
Speed control of dc motors
Speed of the motor Nα Eb
Φ

N α (V-Ia Ra ) …………….. shunt motor -(1)

Φ

From eqn(1) it is clear that there are three main methods

of controlling the speed of a dc motor.  Simple and inexpensive method
a) by varying the flux per pole(Φ). This is known as flux
 Speed control exercised by this method id independent of
control method.
load on the machine.
b) by varying the resistance in the armature circuit. This
Drawback- there is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by
is known as armature control method.
this method.
c) By varying the applied voltage .This is known as
voltage control method.
b) Armature control method

By varying the voltage available across the

i) Speed control of dc shunt motors armature, the back emf and hence the speed of the motor
can be changed. This is done by inserting a variable
a) Flux control method resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series
with the armature.
By varying the flux Φ, the motor speed can
be changed and hence the name flux control method. In
this method, a variable resistance (shunt field rheostat) is

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changed. The speed will approximately proportional to the

voltage applied across the armature.

ii) Ward Leonard system

In this method, the adjustable voltage for the armature is
obtained from an adjustable voltage generator while the field
circuit is supplied from a separate source.
Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance,Eb
M1 is the main motor whose speed to be controlled. The
is decreased. Since Nα Eb , the
field of this motor is permanently connected across the dc supply
speed of the motor is reduced.
lines. By applying a variable voltage across its armature any
desired speed can be obtained. The variable voltage is supplied
by a motor –generator set which consists of either a dc or an ac
Disadvantages
motor M2 directly coupled to generator G. the motor M2 runs at
an approximately constant speed. The output voltage of G is
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller
directly fed to the main motor M1 . The voltage of the generator
resistance since it carries full armature current Ia can be varied from zero up to its maximum value by means of a
 Output and efficiency of the motor are reduced. filed regulator. By reversing the direction of the filed current of
G by means of the reversing switch RS, generated voltage can be
c) Voltage control method reversed and hence the direction of rotation of M1.

In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is

different from that which supplies the armature. *Refer notes for diagrams
i) Multiple voltage control
In this method, the shunt field of the motor is connected
permanently across a fixed voltage source. The armature can be
connected across several different voltages through a switch
gear. In this way, voltage applied across the armature can be

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 EE205 DCMT

ii) Speed control of dc series motors

1. Flux control method

a) Field diverter
b) Armature diverter
c) Tapped field control

2. Armature diverter - In order to obtain speeds below the

normal speed, a variable resistance (called armature diverter) is
connected in parallel with the armature.
1. Field diverters - In this method, a variable resistance (called The diverter reduces the armature current. As a result, flux gets
field diverter) is connected in parallel with series field winding. increased. So the speed decreases since N 1/ϕ.
A part of the line current passes through this diverter and thus
weakens the field. Since N 1/ϕ , speed also varies with field
flux.
3. Tapped field control - In this method, the flux is reduced
(and hence speed is increased) by decreasing the number of turns
The lowest speed obtained by this method is the normal speed of of the series field winding. The switch S can short circuit any
motor when the current through diverter is zero, ie, diverter open part of the field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the
circuited. speed.

With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal
speed and as the field turns are cut out, speeds higher than
normal speed are achieved.

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 EE205 DCMT

QUESTION BANK
5 Marks
1. A 4 pole, dc shunt generator having a field and armature
resistance of 100Ω and 0.2Ω respectively supplies
parallel connected 100 number of 200V, 40W lamps.
Calculate the armature current and generated emf. Allow
1V per brush for contact drop.
2. With neat diagram explain the operation of a 3 point
starter?
2. Armature resistance control
3. A 4 pole wave wound generator has 40 slots and 10
Armature-resistance Control
conductors placed per slot. The flux per pole is 0.02
In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in
series with the supply. This reduces the voltage available across Weber. Calculate the generated emf when the machine is
the armature and hence the speed falls. driven at 1200 rpm.
4. Derive EMF equation of a DC machine.
5. Define armature reaction. Derive an expression for
demagnetising & cross magnetising ampere turns per
pole.
6. Explain the principle of operation of a dc motor
7. Explain the principle of operation of dc generator
8. A short shunt compound generator delivers a load current
of 30A at 200V and has armature, series and shunt field
By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below resistances of .05Ω,0.03Ω and 200Ω respectively.
the normal speed can be obtained. Calculate the induced emf and armature current. Allow
1V per brush for contact drop.
9. Define speed regulation and percentage speed regulation
of a dc motor
10. Explain the significance of back emf of a dc motor.

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 EE205 DCMT

11. Derive torque equations of dc motor. Draw torque vs the total power developed when working i) as a generator
current characteristics of shunt & series motors. delivering 25KW and ii) as a motor taking 25KW.
12. Describe OCC of dc generator. 8. Discuss external characteristics of dc generators.
13. Draw and explain the external characteristics of shunt, 9. Explain the principle of operation of a dc motor. Derive
series & compound generators. an expression for torque developed by the motor.
10. Explain the different methods of explaining the dc
10 Marks machine?
1. A compound generator is supplying a load of 100A at 11. Explain different speed control methods in dc shunt &
220V. The resistance of its armature, shunt and series series motors
windings is 0.1Ω, 50Ω and 0.06Ω respectively. Find the 12. List different losses occurring in dc machine. Explain.
induced emf and armature current when the machine is 13. What is the condition for maximum efficiency in a dc
connected as a) short shunt b) long shunt. machine? Derive.
2. Draw and explain the electrical & mechanical 14. Explain different characteristic curves of a dc generator.
characteristics of dc series motor.
3. A dc shunt machine while running as generator develops
a voltage of 250V at 1000 rpm on no load. It has
armature resistance of 0.5Ω and field resistance of 250Ω.
When the machine runs as motor, input to it at no-load is
4A at 250V. Calculate the speed and efficiency of the visit us for more notes & guides
machine when it runs as a motor taking 40A at 250V.
Armature reaction weakens the field flux by 3%.
4. Draw and explain speed-torque characteristics of dc
series, shunt and compound motors.
5. With a neat diagram explain the constructional details of
dc machine.
6. Derive the emf equation of a dc machine.
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7. A 25KW,250V dc shunt generator has armature & field
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resistances of 0.06Ω and 100Ω respectively, determine

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