Cell:

Cell is called a structural and functional unit of life of all living organisms capable of independent
existence and can perform all functions of life.
To see cells clearly we need a microscope.

Shape of cell

1. There is no typical shape of a cell.

2. Cells may be spherical, rectangular, flattened, polygonal, oval, triangular, conical, columnar.
3. Cell size varies greatly in various plants and animals. Some of them are not visible to naked eye.
Some are barely visible while some are macroscopic.
4. The smallest cell size can be seen in mycoplasma (0.3 µm in length).
5. Bacterial cell size is 3 to 5 µm.
6. The largest size of cell is seen in Ostrich egg (nearly 15cms).
7. Longest cells are nerve cells.

Cell theory

1. Was proposed by Schwann and Schleiden. However, in this theory, there was no explanation
about formation of new cells.
2. A German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838) examined number of plants and concluded that
various tissues of plants are composed of different types cells.
3. At that time, a British zoologist Theodore Schwann (1839) proposed that cells are bound by a
thin membrane. He also explained about existence of cell wall as a unique character of plant
cell. On the basis of his observation, he proposed that animals and plants are made up of cells
and products of cells.
4. It was Rudolf Virchow (1855) who explained for the first time that new cells are formed by cell
division from pre existing cells (Omnis cellula-e-cellulla).
Totipotency:

It is the capacity or the potential of living nucleated cell to differentiate and divide to form any other
type of cell and thereby a complete new organism.
A cell is totipotent because it has the entire genetic information of the organism in its nucleus.
Embryonic animal cells are totipotent and termed as stem cells.
Stem cells have great medical applications including cure for diseases.

Kinds of cells:
Living organisms are grouped into two main categories
A. The prokaryotes have simple cellular organization
B. Eukaryotes exhibit high degree of organization.

A. Prokaryotic cells :

The cell in prokaryotes show following main features.

1. It has chemically complex protective cell envelop.

2. However, it does not have well-defined nucleus and other membrane bound cell organelles.
3. Cell envelop is a three-layered structure with outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and inner plasma
membrane. Glycocalyx is present as either slime layer (loose sheath) or capsule (tough).
4. Bacteria are better observed when stained. The most followed staining method is ‘Gram
staining’ developed by Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram.
5. (in Gram positive bacteria) The cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
6. (in Gram negative bacteria) The cell wall is made up of murein.
7. It gives mechanical strength to the cell.
8. Cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. All these structures give protection to the cell and also
help in inter-cellular transport.
In motile bacteria either cilia or flagella are found. Both are driven by rotatory movement
produced by basal body (which works as motor).
Other parts are filament and hook. Some other surface projections are the tubular pili (which
help in inter-cellular communication) and fimbriae (for clinging to support).
 The cell membrane shows infoldings called mesosomes,
which help in cell wall formation, cellular respiration and DNA replication.
9. Some bacteria especially photosynthetic cyanobacteria show more longer extensions called
chromatophores. They carry photosynthetic pigments.
10. The cytoplasm contains dense particles called ribosomes helping in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes are described by their sedimentation rate in Svedberg units. Bacterial ribosome are
70S (composed of a larger subunit 50S + smaller subunit 30S).
11. Genetic material in bacterium is a single chromosome made up of circular and coiled DNA.
It remains attached to mesosome.
This DNA undergoes a very typical replication pattern called as theta model of replication.
The DNA is not associated with histone proteins (as in eukaryotes) hence not referred to as
chromatin.
Besides chromosomal DNA many bacteria show plasmids which are small circular DNA
molecules carrying few genes. They are termed as extrachromosomal self-replicating DNA
molecules. They are of two basic types
1. F – Plasmid for reproduction and
2. R – Plasmid for resistance against antibiotics.
Cytoplasm of prokaryotes is a pool of all necessary materials like water, enzymes, elements,
amino acids, etc. Some inclusion bodies in form of organic (cyanophycean starch and glycogen)
and inorganic granules (phosphate and sulphur) are also found.

B. Eukaryotic Cells:

1. Cells in which the nucleus has a definite nuclear membrane are known as Eukaryotic cells.
2. These cells exhibit presence of membrane bound cell organelles.
e.g. Cells of Protists, Plants, Animals and Fungi.
3. The eukaryotic cells have different shape, size and physiology
4. But all the cells are typically composed of
Plasma membrane,
Cytoplasm and
Its organelles viz. (Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosomes, Golgi complex, etc.
and a true nucleus.)

Components of Eukaryotic cell:

1. Cell wall:

• It is rigid, supportive and protective outer covering of plasma membrane of plant cells, fungi
and some protists.
• Algae show presence of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate in
cell wall.
• In other plants, it is made up of hemicelluloses, pectin, lipids and protein. Microfibrils of plant
cell wall show presence of cellulose which is responsible for rigidity.
 • Some of the depositions of cell wall are silica (grass stem), cutin (epidermal walls of land
plants), suberin (endodermal cells of root), wax and lignin.
• Function:- It gives shape to the cell and protects from mechanical injury and infections.

2. Cell membrane / Plasma membrane/ biomembrane:

1. It is thin, quasifluid structure present both extracellularly and intracellularly.

Extracellularly, it is present around protoplast and
intracellularly, it is present around most of the cell organelles in eukaryotic cell.
2. It separates cell organelles from cytosol.
3. Thickness of biomembrane is about 75 A o
 4. Under electron microscope, cell membrane appears trilamellate (made up of three layers).
5. It shows presence of lipids (mostly phospholipids) arranged in bilayer.
Lipids posses’ one hydrophilic polar head and two hydrophobic non-polar tails.
So, phospholipids are amphipathic.
Lipid molecules are arranged in two layers (bilayer) in such a way that their tails are sandwiched
in between heads. Due to this, tails never come in direct contact with aqueous surrounding.
6. Cell membrane also shows presence of proteins and carbohydrates. Ratio of proteins and lipids
varies in different cells.
For example in human beings, RBCs show approximately 52% protein and 40% lipids

Fluid mosaic model:

• It is most accepted model of cell membrane. It was proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972.
• Water may also move by osmosis. During active transport, few ions or molecules are
transported against concentration gradient (from lower to higher concentration). It requires
energy. So, ATP is utilized. As such a transport is an energy dependent process in which ATP is
utilized, it is called Active transport
e.g. Na+ /K+ pump. Polar molecules cannot pass through non-polar lipid bilayer. So, they require
carrier proteins.

3. Cytoplasm:

• The cell contains ground substance called cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol.

• This colloidal jelly like material is not static. It shows streaming movements called cyclosis.
• The cytoplasm contains water as major component along with organic and inorganic
molecules like sugars, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, nucleotides, minerals and waste
products.
• It also contains various cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria,
plastids, nucleus, microbodies and cytoskeletal elements like microtubules.
• Cytoplasm acts as a source of raw materials as well as seat for various metabolic activities
taking place in the cell.
• It helps in distribution and exchange of materials between various cell organelles.
• Cell organelles are nothing but compartments in the cell that carry out specific functions. Some
of them coordinate with each other and complete specific tasks for the cell.
Nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes and various types of
vesicles and vacuoles form such a group and are together considered as endomembrane system
of the cell.
Organelles having distinct functions are not included in endomembrane system.
e.g. mitochondria or chloroplast carry out specific type of energy conversions in the cell.
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

• This little network within the cytosol is present in all eukaryotic cells except ova and mature red
blood corpuscles.
• Under the electron microscope, it appears like network of membranous tubules and sacs called
cisternae.
• It forms more than 50% of the total membrane of a eukaryotic cell. This divides the cytoplasm
in two parts viz; one within the lumen of ER called laminal cytoplasm and non-laminal cytoplasm
that lies outside ER.
• Membrane of Endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with nuclear envelope at one end and
extends till cell membrane. It thus acts as intracellular supporting framework and helps in
maintaining position of various cell organelles in the cytoplasm.
• The outer surface of endoplasmic reticular membrane may or may not be studded with
ribosomes. Accordingly, it is called rough or smooth ER.
Smooth and rough ER differs in their functions.
Smooth ER is involved in various processes in different cells.
Depending on cell type, it helps in synthesis of lipids (ex. steroid secreting cells of cortical
region of adrenal gland, testes and ovaries), detoxification of drugs and poisons (liver cells)
and storage of calcium ions (muscle cells).
• Rough ER is primarily involved in protein synthesis. (e.g. pancreatic cells that secrete insulin).
These proteins are secreted by ribosomes attached to rough ER and are called secretory
proteins. These proteins get wrapped in membrane that buds off from transitional region of ER.
Such membrane bound proteins depart from ER as transport vesicles. Rough ER is also involved
in formation of membrane for the cell. The ER membrane grows in place by addition of
membrane proteins and phospholipids to its own membrane. Portions of this expanded
membrane are transferred to other components of endomembrane system.
5. Golgi complex :

• Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus or Golgi body; various terms are used to denote this assembly,
manufacturing cum packaging and transport unit of cell.

• Golgi complex essentially consists of stacks of membranous sacs called cisternae. Diameter of
cisternae varies from 0.5 to 1 µm. A cell may have few to several cisternae depending on its
function.
• The thickness and molecular composition of two membranes of a Golgi sac differ from each
other. The Golgi sacs show specific orientation in the cell. Each cisterna has a forming or ‘cis’
face (cis: on the same side) and maturing or ‘trans’ face (trans: the opposite side).
• Transport vesicles that pinch off from transitional ER merge with cis face of Golgi cisterna and
add its contents into the lumen. This explains why Golgi bodies are usually located near ER.
Modified and condensed secretions leave Golgi through trans face again as membrane bound
vesicles.
• Golgi body carries out two types of functions, modification of secretions of ER and production
of its own secretions. Cisternae contain specific enzymes for specific functions. Refining of
product takes place in an orderly manner. For example, glycolipids and glycoproteins that are
brought from ER loose certain sugars and regain other, thus forming a variety of products.
• Golgi bodies also manufacture their own products. Golgi bodies in many plant cells produce
non-cellulose polysaccharides like pectin. Manufactured or modified, all products of Golgi
complex leave cisternae from trans face as transport vesicles.
• While they are leaving from the Golgi, certain markers may get impregnated on their membrane
so that they can identify their specific target cell or cell organelle.
• The cisternae in Golgi body are not physically connected to each other as that are in ER.
According to recent studies it is proposed that cisternae of Golgi body themselves mature
moving from cis to trans face. It is called ‘Cisternal maturation model’. It is also said that some
vesicles recycle their enzymes that have been carried forward by moving cisternae back to less
mature region.
6. Lysosomes:

• Lysosomes can be considered as dismantling and restructuring units of a cell.

• These are membrane bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes. The enzymes in lysosomes
are used by most eukaryotic cells to digest (hydrolyse) macromolecules. The lysosomal enzymes
show optimal activity in acidic pH.
• Lysosomes arise from Golgi associated endoplasmic reticulum. The list of lysosomal enzymes
includes all types of hydrolases viz, amylases, proteases and lipases.
• These enzymes are in inactive state and are activated only when a lysosome comes in contact
with another particular organelle to form a hybrid structure. After the action of enzymes is
over, the lysosome is reformed and re-used. Lysosomes are thus found in various structural
forms and carry out various functions for the cell.
• Lysosomes are polymorphic in nature. We can classify lysosomes as, Primary lysosomes; which
are nothing but membrane bound vesicles in which enzymes are in inactive state.
• Secondary lysosomes or hybrid lysosomes, which are formed by fusion of lysosome with
endocytic vesicle containing materials to be digested, represented as heterophagic vesicle.
This is larger in size than primary lysosome.
• Residual body is the vesicle containing undigested remains left over in the heterophagic vesicle
after releasing the products of digestion in the cytosol.
• Lysosomes which bring about digestion of cells own organic material like a damaged cell
organelle, are called autophagic vesicles (or suicide bags). An autophagic vesicle essentially
consists of lysosome fused with membrane bound old cell organelle or organic molecules to be
recycled. Remember, every week, a human liver cell recycles half of its macromolecules.
• Lysosomes bring about intracellular and extracellular digestion. The intracellular digestion is
brought about by autophagic vesicle or secondary lysosomes which contain foreign materials
brought in by processes like phagocytosis. e.g. Food vacuole in amoeba or macrophages in
human blood that engulfs and destroys harmful microbes that enter the body.
• Extracellular digestion is brought about by release of lysosomal enzymes outside the cell. e.g.
acrosome, a cap like structure in human sperm is modified lysosomes which contain various
enzymes like Hyaluronidase.
• These enzymes bring about fertilization by dissolving protective layers of ovum.
 • During metamorphosis process found in many organisms, lysosomal enzymes help in reusing
the tissues of redundant organs. They also help in destruction of malignant cells.
e.g. T-lymphocytes.
• Lysosomal enzymes do not digest their own membrane proteins. Three-dimensional shape of
these proteins probably protects the membrane. Accidental release of lysosomal enzymes in
limited amount does not harm the cell because pH of cytosol is near neutral. Any insufficiency
in secretion of lysosomal enzymes leads to disorders
e.g. in genetic disorder, Tey Sach’s disease, due to insufficiency of lipase, brain gets impaired
due to accumulation of fats.

7. Vacuoles:

• Vacuoles are membrane bound sacs prominently found in plant cells.

In animal cells, whenever present they are few in number and smaller in size.
Generally, there are two or three permanent vacuoles in a plant cell.
• In some large plant cells, a single large vacuole occupies the central part of the cell. It is called
central vacuole. In such cells vacuole can occupy as much as 90% of the total volume of the cell.
• Vacuoles maintain turgidity of the cell.

9. Mitochondria (Singular: Mitochondrion) :

• These are important cell organelles involved in aerobic respiration.

• Mitochondria are absent in prokaryotic cells and red blood corpuscles (RBCs).
• Their shape may be oval or spherical or spiral strip like.
• It is a double membrane bound organelle. Outer membrane is permeable to various
metabolites due to presence of a protein -Porin or Parson’s particles. Inner membrane is
selectively permeable to few substances only. Both membranes are separated by a space outer
chamber.
• Inner membrane shows several finger like or plate like folds- cristae. Inner membrane bears
numerous particles- oxysomes and cytochromes / electron carriers. Inner membrane encloses
a cavity- inner chamber, containing a fluid- matrix. Matrix contains few coils of circular DNA,
RNA, 70S types of ribosomes, lipids and various enzymes of Krebs cycle and other pathways.

10. Plastids :
• Like mitochondria, plastids too are double membraned organelles containing DNA, RNA and 70S
ribosomes. But they are larger in size and can be observed under light microscope.
• Plastids are classified according to the pigments present in it as
• 1. leucoplasts,
2.chromoplasts and
3. chloroplasts.
• Leucoplasts do not contain any pigments, they are of various shapes and sizes. These are meant
for storage of nutrients. e.g. Amyloplasts that store starch, Elaioplasts that store oils and
Aleuroplasts that store proteins.
• Chromoplasts contain pigments like carotene and xanthophyll, etc. They impart red, yellow or
orange colour to flowers and fruits. Now you must have understood why potato looks white in
colour and shoe flower petals are red. Both leucoplasts and amyloplasts do not contain
photosynthetic apparatus we find in chloroplasts. Let us now study the chloroplast in details.
• Plant cells, cells of algae and few protists like Euglena contain chloroplasts.
You have observed ribbon shaped chloroplast in Spirogyra.
It differs in size, number and shape in various cells in which it is found.
In plants, it is found in green regions; mainly in mesophyll of leaf.
This chloroplast is lens shaped. But it can also be oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon like.
A cell may contain single large chloroplast as in Chlamydomonas or there are 20 to 40
chloroplasts per cell seen in mesophyll cells.
Chloroplasts contain green pigment - chlorophyll along with other enzymes that help in
production of sugar by photosynthesis.
• Inner membrane of double walled chlorophyll is comparatively less permeable. Inside the cavity
of inner membrane, there is another set of membranous sacs called thylakoids.
• Thylakoids are arranged in the form of stacks called grana (singular: granum).
• The grana are connected to each other by means of membranous tubules called
stromalamellae.
 • Space outside thylakoids is is filled with stroma. The stroma, and the space inside thylakoids
contain various enzymes essential for photosynthesis. Like other plastids, stroma of chloroplast
also contains DNA and ribosomes.

11. Ribosomes :

• You are aware that ribosomes are protein factories of the cell.
• They use the genetic information to synthesise proteins.
• Ribosomes were first observed as dense particles in electron micrograph of a cell by scientist
Pallade in 1953.
• Ribosomes are made up of Ribosomal RNA and proteins. They do not have any membranous
covering around them.

• In a eukaryotic cell, ribosomes are present in mitochondria, plastids and in cytosol.

• Ribosomes in cytoplasm are either found attached to outer surface of Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum and nuclear membrane or freely suspended in cytoplasm.
• Both are similar in structure and are 80S type. Each ribosome is made up of two subunits; a
large and a small subunit.
• Bound ribosomes generally produce proteins that are transported outside the cell after
processing in ER and Golgi body.
e.g. Bound ribosomes of acinar cells of pancreas produce pancreatic digestive enzymes. Free
ribosome come together and form chains called polyribosomes for protein synthesis.
• Free ribosomes generally produce enzymatic proteins that are used up in cytoplasm like
enzymes required for breakdown of sugar. Both types of ribosomes can interchange position
and function. Number of ribosomes is high in cells actively engaged in protein synthesis.
• The particle size of ribosomes is measured in terms of Svedberg unit (S).
It is a measure of sedimentation rate of a particle in ultracentrifuge.
It is thus a measure of density and size of a particle.
 • 1S = 10-13 sec.
• Venkatraman Ramakrishnan : Won Nobel Prize in Chemistry in the year 2009, for explaining the
structure and working of ribosomes. He shared the prize with Yonath (Israel) and Thomas Steitz
(USA).

12. Nucleus :

• Structure of nucleus of a eukaryotic cell becomes distinct in a non-dividing cell or during

interphase.
• Such an interphase nucleus is made up of nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
chromatin network.
• Nuclear envelope is a double-layered delimiting membrane of nucleus.
• Two membranes are separated from each other by perinuclear space (10 to 50nm).
• Outer membrane is connected with endoplasmic reticulum at places. It also harbours ribosomes
on it.
• The inner membrane is lined by nuclear lamina- a network of protein fibres that helps in
maintaining shape of the nucleus.

• The two membranes along with perinuclear space help in separating nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm. However, nuclear membrane is not continuous. At places, there are small openings
called nucleopores. The nucleopores are guarded by pore complexes which regulate flow of
substances from nucleus to cytoplasm and in reverse direction.
• The nucleoplasm or karyolymph contains various substances like nucleic acids, protein
molecules, minerals and salts. It contains chromatin network and nucleolus.
• Nucleolus is another component which is not bound by cell membrane.
• Nucleolus is made up of rRNA and ribosomal proteins and it is best known as the site of
ribosome biogenesis.
• Depending on synthetic activity of a cell, there are one or more nucleoli present in the
nucleoplasm. For ex: cells of oocyte contain large nucleolus whereas sperm cells contain small
inconspicuous one.
• They appear as dense spherical bodies present near chromatin network.
 • They produce rRNA and ribosomal proteins which are then transported to cytoplasm and are
assembled together to form ribosomes.

Chromatin material :

Nucleus contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes which are nothing but DNA
molecules associated with proteins. In a nondividing cell, the chromosomes appear as thread like
network and cannot be identified individually. This network is called chromatin material.

• The chromatin material contains DNA, histone and non-histone proteins and RNA. In some
regions of chromatin, DNA is more and is genetically active called euchromatin. Some regions
that contain more of proteins and less DNA and are genetically inert, are called
heterochromatin.

• When the cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes coil and get condensed.
At metaphase stage, they become distinct and can be clearly identified.
Every species of living organism has specific number of chromosomes like normal human cell
has 46.

Function of nucleus

• The nucleus contains entire genetic information; hence play important role in heredity and
variation.
• It is the site for synthesis of DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
• It plays important role in protein synthesis.
• Chromosome number being constant for a species, it is important in phylogenetic studies.
• Nucleus thus is the master cell organelle.

1. Choose correct option

A. Growth of cell wall during cell elongation take place by .............
a. Apposition
b. Intussusception
c. Both a & b
d. Super position

B. Cell Membrane is composed of

a. Proteins and cellulose
b. Proteins and Phospholipid
c. Proteins and carbohydrates
d. Proteins, Phospholipid and some carbohydrates

C. Plasma membrane is Fluid structure due to presence of

a. Carbohydrates
b. Lipid
c. Glycoprotein
d. Polysaccharide

D. Cell Wall is present in

a. Plant cell
b. Prokaryotic cell
c. Algal cell
d. All of the above

E. Plasma membrane is
a. Selectively permeable
b. Permeable
c. Impermeable
d. Semi permeable

F. Mitochondrial DNA is
a. Naked
b. Circular
c. Double stranded
d. All of the above

G.Which of the following set of organelles contains DNA?

a. Mitochondria, Peroxysome
b. Plasma membrane, Ribosome
c. Mitochondria, Chloroplast
d. Chloroplast, Golgi body