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Haowen Yan

Description Approaches
and Automated
Generalization
Algorithms for Groups
of Map Objects
Description Approaches and Automated
Generalization Algorithms for Groups
of Map Objects
Haowen Yan

Description Approaches and

Automated Generalization
Algorithms for Groups
of Map Objects
Haowen Yan
Faculty of Geomatics
Lanzhou Jiaotong University
Lanzhou, Gansu, China

ISBN 978-981-13-3677-5 ISBN 978-981-13-3678-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3678-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018964703

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
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broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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Singapore
Preface

Map generalization seeks to maintain and improve the legibility of a map after the
scale has been changed. Automated map generalization is a necessary technique for
the construction of multi-scale vector map databases that are crucial components in
spatial data infrastructure of cities, provinces, and countries. Nevertheless, this is an
unrealized dream yet, because many algorithms for map feature generalization are
not truly automatic and therefore need human’s interference.
In recent decades, scholars in the communities of cartography and geographic
information sciences have been making great effort on the theories and methods for
automated map generalization and have got many achievements, including various
indices, operators, and algorithms for map feature generalization and softwares for
automated map generalization (though they are generally semiautomated).
As far as the algorithms for map feature generalization are concerned, the ones for
individual objects generalization have been mature and can be put into practical use,
while the ones for groups of objects generalization are still on the way and need more
investigations, though much progress has been made.
This book emphasizes on representation and generalization of groups of map
features. It is well known that map objects can be classified into three categories
according to their geometric character, i.e., point, linear, and areal. If only groups of
objects on maps are considered, we have point clusters, linear networks, and areal
groups. In the meanwhile, if map feature type is considered, we have point clusters,
groups of contours, road networks, river networks, continuous areal features, and
discrete areal features. Thus, the chapters of the book are arranged in this classifi-
cation. This book believes that representation methods are as important as general-
ization algorithms in map generalization; hence, it spends much words on describing
map feature representation methods.
The author would like to express his appreciations to many people who made the
completion of this book possible. Above all, he is grateful to Dr. Robert Weibel in
the Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Dr. Zhilin Li in the
Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong; and Professor Jiayao Wang in the PLA Information

v
vi Preface

Engineering University, China, who discussed many topics with the author years ago
at the early stage of this book. Second, the authors feel so indebted to Dr. Xiaomin
Lu, Dr. Haiying Wang, Dr. Jianglei Jin, and Dr. Hongyuan Fan who drew graphics
and/or checked language for the draft of the book. Last but not least, the author
appreciates the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41671447 and
No. 71563025) and the National Key R&D Program of China
(No. 2017YFB0504203) for their financial support to the work described in the
book.
The book can be a reference to the graduates and researchers who are interested in
cartography and geographic information science/systems, especially those in auto-
mated map generalization and spatial database construction. Any comments and
suggestions regarding this book are greatly welcomed and appreciated.

Lanzhou, China Haowen Yan

July 30, 2018
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Multi-scale Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Digital Earth: Applications of Multi-scale Representation . . . . . . 3
1.3 Automated Map Generalization: Implementation of Multi-scale
Vector Map Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features and the
Algorithms for Automated Map Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Approaches to Describing Map Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Algorithms for Automated Map Generalization . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Scope of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Description and Generalization of Point Clustering Features . . . . . . 17
2.1 Multi-scale Representations of Point Clustering Features . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Types of Point Clustering Features on Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Approached to Describing Point Clustering Features . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Information Contained in Point Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Measures for Types of Information Contained in Point
Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Algorithms for Point Clustering Features Generalization . . . . . . . 24
2.4.1 Algorithms for Settlement Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.2 The Dot Map Simplification Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.3 The On-the-Fly Point Clustering Thematic Feature
Generalization Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.4 The Voronoi-Based Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

vii
viii Contents

3 Description and Generalization of Contour Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.1 Definition and Characteristics of Contour Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Contour Tree: A Representation of Groups of Contour Lines . . . . 40
3.2.1 Analysis of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2 Automatic Generation of Closed Contour Lines . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.3 Construction of Contour Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.4 Detecting Topographic Terrain Lines by Means
of Contour Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Description of Contour Lines by Topographic Terrain Lines . . . . 50
3.3.1 Analysis of the Curvatures of a Singular Contour
Line and Construction of Its Binary Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.2 Selection of Subsections of Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.3 Detection of Sharp Peaks of Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3.4 Construction of Plan Structural Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.5 Organization of Semantic Hierarchical Trees . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Generalization of Groups of Contour Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.1 A Direct Generalization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.2 An Indirect Generalization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.3 Discussion of the Algorithms for Contour Map
Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Description and Generalization of Road Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 Introduction to Road Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Description of Road Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.1 Graph Theory-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Stroke-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.3 Information Theory-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.4 Mesh-Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.5 Simulation-Oriented Road Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3 Fundamental Principles in Road Network Generalization . . . . . . . 86
4.4 Approaches for Generalizing Road Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.1 A Graph Theory-Based Approach for Simplifying
Road Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.2 A Stroke-Based Approach for Simplifying Schematic
Network Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4.3 A Cartographic Information Theory-Based Algorithm
for Road Network Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.4 Mesh Density-Based Approach for Selective Omission
of Road Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4.5 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Contents ix

5 Description and Generalization of River Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5.1 Introduction to River Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2 Descriptions of River Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.1 Measures and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.2 Methods for Describing River Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Fundamental Principles for River Network Generalization . . . . . . 126
5.4 Approaches for Generalizing River Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.1 Selecting River Segments by Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.2 Selecting River Segments by the River Tree . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4.3 A Knowledge-Based Approach to River Network
Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4.4 An Approach to Generalizing River Networks by Catchment
Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4.5 River Selection by the BP Neural Network Algorithm . . . 137
5.4.6 River Network Selection Based on Structure and Pattern
Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.4.7 Comparison of the Algorithms for River Network
Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.5 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6 Description and Generalization of Continuous Areal Features . . . . . 149
6.1 Introduction to Continuous Areal Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2 Description of Continuous Areal Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2.1 Topological Relations Among Continuous Polygons . . . . 151
6.2.2 Topological Relations on Land-Use Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.3 Neighbouring Relations on Land-Use Maps . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.4 Horizontal and Vertical Relations on Land-Use Maps . . . . 161
6.2.5 Geospatial Semantic Relations on Land-Use/Cover Maps . 163
6.3 Principles/Rules in Land Use/Cover Map Generalization . . . . . . . 171
6.4 Generalization of Continuous Areal Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.4.1 Rule-Based Land Cover Map Generalization Approaches . 173
6.4.2 Areal Patches Generalization Approaches Considering
Spatial Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.4.3 Agent-Based Approaches for Areal Patches Generalization 183
6.4.4 A Vector and Raster-Based Approach for Categorical Map
Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.5 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7 Algorithms for Discrete Areal Feature Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.1 Introduction to Discrete Areal Features on Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2 Description of Groups of Buildings/Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2.1 Gestalt Principles for Describing Groups of Buildings . . . 199
x Contents

7.2.2 Two Types of Constraints for Buildings Grouping: Global

and Local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.3 Principles/Rules in Discrete Areal Feature Generalization . . . . . . 208
7.4 Approaches to Generalizing Groups of Buildings/Settlements . . . 209
7.4.1 Possible Operations for Building Generalization . . . . . . . . 210
7.4.2 Building Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.4.3 Generalization of Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.4.5 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.5 Potential Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.6 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8 Concluding Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Multi-scale Representation

Geometric objects on maps are representations of real phenomena in the geograph-

ical space. A single phenomenon may have multiple representations reflecting its
different perspectives at the same or different scales on maps. Usually, an object or a
group of objects in the geographic space has two types of “multiple representations”
on maps. The former is that the object or the group of objects is expressed by
different cartographers using different symbols at the same scale on maps, i.e. multi-
cartographers’ representations or horizontal representation. The latter is that the
object or the group of objects is observed at different distances and therefore
expressed at different scales on maps, i.e. multi-scale representations or perpendic-
ular representations.
An example of the two types of multiple representations is shown in Figs. 1.1, 1.2
and 1.3. Two cartographers/observers depict the pond (Fig. 1.1) using different
polygons, though they observe the pond at the same scale (Fig. 1.2). On the other
hand, the pond can also be observed at different distances or heights, and therefore
be described using different polygons at different scales (Fig. 1.3).
This book does not care multi-cartographers’ representations, but pays attention
to multi-scale representations of geographic phenomena on maps. Here, the scale of
a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
Multi-scale representation is characterized by the fact that geographic information
may be represented on maps at different levels of detail or generalization. The
functionality of multi-scale representations is supported in current geographic infor-
mation systems (i.e. GIS) by simply storing a series of maps each of which is at a
predefined scale. This approach is called “multi-version spatial databases” (MVSD)
which can provide direct, simple and efficient solutions for many GIS applications.
Nevertheless, MVSD has a number of potential problems such as data inconsistency
among different maps, high storage and update overhead of the databases, and

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

H. Yan, Description Approaches and Automated Generalization Algorithms for
Groups of Map Objects, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3678-2_1
2 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 A pond

Fig. 1.2 Multiple

representations of the pond
at the same scale by
different cartographers

Fig. 1.3 Multiple representations of the pond at four different scales

inflexibility in control over the update of the multi-scale databases. To overcome

these shortcomings, many geographers and cartographers have proposed an ideal
way: as far as a given region is concerned, only a map database of the region at a
larger scale is constructed; the map databases of the region at the other smaller scales
can be generated using the larger scale database. This is called “one-version spatial
databases” (OVSD). OVSD can ensure all of the representations are consistent, and
the amount of map data is not too large, and update of the databases is easy to carry
out. Currently, OVSD is the predominant method over MVSD in constructing multi-
scale vector map databases, supporting on-demand and on-the-fly mapping, and high
quality spatial data retrieval. Hence, this book focuses on automated implementation
of multi-scale vector map databases by OVSD, i.e. automated map generalization.
1.3 Automated Map Generalization: Implementation of Multi-scale Vector Map Databases 3

1.2 Digital Earth: Applications of Multi-scale

Representation

A vision for a Digital Earth was displayed by then USA Vice President Al Gore in a
famous speech (1998): “imagine, for example, a young child going to a Digital Earth
exhibit at a local museum. . . she sees Earth as it appears from space. Using a data
glove, she zooms in, using higher and higher levels of resolution, to see continents,
then regions, countries, cities, and finally individual houses, trees, and other natural
and man-made objects.” Here, the description of the Digital Earth presents a multi-
scale representation of the physical Earth we reside, and gives us a kind of typical
applications of multi-scale maps: what the child sees are the continents, regions,
countries, cities, individual houses, trees, and other natural and man-made objects,
but that really take effects are the multi-scale spatial databases, and usually each
database is at a specific scale.
Google Earth, launched in 2005, is the first successful example of the implemen-
tation of the concept of Digital Earth foreseen and put forwards by Al Gore (1998).
The product was so innovative that it was proclaimed as the beginning of “geospatial
revolution” and the first generation of virtual globe (Geospatial Revolution Project
2010). Since then, a number of digital Earths, digital countries, cyber cities, virtual
towns and communities have appeared all over the world. The other similar plat-
forms (e.g. http://map.baidu.com/) have also been built and put into use in many
countries. The key theories and techniques that support the implementation of the
applications include computational science, mass storage, broadband networks,
interoperability, metadata etc. More importantly, besides imagery data at multiple
resolutions, maps at multiple scales are also necessary for constructing these plat-
forms and supporting these applications. For example, the China’s Fundamental
Geographic Information System is one of the typical platforms, and a series of vector
map databases at scales of 1:4,000,000, 1:1,000,000, 1:250,000, 1:50,000 and
1:10,000 are important components of the platform. Although the first generation
of Google Earth achieves not all of the elements of the Gore vision, the technical
achievements of this first generation of virtual globes stimulate the general public
becomes more and more engaged with technology and applications of the Digital
Earth, and advances in understanding the Earth system and constructing Digital
Earths have been made, especially in the construction and application of multi-scale
map databases.

1.3 Automated Map Generalization: Implementation

of Multi-scale Vector Map Databases

Scale reduction from source maps to target maps inevitably leads to conflict and
congestion of map symbols. To make the maps legible, the map features should be
deleted, simplified and/or generalized. In the community of cartography this process
4 1 Introduction

is named map generalization. From 1960s, automatic generation of the maps at

multiple smaller scales using the maps at a larger scale, i.e. automated map gener-
alization, has become a dream of cartographers and geographers. The objective of
automated map generalization is to build a multi-scale vector map database that
facilitates retrieval of selected types of map data at an appropriate level of detail and
renders the data as a legible map.
Automation of map generalization has been viewed as one of the most difficult
research issues in the community of cartography and geographic information sci-
ences for decades. There have at least the following three reasons that this difficult
problem has not been solved yet by far:
Firstly, features and reliefs in the 3-dimensional geographic space are diverse and
complicated; thus it is considerably difficult to mathematically describe and
express them in 2-dimensional map spaces.
Secondly, automated map generalization is a simulation of traditional manual map
generalization; nevertheless, the resulting maps are usually different for different
cartographers even if the same original smaller scale maps are provided for
generalization. Thus, it is not easy to describe the generalization procedure of a
specific map feature/relief using a solitary algorithm.
Thirdly, automated map generalization is a process depending not only on cartog-
raphy and geographic information science, but also on psychology and human
recognition; however, researchers in these fields cannot explain what cartogra-
phers think and how they generalize map features/relief step by step.
Automated map generalization has aroused the interests of many cartographers,
geographers, and even scholars in computer science, psychology, graphics mathe-
matics and artificial intelligence in recent decades, and a lot of achievements have
been made in the following aspects: (1) concepts and fundamental theories of map
generalization; (2) algorithms and operators for map generalization; (3) approaches
for controlling map generalization procedures and evaluating map generalization
result; and (4) development of software and systems for map generalization engi-
neering. The algorithms are the “protagonist” in implementing automated map
generalization, and therefore the achievement on them is much richer than that on
other aspects. Nevertheless, current achievements cannot support the construction of
a fully automatic map generalization system, yet. This is why MVSD but not OVSD
has been used in constructing vector map databases for supporting existing digital
Earths, countries, cities, towns etc.

1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features

and the Algorithms for Automated Map Generalization

As far as automated map generalization is concerned, the following three viewpoints

are credible and acceptable by cartographers:
1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features and the. . . 5

Firstly, algorithms are the core of automated map generalization. If appropriate

algorithms can be found for all types of map features and reliefs, it would be
not difficult to design and implement an automated map generalization system/
software.
Secondly, description of map features and reliefs is the foundation and prerequisite
of map generalization algorithm development, and it is as important as design of
map generalization algorithms. No good description to a type of map features, no
good algorithm can be achieved.
Thirdly, multi-scale map databases are usually used in two kinds of environments,
i.e. personal computers and computer networks. No matter what kind of environ-
ments the map data are generalized, the essence, fundamental problems and
research issues do not change. Therefore, this book does not differentiate the
environments that the map data are used.
For the above reasons, the approaches for describing map features and the
algorithms for automated map generalization are critically reviewed in the following
paragraphs.

1.4.1 Approaches to Describing Map Features

Map features are reflections of landscapes and objects in the geographic space;
however, the landscapes and objects are diverse, complicated and/or complex.
Therefore, it is a difficult issue to quantitatively describe map features using math-
ematical formulae, though it is necessary to do so for the purpose of automated
generalization of map features in digital environments. Indeed, some research work
has been done regarding this issue in recent decades, and the achievements are
largely based on knowledge and rules, theories of spatial relations, geometric factors
and parameters, and information theory.

1.4.1.1 Approaches Based on Knowledge and Rules

Descriptive knowledge and rules used in map generalization are of great importance
and have been explored by cartographers for decades (Barrault et al. 2001; Galanda
and Weibel 2002) and they can be classified into four categories (Guo 1998).
1. Knowledge caused by the changes of map scale, i.e. map scale changes and
precision changes.
2. Knowledge containing in map features: this includes geometric and semantic
characteristics of individual map features and spatial and non-spatial relations
between/among map features.
3. Knowledge for guiding the use of map generalization algorithms and operators: it
mainly refers to the rules and/or requirements in calling map generalization
algorithms, e.g. how to assign values for the parameters of the algorithms, how
6 1 Introduction

to arrange the order of a group of algorithms and operators in a map generaliza-

tion project, etc.
4. Knowledge for assessing map generalization results: it includes the methods for
evaluating the map generalization results of individual algorithms as well as the
rules and approaches for evaluating the map generalization quality of a map
generalization system/software.

1.4.1.2 Approaches Based on Spatial Relations

Spatial relation is a common factor used in describing map features (Müller and
Wang 1992; Regnauld 2001; Li and Huang 2002; Duchêne et al. 2003; Mustiere
2005). Guo (1997) classified spatial relations into five categories, i.e. distance
relation, topological relation, direction relation, similarity relation, and correlational
relation.
1. Spatial distance relation: it is used for describing the distance between/among
spatial objects, and it is the most fundamental one in the five types of spatial
relations, and is usually a key factor in calculation of other spatial relations. A
distance can be an absolute, a relative, a qualitative, or a quantitative distance.
2. Spatial topological relation: it is one type of the most widely used spatial
relations. For the purpose of easy calculation, Guo (1997) classified topological
relations into 19 types, e.g. overlap, touch, intersection, point-in-polygon etc.
3. Spatial direction relation: it is used to describe orientation relations between/
among spatial objects, usually using the terms such as north, south, west, east, up,
down, right, left etc. or quantitative angles such as 56.5 . Qualitative description
and quantitative calculation of direction relations have been explored by a
number of scholars (Goyal 2000; Yan et al. 2006).
4. Spatial similarity relation: it is a factor for evaluating how similar two spatial
objects or two spatial scenes (a group of spatial objects is viewed as a scene) are.
Spatial similarity relation is of great useful because multi-scale representation of
spatial objects is obviously a kind of similarity transformation in map spaces.
Quantitative spatial similarity relations can be used to automate map generaliza-
tion algorithms and map generalization systems (Yan and Li 2014).
5. Spatial correlative relation: achievements in correlative relations are considerably
rich. A typical and useful example of spatial correlative relation is the First Law
of Geography and the Second Law of Geography. According to Waldo Tobler’s
(1970) First Law of Geography: everything is related to everything else, but near
things are more related than distant things. This first law is the foundation of the
fundamental concepts of spatial dependence and spatial autocorrelation and is
utilized specifically for the inverse distance weighting method for spatial inter-
polation and to support the regionalized variable theory for kriging (Karen 2008).
The Second Law of Geography is less well known, which complements the first:
the phenomenon external to an area of interest affects what goes on inside.
1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features and the. . . 7

1.4.1.3 Approaches Based on Geometric Factors

It is an intuitive thought to describe map features using geometric factors. For

example, local density, global density and distribution range are used to describe
the geometric characteristics of point clusters on maps; road density, road length and
area of mesh are used to describe the geometric characteristics of road networks.

1.4.1.4 Approaches Based on Information Theory

Information theory was firstly introduced in cartography by Shkhov (1967, 1970);

then it has been developed by a number of scholars (Neumann 1994; Papadias and
Sellis 1994; BjǾrke 1996), and four types of information on maps are addressed and
discussed by Yan and Wang (2005).
1. Positional or statistical information: it refers to the number of map features,
e.g. the number of points in a cluster or a region, the number of settlements in a
village.
2. Topological information: it is used to describe topological relations between/
among map objects.
3. Thematic information: this type of information is usually expressed using
so-called “attributes” in geographic information systems, e.g. area and population
are two attributes of cities that are often adopted in spatial databases.
4. Metric information: it is the information of map features and relief described by
geometric parameters, e.g. distance between map objects, area of a regions, length
of a road etc.

1.4.2 Algorithms for Automated Map Generalization

Features on maps can be classified into three categories, i.e. point, linear and areal
features, and the distribution of each category of features on maps is either in
individual or clustering/grouping form; thus, there are six types of features on
maps, i.e. (1) individual point objects, (2) individual linear objects, (3) individual
areal objects, (4) point clustering objects, (5) linear network objects, and (6) areal
group objects. Accordingly, there are six types of map generalization algorithms
(Table 1.1).

1.4.2.1 Algorithms for Generalizing Individual Point Objects

Individual point objects are the geometrically simplest ones on maps, and they
cannot be simplified anymore, and they can be either ‘deleted’ or ‘retained’ in map
8 1 Introduction

Table 1.1 Types of features and corresponding map generalization algorithms

Types of
features Example of features Map generalization algorithms
Individual A control point, an isolated historic None
point object
object
Individual A linear river, a road, a borderline The Douglas-Peucker algorithm (Douglas
linear and Peucker 1973); the Visvalingam
object algorithm (Visvalingam and Williamson
1995); the Mustiere algorithm (Mustiere
2005)
Individual A areal pond or lake, a polygonal set- The area-patch generalization algorithm
areal tlement, a patch of agricultural land (Müller and Wang 1992)
object
Point clus- Control points in a region, islands The settlement-spacing ratio algorithm
tering containing in an archipelago, settle- (Langan and Poicker 1986). The circle-
objects ments in a village growth algorithm (Van Kreveld et al.
1995), the on-line algorithm for point
clustering thematic feature simplification
(Burghardt et al. 2004), the dot map sim-
plification algorithm (De Berg et al.
2004), the Voronoi-based algorithm (Yan
and Weibel 2008)
Linear net- Linear rivers in a basin, roads in a The stroke-based algorithm for road net-
work district work generalization (Thomson and Rich-
objects ardson 1999),
Areal Areal lakes in a political region, rect- The building displacement algorithm; the
group angular settlements in a building typification algorithms
objects neighbourhood (Regnauld 2001)

generalization. Hence, none of other special algorithms have been developed for this
type of objects.

1.4.2.2 Algorithms for Generalizing Individual Linear Objects

Algorithms for generalizing linear features are most popularly used in map general-
ization operations, because statistically about 80% features on maps are linear ones.
The objective of individual linear feature generalization is to reduce the redundant
points on the line on larger scale maps so that the linear feature becomes simpler on
smaller scale maps, and in the meanwhile the generalized linear feature should be
similar to original its counterpart (i.e. the linear feature before generalization) as far
as possible.
A number of algorithms have been proposed for simplifying individual linear
features, e.g. the Douglas-Peucker Algorithm (Douglas and Peucker 1973), the
Reumann-Witkam Algorithm, the Strip-Tree Algorithm (Buttenfield 1986), the
BLG-based Algorithm (Zhan and Mark 1993; van Oosterom and Schenkelaars
1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features and the. . . 9

1995; Saalfeld 1999), the Li-Openshaw Algorithm (Li and Openshaw 1992) etc.
These algorithms simplify individual linear features in light of angles between
neighbouring line segments, or the lengths of radius vectors (Douglas and Peucker
1973), or the areas of triangles formed by linking neighbouring line segments of the
linear feature (Li and Openshaw 1992), or a combination of them (van Oosterom and
Schenkelaars 1995).
To sum up, existing algorithms for generalizing individual linear features sim-
plify lines well and can meet the demands of developing automated map generali-
zation systems, and therefore almost no achievements have been made regarding this
issue in recent two decades.

1.4.2.3 Algorithms for Generalizing Individual Areal Objects

Settlements, islands, water bodies, and land patches are typical areal objects on large
and intermediate scale maps. An individual areal object on the map can be deleted or
simplified in the process of map generalization. Whether the areal object is retained
or deleted generally depends on the area of the object and its importance compared
with the surrounding objects. There are three types of algorithms for simplifying
individual areal features: vector-based (Zhang and Tulip 1990; Müller and Wang
1992; Boffet and Serra 2001; Regnauld 2001; Christophe and Ruas 2002; Rainsford
and Mackness 2002; Li et al. 2004), raster-based (Monmonier 1983; Su and Li 1995;
Su et al. 1997) and integrated algorithms (Li and Su 1996).

1.4.2.4 Algorithms for Generalizing Point Clusters

Control points are typical point objects. In addition, settlements, islands, ponds,
wells, and lakes on intermediate and small scale maps are distributed in point
clustering form (Fig. 1.4). The objective of point clustering object generalization is
to reduce the number of the point objects but keep similarity between the point
clusters before and after generalization as far as possible.

Fig. 1.4 Point clusters on maps: (a) settlements in a small village; and (b) polygonal islands on the
larger scale map can be viewed as point clusters on the smaller scale map
10 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.5 Three types of linear clusters/networks on topographic maps: (a) contour line clusters, (b)
road networks, and (c) river networks

Five algorithms for point clustering feature generalization were proposed by

Langan and Poicker (1986), i.e. the settlement-spacing ratio algorithm, the distribu-
tion coefficient algorithm, the gravity-modeling algorithm, the set-segmentation
algorithm, and the quadrat-reduction algorithm. After this, a couple of algorithm
have also been proposed, including the circle-growth algorithm for settlement
selection by van Kreveld et al. (1995), the on-line algorithm for point clustering
thematic feature simplification by Burghardt et al. (2004), the dot map simplification
algorithm by De Berg et al. (2004), and the Voronoi-based algorithm by Yan and
Weibel (2008).

1.4.2.5 Algorithms for Generalizing Linear Clusters/Networks

There are three types of linear clustering/networks on topographic maps, i.e. contour
clusters, road networks, and river networks (Fig. 1.5). However, they are different in
spatial distribution, spatial semantics, graphics, and geometric structure; thus, they
1.4 Review of the Approaches to Describing Map Features and the. . . 11

Fig. 1.6 Four types of areal group/clustering objects on maps: (a) water bodies, (b) settlements, (c)
political regions, and (d) land types using different colors representing different types of lands

are described using different parameters and/or approaches and generalized by

developing different operators/algorithms.
Actually, algorithms have been developed for different type of linear feature
networks/clusters on maps. For example, contour clusters can be generalized by
considering digital terrain models and minor valley braches (Ai and Li 2010) or
multiply represented using contour trees (Guilbert 2013); road networks are simpli-
fied by taking into account blocks (Gϋlgen and Gökgöz 2011) or using artificial
neural networks (Zhou and Li 2014); and river networks can be generalized using
Fractal Geometry, Horton’s laws and Tokunaga cyclicity (Tarboton 1996).

1.4.2.6 Algorithms for Generalizing Areal Group Objects

Water bodies, settlements, political regions, and land types on large scale maps are
generally polygonal objects (Fig. 1.6). However, they are topologically different;
therefore, they can be classified into two categories according to topological rela-
tions between polygons: discrete areal groups, and connected areal groups. It is
12 1 Introduction

obvious that water bodies as well as settlements are topologically separated

(Fig. 1.6a, b); hence both of them belong to the first category. While the polygons
representing political regions as well as that representing land types are topologically
adjacent, i.e. they are connected (Fig. 1.6a, b); hence they belong to the second
category.
The four types of areal group objects are different in spatial topological relations,
spatial distribution, spatial semantics and geometric structure, thus different algo-
rithms have been designed for them in map generalization. For example, settlements
on large scale maps are generalized by the Voronoi Diagram and Delauney Trian-
gulation (Li et al. 2004), or by taking into account Gestalt theory (Regnauld 2001);
types of land patches on categorical maps are generalization using vector and raster-
based techniques (Peter and Weibel 1999); groups of lakes and ponds are general-
ized using selection, combination and aggregation operators; and political regions
are generalized according to the grades of political regions.

1.5 Scope of the Book

To emphasize on description approaches and generalization algorithms of types of

map features in multi-scale representations, this book limits its topics within the
following scopes.
• This study is limited within two-dimensional map spaces.
• The main spatial data in this book are vector map data.
• We pay more attention to topographic map data in the book.
• The algorithms addressed in the book should be automatic.
• We do not distinguish between personal computers and the Internet as far as the
environment of the algorithms is concerned.
• Contexts of the generalized map features are generally not taken into consider-
ation in the algorithms.

1.6 Organization of the Book

Topographic map features can be classified into six categories in light of Table 1.1:
individual point objects, individual linear objects, individual areal objects, point
clustering objects, linear network objects, and areal group objects. On the other
hand, linear network objects include contour line groups, road networks and river
networks, and areal group objects include two types of discrete areal objects (water
bodies and buildings) and two types of connected areal objects (land patches and
political regions). Hence, there are totally 11 types of topographic map features need
to be considered in map generalization: (1) individual point objects, (2) individual
linear objects, (3) individual areal objects, (4) point clustering objects, (5) contour
References 13

line groups, (6) road networks, (7) river networks, (8) water bodies, (9) settlements
or buildings, (10) land patches, and (11) political regions.
In light of the critical review in Sect. 1.4.2, generalization of individual point,
linear and areal features has basically solved; thus, this study emphasizes on the
description approaches and generalization algorithms of groups/clusters/networks of
map features, and it is organized as follows: after this chapter (Introduction),
description approaches and generalization algorithms for the other eight types of
map group/network/cluster features will be addressed in detailed chapter by chapter
(Chaps. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).
It should be emphasized that potential research issues regarding corresponding
type of map features will be presented at the end of each chapter. In addition, some
concluding remarks and discussions will be given in Chap. 8.

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Chapter 2
Description and Generalization of Point
Clustering Features

This chapter aims at presenting the algorithms for point clustering feature general-
ization. For this purpose, it firstly defines and describes the relevant concepts (Sect.
2.1) and illustrates the types of point clustering features on maps (Sect. 2.2), and
analyzes the approaches for describing point clustering features (Sect. 2.3). After
this, it presents and analyzes the existing algorithms (Sects. 2.4 and 2.5). Last, the
chapter is ended by a concluding summary (Sect. 2.6).

2.1 Multi-scale Representations of Point Clustering

Features

Point features refer to the objects showing on the map using point symbols. The
objects might be physical entities (e.g., ponds, buildings, patches of agricultural
land, temples, tombs, etc.) in the geographic space, and they also might be economic
or human phenomena. When they are shown on the map at a small scale, they are
usually expressed using point symbols such as dots, triangles, rectangles,
crossed, etc.
As far as a specific type of point features is concerned, although the symbols are
physically separated on the map, they are, in essence, logically correlated and can be
viewed as clusters in people’s spatial recognition according to their spatial relations
such as distance and topological relations. We may call them point clustering
features. When the map scale become smaller, the point symbols usually become
crowded and the map becomes illegible. Hence, those unimportant features need to
be deleted from the map. The less the map scale becomes, the more the points should
be deleted. Generalization of areal/point clustering features can generate a series of
maps at multiple scales which comprise a multi-scale representation (e.g. Fig. 2.1).
At least two types of point clustering features can be discriminated on maps
considering the original geometric characteristics of the map symbols.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 17

H. Yan, Description Approaches and Automated Generalization Algorithms for
Groups of Map Objects, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3678-2_2
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flames, fell forward, letting the rods drop to the floor, and many other animals were set
free. Just at this time the door fell through and the flames and smoke rolled in like a
whirlwind from the Hadean river Cocytus. A horrible scene in the right hand corner of the
room, a yell of indescribable agony, and a crashing, grating sound, indicated that the tiger
and Polar bear were stirred up to the highest pitch of excitement. Then there came a great
crash as of the giving way of the bars of their cage. The flames and smoke momentarily
rolled back, and for a few seconds the interior of the room was visible in the lurid light of
the flames, which revealed the tiger and the lion, locked together in close combat.
The monkeys were perched around the windows, shivering with dread and afraid to
jump out. The snakes were writhing about, crippled and blistered by the heat, darting out
their forked tongues, and expressing their rage and fear in the most sibilant of hisses. The
“Happy Family” were experiencing an amount of beatitude which was evidently too
cordial for philosophical enjoyment. A long tongue of flame had crept under the cage,
completely singing every hair from the cat’s body. The felicitous adder was slowly burning
in two and busily engaged in impregnating his organic system with his own venom. The
joyful rat had lost his tail by a falling bar of iron; and the beatific rabbit, perforated by a red
hot nail, looked as if nothing would be more grateful than a cool corner in some
Esquimaux farmyard. The members of the delectated convocation were all huddled
together in the bottom of their cage, which suddenly gave way, precipitating them out of
view in the depths below, which by this time were also blazing like the fabled Tophet.
At this moment the flames rolled again into the room and then again retired. The whale
and alligators were by this time suffering dreadful torments. The water in which they swam
was literally boiling. The alligators dashed fiercely about endeavoring to escape, and
opening and shutting their great jaws in ferocious torture; but the poor whale, almost
boiled, with great ulcers bursting from his blubbery sides, could only feebly swim about,
though blowing excessively, and every now and then sending up great fountains of spray.
At length, crack went the glass sides of the great cases, and whale and alligators rolled out
on the floor with the rushing and steaming water. The whale died easily, having been pretty
well used up before. A few great gasps and a convulsive flap or two of his mighty flukes
were his expiring spasm. One of the alligators was killed almost immediately by falling
across a great fragment of shattered glass, which cut open his stomach and let out the
greater part of his entrails to the light of day. The remaining alligator became involved in a
controversy with an anaconda, and joined the melee in the centre of the flaming apartment.
A number of birds which were caged in the upper part of the building were set free by
some charitably inclined person at the first alarm of fire and at intervals they flew out.
There were many valuable tropical birds, parrots, cockatoos, mocking birds, humming
birds, etc., as well as some vultures and eagles and one condor. Great excitement existed
among the swaying crowds in the streets below as they took wing. There were confined in
the same room a few serpents which also obtained their liberty; and soon after the rising
and devouring flames began to enwrap the entire building, a splendid and emblematic sight
was presented to the wondering and upgazing throngs. Bursting through the central
casement, with flap of wings and lashing coils, appeared an eagle and a serpent wreathed in
fight. For a moment they hung poised in mid air, presenting a novel and terrible conflict. It
was the earth and air (or their respective representatives) at war for mastery; the base and
the lofty, the groveller and the soarer, were engaged in deadly battle. At length the flat head
of the serpent sank; his writhing sinuous form grew still; and, wafted upward by the cheers
of the gazing multitude, the eagle, with a scream of triumph, and bearing his prey in his
iron talons, soared toward the sun. Several monkeys escaped from the burning building to
the neighboring roofs and streets; and considerable excitement was caused by the attempts
to secure them. One of the most amusing incidents in this respect was in connection with
Mr. James Gordon Bennett. The veteran editor of the Herald was sitting in his private
office with his back to the open window, calmly discussing with a friend the chances that
the Herald establishment would escape the conflagration, which at that time was
threateningly advancing up Ann Street, toward Nassau Street. In the course of his
conversation Mr. Bennett observed; “Although I have usually had good luck in cases of
fire, they say that the devil is ever at one’s shoulder, and”—Here an exclamation from his
friend interrupted him, and turning quickly he was considerably taken aback at seeing the
devil himself, or something like him, at his very shoulder as he spoke. Recovering his
equanimity, with the ease and suavity which is usual with him in all company, Mr. Bennett
was about to address the intruder when he perceived that what he had taken for the
gentleman in black was nothing more than a frightened orang-outang. The poor creature,
but recently released from captivity, and doubtless thinking that he might fill some vacancy
in the editorial corps of the paper in question, had descended by the water-pipe and
instinctively taken refuge in the inner sanctum of the establishment. Although the editor—
perhaps from the fact that he saw nothing peculiarly strange in the visitation—soon
regained his composure, it was far otherwise with his friend, who immediately gave the
alarm. Mr. Hudson rushed in and boldly attacked the monkey, grasping him by the throat.
The book-editor next came in, obtaining a clutch upon the brute by the ears; the musical
critic followed, and seized the tail with both hands, and a number of reporters, armed with
inkstands and sharpened pencils, came next, followed by a dozen policemen with
brandished clubs; at the same time, the engineer in the basement received the preconcerted
signal and got ready his hose, wherewith to pour boiling hot water upon the heads of those
in the streets, in case it should prove a regular systematized attack by gorillas, Brazil apes,
and chimpanzees. Opposed to this formidable combination, the rash intruder fared badly,
and was soon in durance vile. Numerous other incidents of a similar kind occurred; but
some of the most amusing were in connection with the wax figures.
Upon the same impulse which prompts men in time of fire to fling valuable looking-
glasses out of three-story windows and at the same time tenderly to lower down feather
beds,—soon after the Museum took fire, a number of sturdy firemen rushed into the
building to carry out the wax figures. There were thousands of valuable articles which
might have been saved, if there had been less of solicitude displayed for the miserable
effigies which are usually exhibited under the appellation of “wax figures.” As it was, a
dozen firemen rushed into the apartment where the figures were kept, amid a multitude of
crawling snakes, chattering monkeys and escaped paroquets. The “Dying Brigand” was
unceremoniously throttled and dragged toward the door; liberties were taken with the
tearful “Senorita,” who has so long knelt and so constantly wagged her doll’s head at his
side; the mules of the other bandits were upset, and they themselves roughly seized. The
full length statue of P. T. Barnum fell down of its own accord, as if disgusted with the
whole affair. A red-shirted fireman seized with either hand Franklin Pierce and James
Buchanan by their coat-collars, tucked the Prince Imperial of France under one arm, and
the Veiled Murderess under the other, and coolly departed for the street. Two ragged boys
quarrelled over the Tom Thumb, but at length settled the controversy by one of them taking
the head, the other satisfying himself with the legs below the knees. They evidently had
Tom under their thumbs, and intended to keep him down. While a curiosity-seeking
policeman was garroting Benjamin Franklin, with the idea of abducting him, a small
monkey, flung from the window-sill by the strong hand of an impatient fireman, made a
straight dive, hitting Poor Richard just below the waistcoat, and passing through his
stomach, as the Harlequin in the “Green-Monster” pantomime ever pierced the picture with
the slit in it, which always hangs so conveniently low and near. Patrick Henry had his teeth
knocked out by a flying missile, and in carrying Daniel Lambert down stairs, he was found
to be so large that they had to break off his head in order to get him through the door. At
length the heat became intense, the “figgers” began to perspire freely, and the swiftly
approaching flames compelled all hands to desist from any further attempt at rescue.
Throwing a parting glance behind as we passed down the stairs we saw the remaining
dignitaries in a strange plight. Some one had stuck a cigar in General Washington’s mouth,
and thus, with his chapeau crushed down over his eyes and his head reclining upon the
ample lap of Moll Pitcher, the Father of his Country led the van of as sorry a band of
patriots as not often comes within one’s experience to see. General Marion was playing a
dummy game of poker with General Lafayette; Governor Morris was having a set-to with
Nathan Lane, and James Madison was executing a Dutch polka with Madam Roland on
one arm and Lucretia Borgia on the other. The next moment the advancing flames
compelled us to retire.
We believe that all the living curiosities were saved; but the giant girl, Anna Swan, was
only rescued with the utmost difficulty. There was not a door through which her bulky
frame could obtain a passage. It was likewise feared that the stairs would break down, even
if she should reach them. Her best friend, the living skeleton, stood by her as long as he
dared, but then deserted her, while as the heat grew in intensity, the perspiration rolled
from her face in little brooks and rivulets, which pattered musically upon the floor. At
length, as a last resort, the employees of the place procured a lofty derrick which
fortunately happened to be standing near, and erected it alongside the Museum. A portion
of the wall was then broken off on each side of the window, the strong tackle was got in
readiness, the tall woman was made fast to one end and swung over the heads of the people
in the street, with eighteen men grasping the other extremity of the line, and lowered down
from the third story, amid enthusiastic applause. A carriage of extraordinary capacity was
in readiness, and entering this, the young lady was driven away to a hotel.
When the surviving serpents, that were released by the partial burning of the box in
which they were contained, crept along on the floor to the balcony of the Museum and
dropped on the sidewalk, the crowd, siezed with St. Patrick’s aversion to the reptiles, fled
with such precipitate haste that they knocked each other down and trampled on one another
in the most reckless and damaging manner.
Hats were lost, coats torn, boots burst and pantaloons dropped with magnificent
miscellaneousness, and dozens of those who rose from the miry streets into which they had
been thrown, looked like the disembodied spirits of a mud bank. The snakes crawled on the
sidewalk and into Broadway, where some of them died from injuries received, and others
were despatched by the excited populace. Several of the serpents of the copper-head
species escaped the fury of the tumultuous masses, and true to their instincts, sought shelter
in the World and News offices. A large black bear escaped from the burning Museum into
Ann Street and then made his way into Nassau, and down that thoroughfare into Wall,
where his appearance caused a sensation. Some superstitious persons believed him the
spirit of a departed Ursa Major, and others of his fraternity welcomed the animal as a
favorable omen. The bear walked quietly along to the Custom House, ascended the steps of
the building, and became bewildered, as many a biped bear has done before him. He
seemed to lose his sense of vision, and no doubt, endeavoring to operate for a fall, walked
over the side of the steps and broke his neck. He succeeded in his object, but it cost him
dearly. The appearance of Bruin in the street sensibly affected the stock market, and shares
fell rapidly; but when he lost his life in the careless manner we have described, shares
advanced again, and the Bulls triumphed once more.
Broadway and its crossings have not witnessed a denser throng for months than
assembled at the fire yesterday. Barnum’s was always popular, but it never drew so vast a
crowd before. There must have been forty thousand people on Broadway, between Maiden
Lane and Chambers Street, and a great portion stayed there until dusk. So great was the
concourse of people that it was with difficulty pedestrians or vehicles could pass.
After the fire several high-art epicures grouping among the ruins found choice morsels
of boiled whale, roasted kangaroo and fricasseed crocodile, which, it is said, they relished;
though the many would have failed to appreciate such rare edibles. Probably, the recherche
epicures will declare the only true way to prepare those meats is to cook them in a museum
wrapped in flames, in the same manner that the Chinese, according to Charles Lamb, first
discovered roast pig in a burning house, and ever afterward set a house on fire with a pig
inside, when they wanted that particular food.

All the New York journals, and many more in other cities, editorially
expressed their sympathy with my misfortune, and their sense of the loss
the community had sustained in the destruction of the American Museum.
The following editorial is from the New York Tribune, of July 14, 1865:
The destruction of no building in this city could have caused so much excitement and
so much regret as that of Barnum’s Museum. The collection of curiosities was very large,
and though many of them may not have had much intrinsic or memorial value, a
considerable portion was certainly of great worth for any Museum. But aside from this,
pleasant memories clustered about the place, which for so many years has been the chief
resort for amusement to the common people who cannot often afford to treat themselves to
a night at the more expensive theatres, while to the children of the city, Barnum’s has been
a fountain of delight, ever offering new attractions as captivating and as implicitly believed
in as the Arabian Nights Entertainments; Theatre, Menagerie and Museum, it amused,
instructed, and astonished. If its thousands and tens of thousands of annual visitors were
bewildered sometimes with a Woolly Horse, a What is It? or a Mermaid, they found repose
and certainty in a Giraffe, a Whale or a Rhinoceros. If wax effigies of pirates and
murderers made them shudder lest those dreadful figures should start out of their glass
cases and repeat their horrid deeds, they were reassured by the presence of the mildest and
most amiable of giants, and the fattest of mortal women, whose dead weight alone could
crush all the wax figures into their original cakes. It was a source of unfailing interest to all
country visitors, and New York to many of them was only the place that held Barnum’s
Museum. It was the first thing—often the only thing—they visited when they came among
us, and nothing that could have been contrived, out of our present resources, could have
offered so many attractions unless some more ingenious showman had undertaken to add
to Barnum’s collection of waxen criminals by putting in a cage the live Boards of the
Common Council. We mourn its loss, but not as without consolation. Barnum’s Museum is
gone, but Barnum himself, happily, did not share the fate of his rattlesnakes and his, at
least, most un-“happy Family.” There are fishes in the seas and beasts in the forest; birds
still fly in the air and strange creatures still roam in the deserts; giants and pigmies still
wander up and down the earth; the oldest man, the fattest woman, and the smallest baby are
still living, and Barnum will find them.
Or even if none of these things or creatures existed, we could trust to Barnum to make
them out of hand. The Museum, then, is only a temporary loss, and much as we sympathize
with the proprietor, the public may trust to his well-known ability and energy to soon
renew a place of amusement which was a source of so much innocent pleasure, and had in
it so many elements of solid excellence.

As already stated, my insurance was but $40,000, while the collection, at

the lowest estimate, was worth $400,000, and as my premium was five per
cent I had paid the insurance companies more than they returned to me.
When the fire occurred, my summer pantomime season had just begun and
the Museum was doing an immensely profitable business. My first impulse,
after reckoning up my losses, was to retire from active life and from all
business occupation beyond what my large real estate interests in
Bridgeport, and my property in New York would compel. I felt that I had
still a competence and that after a most active and busy life, at fifty-five
years, I was entitled to retirement, to comparative rest for the remainder of
my days. I called on my old friend, the editor of the Tribune, for advice on
the subject.
“Accept this fire as a notice to quit, and go a-fishing,” said Mr. Greeley.
“A-fishing!” I exclaimed.
“Yes, a-fishing; I have been wanting to go a-fishing for thirty years, and
have not yet found time to do so,” replied Mr. Greeley.
I really felt that his advice was good and wise, and had I consulted only
my own ease and interest I should have acted upon it. But, two
considerations moved me to pause: First, one hundred and fifty employees,
many of whom depended upon their exertions for their daily bread, were
thrown out of work at a season when it would be difficult for them to get
engagements elsewhere. Second: I felt that a large city like New York
needed a good Museum, and that my experience of a quarter of a century in
that direction, afforded extraordinary facilities for founding another
establishment of the kind, and so I took a few days for reflection.
Meanwhile, the Museum employees were tendered a benefit at the
Academy of Music, at which most of the dramatic artists in the city
volunteered their services. I was called out, and made some off-hand
remarks in which I stated that nothing which I could utter in behalf of the
recipients of that benefit, could plead for them half so eloquently as the
smoking ruins of the building where they had so long earned their support
by their efforts to gratify the public. At the same time I announced that,
moved by the considerations I have mentioned, I had concluded to establish
another Museum, and that in order to give present occupation to my
employees, I had engaged the Winter Garden Theatre for a few weeks, and I
hoped to open a new establishment of my own in the ensuing fall.
The New York Sun commented upon the few remarks which I was
suddenly and quite unexpectedly called upon to make, in the following
flattering manner:
One of the happiest impromptu oratorial efforts that we have heard for some time, was
that made by Barnum at the benefit performance given for his employees on Friday
afternoon. If a stranger wanted to satisfy himself how the great showman had managed so
to monopolize the ear and eye of the public during his long career, he could not have had a
better opportunity of doing so than by listening to this address. Every word, though
delivered with apparent carelessness, struck a key note in the hearts of his listeners.
Simple, forcible and touching, it showed how thoroughly this extraordinary man
comprehends the character of his countrymen, and how easily he can play upon their
feelings.
Those who look upon Barnum as a mere charlatan, have really no knowledge of him. It
would be easy to demonstrate that the qualities that have placed him in his present position
of notoriety and affluence would, in another pursuit, have raised him to far greater
eminence. In his breadth of views, his profound knowledge of mankind, his courage under
reverses, his indomitable perseverance, his ready eloquence and his admirable business
tact, we recognize the elements that are conducive to success in most other pursuits. More
than almost any other living man, Barnum may be said to be a representative type of the
American mind.

I very soon secured by lease the premises, numbers 535, 537 and 539
Broadway, seventy-five feet front and rear, by two hundred feet deep, and
known as the Chinese Museum buildings. In less than four months, I
succeeded in converting this building into a commodious Museum and
lecture room, and meanwhile I sent agents through America and Europe to
purchase curiosities. Besides hundreds of small collections, I bought up
several entire museums, and with many living curiosities and my old
company of actors and actresses, I opened to the public, November 13,
1865, “Barnum’s New American Museum,” thus beginning a new chapter
in my career as a manager and showman.
 CHAPTER XL.

MY WAR ON THE RAILROADS.

SCENES IN THE LEGISLATURE—SHARP-SHOOTING—PROPOSITIONS

FOR A NEW CAPITAL OF CONNECTICUT—THE RIVALRY OF CITIES—
CULMINATION OF THE RAILROAD CONTROVERSY—EXCITEMENT
AMONG THE LOBBYISTS—A BILL FOR THE BENEFIT OF COMMUTERS
—PEOPLE PROTECTED FROM THE PLUNDERERS—HOW SETTLERS
ARE DRAWN INTO A STATE AND THEN CHEATED BY THE RAILROAD
COMPANIES—EQUAL RIGHTS FOR COMMUTERS AND TRANSIENT
PASSENGERS—WHAT COMMODORE VANDERBILT DID—WHAT THE
NEW YORK AND NEW HAVEN RAILROAD COMPANY WANTED TO DO
—EXPOSURE OF THEIR PLOT—CONSTERNATION OF THE
CONSPIRATORS—MY VICTORY—AGAIN ELECTED TO THE
LEGISLATURE—UNITED STATES SENATOR FERRY—EX-GOVERNOR W.
A. BUCKINGHAM—THEODORE TILTON—GOVERNOR HAWLEY—
FRIENDS AT LINDENCROFT—NOMINATED FOR CONGRESS AND
DEFEATED.

DURING my membership in the Connecticut Legislature of 1865, I made

several new friends and agreeable acquaintances, and many things occurred,
sometimes in the regular proceedings, and sometimes as episodes, which
made the session memorable. On one occasion, a representative, who was a
lawyer, introduced resolutions to reduce the number of Representatives,
urging that the “House” was too large and ponderous a body to work
smoothly; that a smaller number of persons could accomplish business
more rapidly and completely; and, in fact, that the Connecticut Legislature
was so large that the members did not have time to get acquainted with each
other before the body adjourned sine die.
I replied, that the larger the number of representatives, the more difficult
it would be to tamper with them; and if they all could not become
personally acquainted, so much the better, for there would be fewer “rings,”
and less facilities for forcing improper legislation.
“As the house seems to be thin now, I will move to lay my resolutions on
the table,” remarked the member; “but I shall call them up when there is a
full house.”
“According to the gentleman’s own theory,” I replied, “the smaller the
number, the surer are we to arrive at correct conclusions. Now, therefore, is
just the time to decide; and I move that the gentleman’s resolutions be
considered.” This proposition was seconded amid a roar of laughter; and the
resolutions were almost unanimously voted down, before the member fairly
comprehended what was going on. He afterwards acknowledged it as a
pretty fair joke, and at any rate, as an effective one.
The State House at Hartford was a disgrace to Connecticut; the Hall of
Representatives was too small; there were no committee rooms, and the
building was utterly unfit for the purposes to which it was devoted. The
State House at New Haven was very little better, and I made a strong effort
to secure the erection of new edifices in both cities. I was chairman of the
committee on new State Houses, and during our investigations it was
ascertained that Bridgeport, Middletown and Meriden would each be
willing to erect a State House at its own cost, if the city should be selected
as the new capital of the State. These movements aroused the jealousy of
Hartford and New Haven, which at once appointed committees to wait upon
us. The whole matter, however, finally went by default, and the question
was never submitted to the people. It is quite possible, however, that ere
long the citizens of Bridgeport or Meriden will offer to build a capitol, and
that one of these two cities with the entire consent of the rest of the State,
including the inhabitants of Hartford and New Haven, will become the
capital of Connecticut.
As the session drew near its close, the railroad controversy culminated
by my introduction of a bill to amend the act for the regulation of railroads
by the interpolation of the following:
Section 508. No railroad company, which has had a system of commutation fares in
force for more than four years, shall abolish, alter, or modify the same, except for the
regulation of the price charged for such commutation; and such price shall, in no case, be
raised to an extent that shall alter the ratio between such commutation and the rates then
charged for way fare, on the railroad of such company.

The New York and New Haven Railroad Company seemed determined
to move heaven and earth to prevent the passage of this law. The halls of
legislation were thronged with railroad lobbyists, who button-holed nearly
every member. My motives were attacked, and the most foolish slanders
were circulated. Not only every legal man in the house was arrayed against
me, but occasionally a “country member” who had promised to stick by and
aid in checking the cupidity of railroad managers, would drop off, and be
found voting on the other side. I devoted many hours, and even days, to
explaining the true state of things to the members from the rural regions,
and although the prospect of carrying this great reform looked rather dark, I
felt that I had a majority of the honest and disinterested members of the
house with me. Finally, Senator Ballard informed me that he had canvassed
the Senate and was convinced that the bill could be carried through that
body if I could be equally successful with the house. At last it was known
that the final debate would take place and the vote be taken on the morning
of July 13.
When the day arrived the excitement was intense. The passages leading
to the hall were crowded with railroad lobbyists; for nearly every railroad in
the State had made common cause with the New York and New Haven
Company, and every representative was in his seat, excepting the sick man,
who had doctored the railroads till he needed doctoring himself. The debate
was led off by skirmishers on each side, and was finally closed on the part
of the railroads by Mr. Harrison, of New Haven, who was chairman of the
railroad committee. Mr. Henry B. Harrison was a close and forcible debater
and a clear-headed lawyer. His speech exhibited considerable thought, and
his earnestness and high character as a gentleman of honor, carried much
weight. Besides, his position as chairman of the committee naturally
influenced some votes. He claimed to understand thoroughly the merits of
the question, from having, in his capacity as chairman, heard all the
testimony and arguments which had come before that committee; and a
majority of the committee, after due deliberation, had reported against the
proposed bill.
On closing the debate, I endeavored to state briefly the gist of the case,
—that, only a few years before, the New York and New Haven Company
had fixed their own price for commuters’ tickets along the whole line of the
road, and had thus induced hundreds of New York citizens to remove to
Connecticut with their families, and build their houses on heretofore
unimproved property, thus vastly increasing the value of the lands, and
correspondingly helping our receipts for taxes. I urged that there was a tacit
understanding between the railroad and these commuters and the public
generally, that such persons as chose thus to remove from a neighboring
State, and bring their families and capital within our borders, should have
the right to pass over the railroad on the terms fixed at the time by the
president and directors;—that any claim that the railroad could not afford to
commute at the prices they had themselves established was absurd, from the
fact that even now, if one thousand families who reside in New York, and
had never been in our own State, should propose to the railroad to remove
these families (embracing in the aggregate five thousand persons), to
Connecticut, and build one thousand new houses on the line of the New
York and New Haven Railroad, provided the railroad would carry the male
head of the family at all times for nothing, the company could well afford to
accept the proposition, because they would receive full prices for
transporting all other members of these families, at all times, as well as full
prices for all their visitors and servants.
And now, what are the facts? Do we desire the railroad to carry even one-fifth of these
new comers for nothing? Do we, indeed, desire to compel them to transport them for any
definitely fixed price at all? On the contrary, we find that during the late rebellion, when
gold was selling for two dollars and eighty cents per dollar, this company doubled its prices
of commutation, and retains the same prices now, although gold is but one half that amount
($1.40). We don’t ask them to go back to their former prices; we don’t compel them to rest
even here; we simply say, increase your rates, pile up your demands just as high as you
desire, only you shall not make fish of one and fowl of another. You have fixed and
increased your prices to passengers of all classes just as you liked, and established your
own ratio between those who pay by the year, and those who pay by the single trip; and
now, all we ask is, that you shall not change the ratio. Charge ten dollars per passenger
from New York to New Haven, if you have the courage to risk the competition of the
steamboats; and whatever percentage you choose to increase the fare of transient
passengers, we permit you to increase the rates of commuters in the same ratio.
The interests of the State, as well as commuters, demand this law; for if it is once fixed
by statute that the prices of commutation are not to be increased, many persons will leave
the localities where extortion is permitted on the railroads, and will settle in our State. But
these railroad gentlemen say they have no intention to increase their rates of commutation,
and they deprecate what they term “premature legislation,” and an uncalled for meddling
with their affairs. Mr. Speaker, “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” Men
engaged in plots against public interests always ask to be “let alone.” Jeff Davis only asked
to be “let alone,” when the North was raising great armies to prevent the dissolution of the
Union. The people cannot afford to let these railroads alone. This hall, crowded with
railroad lobbyists, as the frogs thronged Egypt, is an admonition to all honest legislators,
that it is unsafe to allow the monopolies the chance to rivet the chains which already fetter
the limbs of those whom circumstances place in the power of these companies.
 It was at this point in my remarks when I received the telegram from my
son-in-law in New York, announcing the burning of the American Museum.
Reading the despatch, and laying it on my desk without further attention, I
continued:
 These railroad gentlemen absolutely deny any intention of raising the fares of
commuters, and profess to think it very hard that disinterested and conscientious gentlemen
like them should be judged by the doings of the Hudson River and Harlem Railroads. But
now, Mr Speaker, I am going to expose the duplicity of these men. I have had detectives on
their track, for men who plot against public interests deserve to be watched. I have in my
pocket positive proofs that they did, and do, intend to spring their trap upon the
unprotected commuters on the New York and New Haven Railroad.

I then drew from my pocket and read two telegrams received that
morning, one from New York and the other from Bridgeport, announcing
that the New York and New Haven Railroad Directory had held a secret
meeting in New York, the day before, for the purpose of immediately
raising the fares of commuters twenty per cent, so that in case my bill
became a law they could get ahead of me. I continued:
Now, Mr. Speaker, I know that these despatches are true; my information is from the
inside of the camp. I see a director of the New York and New Haven Railroad sitting in this
hall; I know that he knows these despatches are true; and if he will go before the railroad
committee and make oath that he don’t know that such a meeting took place yesterday for
exactly this purpose, I will forfeit and pay one thousand dollars to the families of poor
soldiers in this city. In consideration of this attempt to forestall the action of this
legislature, I offer an amendment to the bill now under consideration by adding after the
word “ratio,” the words “as it existed on the first day of July, 1865.” In this way, we shall
cut off any action which these sleek gentlemen may have taken yesterday. It is now evident
that these railroad gentlemen have set a trap for this legislature; and I propose that we now
spring the trap, and see if we cannot catch these wily railroad directors in it. Mr. Speaker, I
move the previous question.

The opposition were astounded at the revelation and the previous

question was ordered. The bill as amended was carried almost with a
“hurrah.” It is now an act in the statute book of the State, and it annually
adds many dollars to the assessment roll of Connecticut, since the
protection afforded to commuters against the extortions practised by
railway companies elsewhere is a strong inducement to permanent settlers
along the lines of Connecticut railways.[C]
[C] The New York and New Haven Railroad Company never forgave me for thus
securing a righteous law for the protection of its commuters. Even as lately as 1871,
the venders of books on the trains were prohibited from selling to passengers this book
which exposes their cupidity. A parallel railroad from New York to New Haven would
be good paying stock, and would materially disturb, if not destroy, the present railroad
and express monopolies.
 In the spring of 1866, I was again elected to represent the town of
Fairfield in the Connecticut Legislature. I had not intended to accept a
nomination for that office a second time, but one of the directors of the New
York and New Haven Railroad, who was a citizen of Fairfield and had been
a zealous lobby member of the preceding legislature, had declared that I
should not represent the town again. As the voters of Fairfield seemed to
think that the public interests were of more importance than the success of
railroad conspiracies, combinations, and monopolies, I accepted their
nomination.
Almost the only exciting question before that legislature was the election
of an United States Senator. President Johnson had begun to show
disaffection towards the Republican party which elected him, and the
zealous members of that party were watching with anxious hearts the
actions of those who offered themselves as candidates for offices of trust
and responsibility. One of the Republican United States Senators had
already abandoned the party and affiliated with Johnson. The other Senator
was a candidate for re-election. He had been a favorite candidate with me,
but when I became convinced that he sympathized with the recreant Senator
and President Johnson, no importunities of political friends or any other
inducement could change my determination to defeat him, if possible. I
devoted days and nights to convincing some of my fellow numbers that the
interests of the State and the country demanded the election of Hon. O. S.
Ferry to that important office.
Excitement ran high. Ex-Governor Wm. A. Buckingham was also a
candidate. I knew he would make an excellent Senator but he had filled the
gubernatorial chair for eight years; and as the present senator had held his
office twelve years, and he was from the same city as Governor
Buckingham, I urged that Norwich should not carry off all the honors; that
Fairfield County was entitled to the office; and both before and at the
Republican nominating caucus I set forth, so far as I was able, what I
considered the merits and peculiar claims of Mr. Ferry. I suggested that Mr.
Buckingham might rest on his laurels for a couple of years and be elected to
fill the place of the next retiring senator in 1868. Mr. Ferry started in the
ballotings with a very small vote indeed, and it required the most delicate
management to secure a majority for him in that caucus. But it was done;
and as the great strife was between the two other rival candidates, Mr. Ferry
had scarcely a hope of the nomination and was much surprised the next
morning to hear of his success. He was elected for the term beginning
March 4, 1866, and one of his opposing candidates in the caucus ex-
Governor William A. Buckingham, was elected, two years afterwards, for
the senatorial term commencing March 4, 1869.
I was again chairman of the Committee on Agriculture, and on the whole
the session at New Haven, in 1866, was very agreeable to me; there were
many congenial spirits in the House and our severer labors were lightened
by some very delightful episodes.
During the summer, Governor Hawley, Hon. David Gallup, Speaker of
the House, Hon. O. S. Ferry, U. S. Senator, Mr. W. G. Coe, of Winsted, Mr.
A. B. Mygatt, of New Milford, Mr. Theodore Tilton, editor of the New York
Independent, Mr. George Pratt, of Norwich, Mr. S. H. Wales, of the
Scientific American, Mr. David Clark, of Hartford, Mr. A. H. Byington, of
Norwalk, and many other gentlemen of distinction were occasional guests
at Lindencroft. Several times we had delightful sails, dinners, and clam-
bakes at Charles Island, eight miles east of Bridgeport, a most cool and
charming spot in the warm summer days. The health of my wife, which had
been poor since 1855, prevented many occasions of festivity for which I
had all other facilities; for Lindencroft was indeed a charming residence,
and it afforded every requisite for the entertainment of large numbers of
friends.
During the summer Governor Hawley appointed me a commissioner to
the Paris Exposition, but I was unable to attend.
In the spring of 1867, I received from the Republican convention in the
Fourth District in Connecticut the nomination for Congress. As I have
already remarked, politics were always distasteful to me. I possess naturally
too much independence of mind, and too strong a determination to do what
I believe to be right, regardless of party expediency, to make a lithe and oily
politician. To be called on to favor applications from office-seekers, without
regard to their merits, and to do the dirty work too often demanded by
political parties; to be “all things to all men” though not in the apostolic
sense; to shake hands with those whom I despised, and to kiss the dirty
babies of those whose votes were courted, were political requirements
which I felt I could never acceptably fulfil. Nevertheless, I had become, so
far as business was concerned, almost a man of leisure; and some of my
warmest personal friends insisted that a nomination to so high and
honorable a position as a member of Congress, was not to be lightly
rejected, and so I consented to run. Fairfield and Litchfield counties
composed the district, which in the preceding Congressional election, in
1865, and just after the close of the war, was republican. In the year
following, however, the district in State election went democratic, although
the republican State ticket was elected. I had this democratic majority to
contend against in 1867, and as the whole State turned over and elected the
democratic ticket, I lost my election. In the next succeeding Congressional
election, in 1869, the Fourth District also elected the only democratic
congressman chosen from Connecticut that year, although the State itself
was republican again by a considerable majority.
I was neither disappointed nor cast down by my defeat. The political
canvass served the purpose of giving me a new sensation, and introducing
me to new phases of human nature,—a subject which I had always great
delight in studying. The filth and scandal, the slanders and vindictiveness,
the plottings and fawnings, the fidelity, treachery, meanness and manliness,
which by turns exhibited themselves in the exciting scenes preceding the
election, were novel to me, and were so far interesting. My personal efforts
in the canvass were mainly confined to the circulation of documents, and I
did not spend a dollar to purchase a vote.
Shortly after my opponent was nominated, I sent him the following
letter, which was also published in the Bridgeport Standard:
Bridgeport, Conn., Feb. 21, 1867.
W. H. Barnum, Esq., Salisbury, Conn.
Dear Sir: Observing that the democratic party has nominated you for
Congress from this district, I desire to make you a proposition.
The citizens of this portion of our State will be compelled on the first
Monday in April next, to decide whether you or myself shall represent their
interests and their principles in the Fortieth Congress of the United States.
The theory of our government is, that the will of the people shall be the
law of the land. It is important, therefore, that the people shall vote
understandingly, and especially at this important crisis in our national
existence. In order, that the voters of this district shall fully comprehend the
principles by which each of their congressional candidates is guided, I
respectfully invite you to meet me in a serious and candid discussion of the
important political issues of the day, at various towns in the Fourth
Congressional District of Connecticut, on each week day evening, from the
fourth day of March until the thirtieth day of the same month, both
inclusive.
If you will consent to thus meet me in a friendly discussion of those
subjects, now so near and dear to every American heart, and, I may add,
possessing at this time such momentous interest to all civilized nations in
the world, who are suffering from misrule, I pledge myself to conduct my
portion of the debate with perfect fairness, and with all due respect for my
opponent, and doubt not you will do the same.
Never, in my judgment, in our past history as a nation, have interests and
questions more important appealed to the people for their wise and careful
consideration. It is due to the voters of the Fourth Congressional District
that they have an early and full opportunity to examine their candidates in
regard to these important problems, and I shall esteem it a great privilege if
you will accept this proposition.
Please favor me with an early answer, and oblige,
Truly yours,
P. T. Barnum.
To this letter Mr. William H. Barnum replied, declining to accept my
proposition to go before the people of the district, and discuss the political
questions of the day.
During the canvass I received the following letter, which, together with
my reply, was published in the Bridgeport Standard and in the New York
Tribune:
Litchfield Co., Conn., Feb. 20, 1867.
P. T. Barnum.—Dear Sir: Although Fairfield County was entitled to the nomination of
the copperhead candidate for Congress from the Fourth District, and under ordinary
circumstances it would have been given to William F. Taylor, of Danbury, you are, perhaps,
aware that they have changed their tactics and nominated a wealthy namesake of yours,
simply for the purpose of using his money against you. A democratic ex-Congressman is
said to be preparing a tariff of prices to be paid for votes, and they boast that their
candidate will expend $50,000 to secure his election. Already, I am credibly informed, the
greenbacks are being freely circulated by his friends. I write to ask what your intentions are
in regard to counteracting this effort of the copperhead party. Do you intend to fight fire
with fire? The day of election is fast approaching, and we are confident of success, as all
our friends are wide awake.
Respectfully yours, —— ——

The New York Tribune, commenting upon the correspondence, said:

Mr. P. T. Barnum, Union candidate for Congress in the Fourth District of Connecticut,
was lately solicited by a friend to spend money in a manner deemed objectionable by Mr.
Barnum, and he responded as became a patriot.

The following was my reply to the above letter:

Bridgeport, Feb. 23, 1867.
—— Esq.—Dear Sir: Your kind letter of the 20th inst. has caused me
painful emotions. I now wish to say, once for all, that under no conceivable
circumstances will I permit a dollar of mine to be used to purchase a vote,
or to induce a voter to act contrary to his honest convictions.
The idea that the intelligent reading men of New England can be bought
like sheep in the shambles, and that the sacred principles which have so far
guided them in the terrible struggle between liberty and slavery can now, in
this eventful hour of national existence, be set up at auction and knocked
down to the highest bidder, seems to me as preposterous as it is shameful
and humiliating. But if it is possible that occasionally a degraded voter can
thus be induced to “sell his birthright for a mess of pottage,” God grant that
I may be a thousand times defeated sooner than permit one grain of gold to
be accursed by using it so basely!
I will not believe that American citizens can lend themselves to the
contemptible meanness of sapping the very life-blood of our noble
institutions by encouraging a fatal precedent, which ignores all principle,
and would soon prevent any honest man, however distinguished for his
intelligence and loyalty, from representing his district in our national
councils. None could then succeed except unprincipled vagabonds, who, by
the lavish expenditure of money, would debauch and degrade the freemen
whose votes they coveted.
No, sir! Grateful as I am for the distinguished honor of receiving a
unanimous nomination for Congress from the loyal Union party in my
district, I have no aspiration for that high position if it is only to be attained
by bringing into disgrace the noble privilege of the free elective franchise.
Think for a moment what a deadly weapon is being placed in the hands of
tyrants throughout the civilized world, with which to destroy such apostles
of liberty as John Bright and Garibaldi, if it can be said with truth that
American citizens have become so corrupt and degraded, so lost to a just
estimate of the value and true nobility of the ballot, that it is bought and
sold for money.
My dear sir, any party that can gain a temporary ascendancy by such
atrocious means, not only poisons the body politic of a free and impartial
government, but is also sure to bring swift destruction upon itself. And so it
should be.
I am unaccustomed to political life, and know but little of the manner of
conducting a campaign like the present. I believe, however, it is customary
for the State Central Committee to assess candidates, in order that they shall
defray a proper portion of the expenses incurred for speakers and
documents to enlighten the voters upon the political issues of the day. To
that extent I am willing and anxious to be taxed; for “light and knowledge”
are always desired by the friends of human rights and of public order.
But I trust that all money used for any other purpose, in the pending
election will come from the pockets of those who now (as during the
rebellion) are doing their utmost to aid traitors, and who, still unrepenting,
are vindictively striving to secure at the ballot-box what their Southern
allies failed to accomplish on the field of battle. If any of our friends
misapprehend my true sentiments upon the subject of bribery, corruption
and fraud, I hope you will read them this letter.
Truly yours,
P. T. BARNUM.
P. S.—The following is the law of Connecticut on the bribery of electors:
Section 64. No person shall offer or receive any money, or other thing, by way of gift,
fee or reward, for giving, or refusing to give, a vote for electing members of the General
Assembly, or any officer chosen at an electors’ meeting, nor promise, procure, or in any
way confer, any gratuity, reward or preferment, for any vote given or to be given, in any
election; and every person guilty of so doing shall forfeit the sum of $17, one-half to him
who shall prosecute to effect, and the other half to the treasury of the town where the
offence is committed, and every person who shall be convicted a second time of a like
offence shall be disfranchised.

That section commends itself to the obedience of every law-abiding

voter, and I shall be the last to consent to its violation.
 P. T. B.
When Congress met, I was surprised to see by the newspapers that the
seat of my opponent was to be contested on account of alleged bribery,
fraud and corruption in securing his election. This was the first intimation
that I had ever received of such an intention, and I was never, at any time
before or afterwards, consulted upon the subject. The movement proved to
have originated with neighbors and townsmen of the successful candidate,
who claimed to be able to prove that he had paid large sums of money to
purchase votes. They also claimed that they had proof that men were
brought from an adjoining State to vote, and that in the office of the
successful candidate naturalization papers were forged to enable foreigners
to vote upon them. But, I repeat, I took no part nor lot in the matter, but
concluded that if I had been defeated by fraud, mine was the real success.
 CHAPTER XLI.

BENNETT AND THE HERALD.

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM LEASE—ITS VALUE—BENNETT OF THE

HERALD BUYS IT FOR $200,000—HE PURCHASES THE PROPERTY—
OVERESTIMATE OF ITS WORTH—MAX MARETZEK—MISS CLARA
LOUISE KELLOGG’S ESTIMATE OF CERTAIN PEOPLE—THE POWER
BEHIND THE HERALD THRONE—THE HERALD’S INFLUENCE—
BENNETT KICKED AND COWHIDED—HIS LAWYER INSISTS UPON MY
TAKING BACK THE MUSEUM LEASE—I DECLINE—BENNETT REFUSES
MY ADVERTISEMENTS—INTERVIEW WITH MR. HUDSON—WAR OF
THE MANAGERS UPON THE HERALD—BENNETT HUMBLED—LOSS OF
THE HERALD’S PRESTIGE—MONEY—DAMAGE TO BENNETT’S
ESTABLISHMENT—THE EDITOR SUED—PEACE BETWEEN THE
HERALD AND THE MANAGERS.

WHEN the old American Museum burned down, and while the ruins were
still smoking, I had numerous applications for the purchase of the lease of
the two lots, fifty-six by one hundred feet, which had still nearly eleven
years to run. It will be remembered that in 1847 I came back from England,
while my second lease of five years had yet three years more to run, and
renewed that lease for twenty-five years from 1851 at an annual rental of
$10,000. It was also stipulated that in case the building was destroyed by
fire the proprietor of the property should expend twenty-four thousand
dollars towards the erection of a new edifice, and at the end of the term of
lease he was to pay me the appraised value of the building, not to exceed
$100,000. Rents and real estate values had trebled since I took this twenty-
five years’ lease, and hence the remaining term was very valuable. I
engaged an experienced and competent real estate broker in Pine Street to
examine the terms of my lease, and in view of his knowledge of the cost of
erecting buildings and the rentals they were commanding in Broadway, I
enjoined him to take his time, and make a careful estimate of what the lease
was worth to me, and what price I ought to receive if I sold it to another
party. At the end of several days, he showed me his figures, which proved
that the lease was fully worth $275,000. As I was inclined to have a
museum higher up town, I did not wish to engage in erecting two buildings
at once, so I concluded to offer my museum lease for sale. Accordingly, I
put it into the hands of Mr. Homer Morgan, with directions to offer it for
$225,000, which was $50,000 less than the value at which it had been
estimated.
The next day I met Mr. James Gordon Bennett, who told me that he
desired to buy my lease, and at the same time to purchase the fee of the
museum property, for the erection thereon of a publication building for the
New York Herald. I said I thought it was very fitting the Herald should be
the successor of the Museum; and Mr. Bennett asked my price.
“Please to go or send immediately to Homer Morgan’s office,” I replied,
“and you will learn that Mr. Morgan has the lease for sale at $225,000. This
is $50,000 less than its estimated value; but to you I will deduct $25,000
from my already reduced price, so you may have the lease for $200,000.”
Bennett replied that he would look into the affair closely; and the next
day his attorney sent for my lease. He kept it several days, and then
appointed an hour for me to come to his office. I called according to
appointment. Mr. Bennett and his attorney had thoroughly examined the
lease. It was the property of my wife. Bennett concluded to accept my offer.
My wife assigned the lease to him, and his attorney handed me Mr.
Bennett’s check on the Chemical Bank for $200,000. That same day I
invested $50,000 in United States bonds; and the remaining $150,000 was
similarly invested on the following day. I learned at that time that Bennett
had agreed to purchase the fee of the property for $500,000. He had been
informed that the property was worth some $350,000 to $400,000, and he
did not mind paying $100,000 extra for the purpose of carrying out his
plans. But the parties who estimated for him the value of the land knew
nothing of the fact that there was a lease upon the property, else of course
they would in their estimate have deducted the $200,000 which the lease
would cost. When, therefore, Mr. Bennett saw it stated in the newspapers
that the sum which he had paid for a piece of land measuring only fifty-six
by one hundred feet was more than was ever before paid in any city in the
world for a tract of that size, he discovered the serious oversight which he
had made; and the owner of the property was immediately informed that
Bennett would not take it. But Bennett had already signed a bond to the
owner, agreeing to pay $100,000 cash, and to mortgage the premises for the
remaining $400,000.
 Supposing that by this step he had shaken off the owner of the fee,
Bennett was not long in seeing that, as he was not to own the land, he
would have no possible use for the lease, for which he had paid the
$200,000; and accordingly his next step was to shake me off also, and get
back the money he had paid me.
At this time Bennett was ruling the managers of the theatres and other
amusements with a rod of iron. He had established a large job printing
office in connection with the Herald office; and woe to the manager who
presumed to have his bills printed elsewhere. Any manager who dared to
decline employing Bennett’s job office to print his small bills and posters, at
Bennett’s exorbitant prices, was ignored in the Herald; his advertisements
were refused, and generally, he and his establishment were black-balled and
blackguarded in the columns of the Herald. Of course most of the managers
were somewhat sensitive to such attacks, and therefore submitted to his
impositions in the job office, his double price for newspaper
advertisements, and any other overbearing conditions the Herald might
choose to dictate. The advertisements of the Academy of Music, then under
the direction of Mr. Max Maretzek, had been refused on account of some
dissatisfaction in the Herald office in regard to free boxes, and also because
the prima donna, Miss Clara Louise Kellogg, had certain ideas of her own
with regard to social intercourse with certain people, as Miss Jenny Lind
had with regard to the same people, when she was under my management,
and to some degree under my advice, and these ideas were not particularly
relished by the power behind the Herald throne.
For my own part, I thoroughly understood Bennett and his concern, and I
never cared one farthing for him or his paper. I had seen for years,
especially as Bennett’s enormously overestimated “influence” applied to
public amusements, that whatever the Herald praised, sickened, drooped,
and if the Herald persisted in praising it, finally died; while whatever the
Herald attacked prospered, and all the more, the more it was abused. It was
utterly impossible for Bennett to injure me, unless he had some more potent
weapon than his Herald. And that this was the general opinion was quite
evident from the fact that several years had elapsed since gentlemen were in
the almost daily habit of cuffing, kicking and cowhiding Bennett in the
streets and other public places for his scurrilous attacks upon them, or upon
members of their families. It had come to be seen that what the Herald said,
good or bad, was, like the editor himself, literally of “no account.”
 My business for many years, as manager of the Museum and other
public entertainments, compelled me to court notoriety; and I always found
Bennett’s abuse far more remunerative than his praise, even if I could have
had the praise at the same price, that is, for nothing. Especially was it
profitable to me when I could be the subject of scores of lines of his
scolding editorials free of charge, instead of paying him forty cents a line
for advertisements, which would not attract a tenth part so much attention.
Bennett had tried abusing me, off and on, for twenty years, on one occasion
refusing my advertisement altogether for the space of about a year; but I
always managed to be the gainer by his course. Now, however, when new
difficulties threatened, all the leading managers in New York were members
of the “Managers’ Association,” and as we all submitted to the arbitrary and
extortionate demands of the Herald, Bennett thought he had but to crack his
whip, in order to keep any and all of us within the traces. The great Ogre of
the Herald supposed he could at all times frighten the little managerial boys
into any holes which might be left open for them to hide in. Accordingly,
one day Bennett’s attorney wrote me a letter, saying that he would like to
have me call on him at his office the following morning. Not dreaming of
the object I called as desired, and after a few pleasant commonplace
remarks about the weather, and other trifles, the attorney said:
“Mr. Barnum, I have sent for you to say that Mr. Bennett has concluded
not to purchase the museum lots, and therefore that you had better take back
the lease, and return the $200,000 paid for it.”
“Are you in earnest?” I asked with surprise.
“Certainly, quite so,” he answered.
“Really,” I said, smiling, “I am sorry I can’t accommodate Mr. Bennett; I
have not got the little sum about me; in fact, I have spent the money.”
“It will be better for you to take back the lease,” said the attorney
seriously.
“Nonsense,” I replied, “I shall do nothing of the sort, I don’t make
child’s bargains. The lease was cheap enough, but I have other business to
attend to, and shall have nothing to do with it.”
The attorney said very little in reply; but I could see, by the almost
benignant sorrow expressed upon his countenance, that he evidently pitied
me for the temerity that would doubtless lead me into the jaws of the
insatiable monster of the Herald. The next morning I observed that the
advertisement of my entertainments with my Museum Company at Winter
Garden was left out of the Herald columns. I went directly to the editorial
rooms of the Herald; and learning that Bennett was not in, I said to Mr.
Hudson, then managing editor:
“My advertisement is left out of the Herald; is there a screw loose?”
“I believe there is,” was the reply.
“What is the matter?” I asked.
“You must ask the Emperor,” said Mr. Hudson, meaning of course
Bennett.
“When will the ‘Emperor’ be in?” I inquired; “next Monday,” was the
answer.
“Well, I shall not see him,” I replied; “but I wish to have this thing
settled at once. Mr. Hudson, I now tender you the money for the insertion of
my Museum advertisement on the same terms as are paid by other places of
amusement, will you publish it?”
“I will not,” Mr. Hudson peremptorily replied.
“That is all,” I said. Mr. Hudson then smilingly and blandly remarked, “I
have formally answered your formal demand, because I suppose you
require it; but you know, Mr. Barnum, I can only obey orders.” I assured
him that I understood the matter perfectly, and attached no blame to him in
the premises. I then proceeded to notify the Secretary of the “Managers’
Association” to call the managers together at twelve o’clock the following
day; and there was a full meeting at the appointed time. I stated the facts in
the case in the Herald affair, and simply remarked, that if we did not make
common cause against any newspaper publisher who excluded an
advertisement from his columns simply to gratify a private pique, it was
evident that either and all of us were liable to imposition at any time.
One of the managers immediately made a motion that the entire
association should stop their advertising and bill printing at the Herald
office, and have no further connection with that establishment. Mr. Lester
Wallack advised that this motion should not be adopted until a committee
had waited upon Bennett, and had reported the result of the interview to the
Association. Accordingly, Messrs. Wallack, Wheatley and Stuart were
delegated to go down to the Herald office to call on Mr. Bennett.
 The moment Bennett saw them, he evidently suspected the object of
their mission, for he at once commenced to speak to Mr. Wallack in a
patronizing manner; told him how long he had known, and how much he
respected his late father, who was “a true English gentleman of the old
school,” with much more in the same strain. Mr. Wallack replied to Bennett
that the three managers were appointed a committee to wait upon him to
ascertain if he insisted upon excluding from his columns the Museum
advertisements,—not on account of any objection to the contents of the
advertisements, or to the Museum itself, but simply because he had a
private business disagreement with the proprietor?—intimating that such a
proceeding, for such a reason, and no other, might lead to a rupture of
business relations with other managers. In reply, Mr. Bennett had something
to say about the fox that had suffered tailwise from a trap, and thereupon
advised all other foxes to cut their tails off; and he pointed the fable by
setting forth the impolicy of drawing down upon the Association the
vengeance of the Herald. The committee, however, coolly insisted upon a
direct answer to their question.
Bennett then answered: “I will not publish Barnum’s advertisement; I do
my business as I please, and in my own way.”
“So do we,” replied one of the managers, and the committee withdrew.
The next day the Managers’ Association met, heard the report, and
unanimously resolved to withdraw their advertisements from the Herald,
and their patronage from the Herald job establishment, and it was done.
Nevertheless, the Herald for several days continued to print gratuitously the
advertisements of Wallack’s Theatre and Niblo’s Garden, and inordinately
puffed these establishments, evidently in order to ease the fall, and to
convey the idea that some of the theatres patronized the Herald, and
perhaps hoping by praising these managers to draw them back again, and so
to nullify the agreement of the Association in regard to the Herald.
Thereupon, the managers headed their advertisements in all the other New
York papers with the line, “This Establishment does not advertise in the
New York Herald,” and for many months this announcement was kept at
the top of every theatrical advertisement and on the posters and playbills.
The Herald then began to abuse and vilify the theatrical and opera
managers, their artists and their performances, and by way of contrast
profusely praised Tony Pastor’s Bowery show, and Sundry entertainments
of a similar character, thereby speedily bringing some of these side-shows
to grief and shutting up their shops. Meanwhile, the first-class theatres
prospered amazingly under the abuse of Bennett. Their receipts were never
larger, and their houses, never more thronged. The public took sides in the
matter with the managers and against the Herald, and thousands of people
went to the theatres merely to show their willingness to support the
managers and to spite “Old Bennett.” The editor was fairly caught in his
own trap; other journals began to estimate the loss the Herald sustained by
the action of the managers, and it was generally believed that this loss in
advertising and job printing was not less than from $75,000 to $100,000 a
year. The Herald’s circulation also suffered terribly, since hundreds of
people, at the hotels and elsewhere, who were accustomed to buy the paper
solely for the sake of seeing what amusements were announced for the
evening, now bought other papers. This was the hardest blow of all, and it
fully accounted for the abuse which the Herald daily poured out upon the
theatres.
But the more Bennett raved the more the people laughed, and the more
determined did they seem to patronize the managers. Many people came to
the Museum, who said they came expressly to show us that the public were
with us and against the Herald. The other managers stated their experience
to be the same in this respect. In fact, it was a subject of general remark,
that, without exception, the associated managers never had done such a
thriving business as during the two years in which they gave the Herald the
cold shoulder.
Bennett evidently felt ashamed of the whole transaction; he would never
publish the facts in his columns, though he once stated in an editorial that it
had been reported that he had been cheated in purchasing the Broadway
property; that the case had gone to court, and the public would soon know
all the particulars. Some persons supposed by this that Bennett had sued
me; but this was far from being the case. The owner of the lots sued
Bennett, to compel him to take the title and pay for the property as per
agreement; and that was all the “law” there was about it. He held James
Gordon Bennett’s bond, that he would pay him half a million of dollars for
the land, as follows: $100,000 cash, and a bond and mortgage upon the
premises for the remaining $400,000. The day before the suit was to come
to trial, Bennett came forward, took the deed, and paid $100,000 cash and
gave a bond and mortgage of the entire premises for $400,000. That lien
still exists against the Herald property.
Had I really taken back the lease as Bennett desired, he would have been
in a worse scrape than ever; for having been compelled to take the property,
he would have been obliged, as my landlord, to go on and assist in building
a Museum for me according to the terms of my lease, and a Museum I
should certainly have built on Bennett’s property, even if I had owned a
dozen Museums up town. As it was, Bennett was badly beaten on every
side, and especially by the managers, who forever established the fact that
the Herald’s abuse was profitable, and its patronage fatal to any enterprise;
and who taught Mr. Bennett personally the lesson of his own insignificance,
as he had not learned it since the days when gentlemen used to kick and
cowhide him up and down the whole length of Nassau Street. In the autumn
of 1868, the associated managers came to the conclusion that the
punishment of Bennett for two years was sufficient, and they consented to
restore their advertisements to the Herald. I was then associated with the
Van Amburgh Company in my new Museum, and we concluded that the
cost of advertising in the Herald was more than it was worth, and so we did
not enter into the new arrangement made by the Managers’ Association.
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