ECG 344: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2:
TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
STUDIES
1. PART A: Spot speed studies, design speed, operating speed, running speed
and speed limit

2. PART B: Traffic volume characteristics, flow rate, highway capacity and

Level of Service (LOS)
At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

 Describe the simple speed studies and apply the knowledge in

highway geometric design using recommended standards and

specification.(CO1,PO1)

 Describe the simple volume studies and apply the knowledge in

traffic signal design using recommended standards and

specification.(CO1,PO1)
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 Deals with Planning, Geometric Design and
Traffic Operations of roads, streets, their • Traffic Stream Parameters
networks and terminals in order to achieve safe  Microscopic – individual
and efficient movements of goods, people and
services. data
 Scope:-  Macroscopic – group data
a) Traffic Operations – regulations, traffic
control devices, warrants • Measurements
b) Transportation Planning – long term plan,
parking, terminals
 Manual
c) Traffic characteristics – driver, vehicle,  Inductive loops - produce an
road, environment electro- magnetic field which in turn
d) Geometric Design – design new facilities, detects metallic objects
upgrade existing highway  Speed guns
e) Administration – organization to plan,
regulates, control and monitor. • Traffic Stream Models
• Microscopic measures: individual vehicle
1. Time headway: hi (sec/veh)
2. Space headway: si (ft/veh or km/veh)
3. Speed of individual vehicle: ui (mi/hr or km/hr)

• Macroscopic measures: average of n vehicles

1. Flow: q (veh/hr or vph)
2. Density: k (veh/mi or veh/km) q = uk
3. Speed: u (mi/hr or km/hr)
 TRAFFIC STUDIES
• Three (3) main categories:-
1. Inventories Traffic Measurements
A list or graphic display of existing Plan, improve road system
information – street widths, parking
spaces, transit routes, etc Distribution & performance of existing traffic
2. Administrative
Traffic flow & speed
Existing engineering records, available in
government agencies & departments Traffic planning studies
3. Dynamic Implemented with the help of 3-E’s
collection of data under operational (Engineering, Enforcement and Education)
conditions – speed, traffic volume, travel
time & delay, parking and crashes.
 TRAFFIC SURVEY METHODS FOR
SPEED STUDIES & TRAFFIC VOLUME

Info from traffic survey data used  Choice of traffic data collection technique depends
on:-
for:- i. Data usage
ii. The accuracy required
i. Intersection design
iii. The cost occur (economic)
ii. Evaluate the effectiveness of iv. Indirectly – size of the traffic study, which
may be done manually/automatically.
before-and after upgrading of the
road (road safety & delay)  Period of count – the durations of count requirement
 12 hour counts start from 7 a.m. – 7 p.m.
iii. Economic justification for new
 16 hour counts start from 6 a.m. – 10 p.m.
road construction/upgrading.  24 hour counts start from mid-night to mid-
night.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
 Study of speed of traffic at one point or spot on a traffic way 60
 Aims – to determine the enforceable speed limits
 To estimate the speed distribution of the traffic stream at selected
location under the current conditions at the time of the study. km/j
110

PURPOSE : km/j
80
1. Establish posted speed limits
2. Observe speed trends km/j
3. Collect basic data 90
Response to citizen complaints
4.
30
→ reflects the nature of complaints km/j

Duration at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles. km/j
 Straight, level and open sections of highways
Mid-block location on urban street
Free flow
Junction
High frequency of accident rate
Important locations for traffic operation
Representative location for basic data survey

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
FACTORS AFFECTING SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Driver
 Distance of the trip, no. of
passengers, age, familiarity of the
route OR
Vehicle
 Type, age, weight, manufacturer,
horse power, size
Roadway
 Geographical location, class of
road, grade, sight distance, no. of
lanes, spacing of intersections
Environment
 Time, month, season and weather
OR
Traffic OR
 Volume, density, passing
movements, speed regulations, no.
of heavy vehicles
OR
 For traffic
For trends in the operation – speed
operating speed
110 limit & safe speed
at curve

For speed at km/j For geometric

problem location design features

For research
studies
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Speed Studies

Manually Automatically

- Road detectors

100m
- Radar speed meter
(commonly used)
0 sec

Or Sonic detector
8 sec

Speed = distance/time
- Time lapse camera
= 100m/8sec
V = 12.5m/s = 45kph
  Observe the time required by a vehicle to cover short distance.
 Direct timing procedure
 Two reference points are located at a roadway, fixed distance
apart.
 Observer starts and stops a stopwatch as a vehicle enters &
leaves the test section.
 It is the most uncomplicated way.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Not require experts Parallax effect

Accurate results Labor-intensive
Easy to observed types of Limitations of human factors
vehicles Cannot be used for long
periods counting
 MANUAL METHOD?

Measuring Wheel Distance Stopwatch

km SPEED UNIT ?
Distance
hr Time
FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 Classified into two general categories:
1) Pneumatic road tubes  Advantages:
 two tubes laid across the lane a) human errors are reduced
 an impulse is recorded when the front wheels b) accurate results
pass over the
first tube, second impulse is recorded when the
front wheels  Disadvantages:
pass over the second tube.
a) devices rather expensive
 time elapsed between the two impulses &
distance between b) affect driver behavior
the tubes are used to compute the speed. c) wear & tear
2) An inductive loop d) vandalism
 rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway e) may disrupts traffic during
surface. installation
Pneumatic road tubes An inductive loop
 Two types:  Advantages:
1) Radar speed meter a) portable
 transmit signal onto a moving vehicle b) reduced the influence on driver
 change in frequency between transmitted behavior
signal
& reflected signal = speed. c) easy to use
 operating distance about 45 m d) freedom from vehicle damage
e) no electromagnetic interference
2) Sonic detector meter
 using ultrasonic tone (18-20 kHz)
 output in current voltage that is proportional  Disadvantages:
to vehicle speed. a) difficult for two-lane road
b) expensive
 Vehicles is detected through electronic means.
 Traffic characteristics can be obtained – speed,
volume, queues & headways.
 Consists of an electronic camera & microprocessor.
 For a very crowded highways
 Photograph taken at every fixed interval of time.
 Advantages: permanent visual will be recorded
 Disadvantages: expense involved for processing film
and analyzing data
 DEFINITION:
 Speed
– Rate of movement of the vehicle, expressed in miles/hour (mi/h) or
kilometers/hour (km/h).

 Average spot speed /Arithmetic mean speed / Time mean speed (*)
(km/h)
- Arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds. Total of spot speeds/No of
vehicles.

 Overall travel time (h or s)

- Time travel including stop and delays.

 Overall travel speed/journey speed (*) (km/h)

- The speed over a specified section of highway. (Distance/overall travel time)
 DEFINITION:
Operating speed (*) (km/h) Median speed
- the highest overall speed a driver can
travel under a favorable weather condition - speed at the middle value in a series of spot
w/out exceeds the speed limits speeds that are arranged in ascending order
Modal speed
Running speed (*) (km/h)
- speed value with highest frequency
- the average speed maintained over a (observation) in a sample of spot speeds.
particular distance which the vehicle is in
motion. (Distance/ (Time travel – time delay)) Pace/Mode
- the range of speed (5-10 km/h intervals) that
Running delay (h or s) has the greatest number of observations.
- delay caused by interference between Standard deviation of speeds
components of traffic (stream flow, parking)
- measure of the spread of the individual speeds.
Design speed Space mean speed
- the speed determined for design as - the arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles
related to the physical features of a highway
that might influence vehicle operation. occupying a relatively long section of street or
- the max safe speed that can be highway at given instant.
maintained over a specified section of
highway when conditions are so favorable.
Time mean speed- The arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles passing a point
during a specified interval of time.

Time mean speed, Ut = ∑ speed n = no. of vehicle

n

Space mean speed -The arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles occupying a

relatively long section of street or highway at a given instance.

Space mean speed, Us =Σ distance

Σ journey time
CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Speed Studies
• Journey Speed & Running Speed
– Example: Evaluate the average journey and running speeds for the
following situation and interpret the result.
Point A Point B
J1 J2 J4 J5

J3
8 km

Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 35 minutes

Assume delays at each junction: J1 = 5 minutes; J2 = 5 minutes; J3 = 3 minutes
J4 = 4 minutes; J5 = 6 minutes
Answer:
Average Journey speed = 8 km X (1 hour X 60 minutes) / 35 minutes = 13.7 km/hr
Average Running Speed = 8 km X (1 hour X 60 minutes) / (35 – 23) minutes = 40 km/hr
Interpretation:
Since journey speed < running speed, driver experiences heavy traffic flow & insufficient traffic
control system at junctions. System requires improvement…! 23
 CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Speed Studies
• Time Mean Speed & Space Mean Speed
– Example: Calculate the time mean speed and space mean speed.
Point A Point B
A B C D

45 km/hr 55 km/hr 58 km/hr 72 km/hr

8 km

Total Speed of Vehicles Total Distance

Time mean speed = Space mean speed =
Total Vehicles Total Journey Time

45 + 55 + 58 + 72 8km 8km
= CarA
= CarB = 0.145hr
= 0.178hr =
4 45km / hr 55km / hr
230
= 8km 8km
4 CarC
= = 0.138hr =
CarD = 0.111hr
58km / hr 72km / hr
= 57.5km / hr
4 × 8km
Space mean speed = = 55.94km / hr
(0.178 + 0.145 + 0.138 + 0.111)hr 24
Six vehicles traveling through a section of a rural secondary road with the speeds measured at 68,
71, 79, 82, 76 and 74 km/h respectively. Assuming every vehicle was traveling at constant speed
over the section of road, calculate the space mean speed (SMS) and time mean speed (TMS).

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 Numerical/ • Arithmetic Mean Speed
• Median
Statistical • Standard Deviation
Analysis • Mode (pace)

• Histogram
Graphical • Frequency Distribution Curve
Analysis • Cumulative Frequency Curve

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 Analysis and Data Presentation:

Table for Spot Speed Analysis :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Speed Mean Frequency, f v2 f.v f . v2 % of % of

group speed, v frequency cumulative
frequency
10 – 14.9 12.5 0 156.25 0 0 0 0

15 – 19.9 17.5 6 306.25 105 1837.50 (6/9)=66.67 66.67

20 – 24.9 22.5 3 506.25 67.5 1518.75 (3/9)=33.33 (66.67+33.33)

=100

TOTAL 9 172.5 3356.25

 1. Numerical/Statistical Analysis:
a) b)

where: where:

n : total number of observation

f : frequency of observation L : lower bound of the median group
v : mean speed fL : cumulative number of observation up to the
n : number of observation lower bound
of the group in which median has
fm : number of observation in the group in which
median lies
C : speed interval of the group

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 c)

where:

f : frequency of observation
v : mean speed
n : number of observation

d)  Mode (pace) = Speed Group that has highest number

of frequency

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 2. Graphical Analysis:

a.Histogram (7 vs 1)

From the graph, determine mode (pace)

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 b. Frequency Distribution Curve (7 vs 2)

From the graph, determine modal speed

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
c.Cumulative Frequency Curve (8 vs 2)

From the graph, determine ;

• P15 (disturbance speed)
• P50 (median speed)
• P85 (speed limit)
• P95 (design speed) FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
 Example 2: Spot Speed Data Analysis
1. The raw data in Table 1 were obtained using a radar speed meter for 50 cars in km/hr at
Persiaran Idaman. Calculate the arithmetic mean speed, median speed, modal speed, and the
standard deviation for the data set.
Table 1
73 73 79 67 71 82 79 82 78 84
74 83 70 78 80 73 70 76 71 68
70 68 68 85 75 68 72 82 82 88
71 65 69 73 78 69 75 67 65 85
83 61 67 73 84 65 69 68 78 75
(10 Marks)

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
  FIRST,Check the LOWEST and HIGHEST speed.
 LOWEST = 61 km/hr………. HIGHEST = 88 km/hr
 THEN, decide on your speed group!

 So, we decide speed group as following :

SPEED GROUP

55 – 59.9

60 – 64.9

65 – 69.9

70 – 74.9

75 – 79.9

80 – 84.9

85 – 89.9
FKAUITMPG/nadia2020
SPEED MEAN FREQUENCY v2 f.v f. v2
GROUP SPEED, v f
55 – 59.9 57.45 0 3300.50 0 0

60 – 64.9 62.45 1 3900.00 62.45 3900.00

65 – 69.9 67.45 14 4549.50 944.30 63693.00

70 – 74.9 72.45 13 5249.00 941.85 68237.00

75 – 79.9 77.45 10 5998.50 774.50 59985.00

80 – 84.9 82.45 9 6798.00 742.05 61182.00

85 – 89.9 87.45 3 7647.50 262.35 22942.50

TOTAL 50 3727.50 279939.50

a) ARITHMETIC MEAN SPEED, x
Σ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
x=
𝑛𝑛
= 3727.50 /50
= 74.55 km/hr

b) MEDIAN
𝑛𝑛
�2 − 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿
median = L + [ ]C
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
50
−15
2
= 70 + [ ] 4.9
13
= 73.77 km/hr
c) Standard Deviation, s
Σ (𝑓𝑓.𝑣𝑣 2 ) Σ (𝑓𝑓.𝑣𝑣)2
s= −
𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑛𝑛 (𝑛𝑛 −1)

279939.5 3727.52
= −
49 50 (49)

= 6.475 km/hr

d) Mode (pace) = 65 – 69.9 km/hr

 CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Speed Studies
• Example

Sample data:
1 hour or 100 samples
data,
Which ever come first

38
CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Speed Studies
• Data analysis
Speed No. of observation,
group Mean speed, v f Cumulative fv v2 Fv^2
15-24.9 19.95 5 5 99.75 398.0025 1990.013
25-34.9 29.95 29 34 868.55 897.0025 26013.07
35-44.9 39.95 62 96 2476.9 1596.003 98952.16
45-54.9 49.95 3 99 149.85 2495.003 7485.008
55-64.9 59.95 1 100 59.95 3594.003 3594.003
100 3655 138034.3

Frequency Histogram
100
90
80
% of Total Observation

70
62
60
50
40
29
30
20
10 5 3 1
0
19.95 29.95 39.95 49.95 59.95
39
speed (km/hr)
 CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
Speed Studies
Arithmetic mean speed Standard deviation
• Data analysis
100
Frequency Distribution Graph
x=
∑ fv
90 n
80
3655
% of Total Observation

70 =
60 100
50
40
= 36.55km / hr = 6.7
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Modal speed Median speed
Speeds (km/hr)

= 35 - 44.9 km/hr n
Cumulative Frequency Graph
( ) − fL
L+ 2 ×c
120
=
P95 fM
Cumulative Frequency %

100

80 Variance
100
60
P50 S 2 = (6.7) 2 −5
35 +
= 2 × 9.9
40
= 44.89 29
20

0 = 50.36km / hr
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 40
Speeds (km/hr)
 END OF PART A

FKAUITMPG/nadia2020