GENERAL STUDIES - 1

Art & Culture

TEST – 1 (03.06.2025/Tuesday)
Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern
times.
1. Nurtured for centuries, classical dances in India have evolved in different parts of the country, in their own
distinct style taking on the culture of that particular region, each acquiring its own flavor. Elaborate. (250
words)
Introduction
The earliest examples of dance in India can be traced back to the dancing pictures in Bhimbetka caves and the
bronze statue of a dancing girl in Mohenjodaro. Most of the classical dance forms originated in temples.
Worshipping was the main aim. Although every dance form evolved from different regions, their roots are the
same. The roots can be traced from the Sanskrit text – ‘Natya Shastra’. The first compilation of Natya Shastra is
dated between 200BCE and 200CE.
As time passed, artists improvised many classical dances which resulted in the present-day forms.
Body
Classical dances of India: Evolution
The Natya Shastra is the foundational treatise for classical dances of India, and this text is attributed to the
ancient scholar Bharata Muni.
• Its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE
and 500 CE.
• The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters.
The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva,
expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures – all of which are part of Indian
classical dances.

• Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and
the essence of scriptures.

• While the Natya Shastra is the revered ancient text in the Hindu tradition, there are numerous other ancient
and medieval Sanskrit dance-drama related texts that further discuss and expand on the classical repertoire of
performance arts, such as the Abhinaya Darpana, Abhinava Bharati, Natya Darpana, Bhava Prakasa and many
others. The term “classical”( “Shastriya”) denotes the ancient Indian Shastra-based performing arts.

• The Sangeet Natak academy recognizes below dances as classical dances.

• Bharatanatyam, from Tamil Nadu:
Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in a single
performance.
The dance involves transitional movements of leg, hip and arm. Expressive eye movements and hand
gestures are used to convey emotions.
• Kathak, from Uttar Pradesh:
The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story.
It was primarily a temple or village performance wherein the dancers narrated stories from ancient
scriptures.

Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the
spread of the bhakti movement.
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• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the
basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

• Kathakali, from Kerala:

Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the ritual performing arts
of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and technique.
o Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted
from the Indian epics.
o Heavy make-up and stunning costumes (elaborate masks, huge skirts and big head-dresses) are
used.
• Kuchipudi, from Andhra Pradesh:
Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh which has a very long
tradition of dance-drama. It was known under the generic name of Yakshagaana.
o In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi. He was
steeped in the literary Yakshagaana tradition being guided by his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi
who composed the Krishna-Leelatarangini, a kaavya in Sanskrit.
• Odissi, from Odisha:
The major subjects of performance are lores of incarnations of Lord Vishnu and verses of
Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda.
o A soft dance backed by soothing lyrics and is similar to Bharatanatyam in terms of the mudras
and expressions.
• Sattriya, from Assam:
The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the Vaishnava saint and reformer
of Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
o The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on.
o Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras (Vaishnava maths or
monasteries), this dance style has been named Sattriya.
• Manipuri, from Manipur:
The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, there are legendary
references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe.
• Mohiniyattam, from Kerala:
Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) is the classical solo dance form of
Kerala.
o References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts Vyavaharamala written in 1709 by
Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri and in Ghoshayatra, written later by poet Kunjan
Nambiar.
o It was structured into the present-day classical format by the Travancore Kings, Maharaja
Kartika Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th-19th century)
Conclusion
The style of Indian classical dancing is very vibrant and motivational. It is a style of dance that is like a
communication with the gods. Indian classical dancing usually happens at festivals and cultural events. The
dancers who perform this kind of dance usually is a professional dancer that has had a lot of practice in that
specific style of Indian classical dancing.
In Indian classical dancing the professional dancers usually dance to beat of the song or sound that is playing.
Value addition
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Government reviving classical dance

• The government of India puts continuous efforts in preserving, promoting the Indian classical dances in
India and abroad as well.
The establishment of Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi and its allied centers and constituent bodies
boosted the development of these classical dances.
The grand Classical dance festivals like Khajuraho, Konark, Dhauli Kalinga, Kalidas, Mukteshwar,
Soorya, Ellora, Nishagandhi etc., displays the beautiful representation of Indian Classical Dances.
The classical dances flourished and developed further with the establishment of Music and
Dance Universities like Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, Raja Mansingh Tomar
University, Gwalior etc. and the various Institutions like Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya
Mandal, Prayag Sangeet Samiti. They not only added to the development of it but also helped the
classical dance forms to reach till common people

2. The present Indian music has grown and evolved from ancient times and was more or less uniform before
the 13th century. Later it bifurcated into the two musical systems – Hindustani and Carnatic. Compare and
contrast both systems. (250 words)
Introduction
Music has always been an important part of Indian life. The range of musical phenomenon in India
extends from simple melodies to what is one of the most well- developed “systems” of classical music in the
world. There are references to various string and wind instruments, as well as several kinds of drums and
cymbals, in the Vedas. Some date the advent of the system of classical Indian music to Amir Khusro. Muslim
rulers and noblemen freely extended their patronage to music. In the courts of the Mughal emperors, music is
said to have flourished, and the Tansen was one of the jewels of Akbar’s court.
The great poet-saints who chose to communicate in the vernacular tongues brought forth a great
upheaval in north India and the Bhakti or devotional movements they led gained many adherents. The lyrics of
Surdas, Tulsidas, and most particularly Kabir and Mirabai continue to be immensely popular. By the sixteenth
century, the division between North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) music was also being more
sharply delineated.
Body
Evolution of Indian music from ancient times
• It is generally believed that Indian classical music has its origins in the religious observances of the Aryan
people who arrived in India some 3,000 years ago
• The Aryans brought with them their sacred texts known as the Vedas, meaning ‘knowledge’ forming the core
of ancient Hindu scriptures with their worship rituals largely centring on the highly structured and organised
recitation of these verses.
• Thus, the roots of Indian classical music can be traced back to its origin in the recital of Vedic hymns of the
Hindu temples
• There are four main Vedas, of which the one known as Samaveda (from saman, roughly translating to ‘melody’)
is the most relevant – as the texts contained in it were clearly meant to be sung whilst also acting as treatises
about music, dance and theatre.
• The seven swaras of music – Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni represent different scriptural deities: SA – Agni, RE –
Brahma, GA – Saraswati, MA – Shiva, PA – Vishnu, DHA – Ganesha, NI – Surya
• Ancient musical treatises show that by 300 BC, there was already a marked difference in classification for what
was
• known as marga Sangeet (music of the gods) and Desi Sangeet (music of the people).
• The latter formed the basis for what evolved as folk music, varying region by region, but the former remained
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the sole domain of those who were considered adequately trained by a master
• The earliest treatise on music, drama and dance is Bharata’s Natyashastra
Hindustani music: Features
• The six primary ragas in Hindustani classic are- Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and Megh
• Ragas in Hindustani classic music used to strictly observe the time theory. Ex: Bhairavi at dawn, Megh in the
morning
• Ragas in Hindustani music are also associated with feelings and moods. Ex: Bhairavi with awe and fear, Kausika
with joy
• It has a highly formalized grammar, dictated by textual as well as oral tradition.
• Hindustani music places more emphasis on improvisation and exploring all aspects of a raga
• Slow and sometimes even leisurely introductory section (alap) followed by solfege and fast section with fast
melodic phrases and rhythmic play
• There is significant emphasis on space between the notes
• Hindustani classical music has been influenced considerably by Persian traditions
• Musical instruments used in Hindustani are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin.
• Main styles in Hindustani music– Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri and
Ragasagar, Hori and Dhamar.
Carnatic music: Features
• It is an indigenously developed style of classical music
• The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula which includes within its fold all the
modes used in ancient as well as modern systems of music of the different parts of the world.
• It is strongly Kriti-based
• Unity of raga, tala and shruti in every piece
• The system gives equal importance to melody and rhythm.
• Mixing the three degrees of speeds
• Fewer instruments are used in Karnataka than in northern Indian music, and there are no exclusively
instrumental forms.
• There is an even balance between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of the compositions of great masters)
and creativity (on the spot improvisations).
• Some of the important Carnatic music compositions are- Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam,
kritanam, kriti, pada, javali, pallavi etc

Comparison between Hindustani and Carnatic music

• Hindustani originated in North India.
• It was influenced by foreign traditions. Carnatic originated in South India. No such foreign influence.
• In Carnatic there is Unity of raga, tala and Sruti in every piece. No strict adherence to these factors I
Hindustani.
• Raga development is phrase by phrase in Carnatic music while it is note by note in Hindustani.
• There are many gharanas in Hindustani and no such prevalence in Carnatic.
• In Carnatic there is equal importance to vocal and instruments while in Hindustani importance is to the vocal.

Conclusion
Awareness training at the school-level could help in encouraging the students to take up classical music training.
Creating sufficient livelihood opportunities for traditional artists in the country. Institutions such as ‘Sangeet
Natak academy’ has to be equipped with sufficient resources to research and come up with solutions to ensure
all aspects of the rich tradition of music continues to survive and thrive in the society.
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3. Mughal painting stands as a testament to the cultural synthesis that occurred in the Mughal Empire.
Analyse. (250 words)
Introduction
Mughal painting is the style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian subcontinent in the
sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth century. It is known for its sophisticated
techniques and diverse range of subjects and themes. The Mughal miniature painting inspired and
resonated in subsequent schools and styles of Indian painting, thereby, confirming a definite position for
the Mughal style within the Indian school of paintings
Body:
Mughal Paintings: Salient features
• The Mughal pictures were small in size, and hence are known as ‘miniature paintings’.
• Though the Mughal art absorbed the Indian atmosphere, it neither represented the Indian emotions, nor
the scenes from the daily life of the Indian.
• Hence, Mughal painting remained confined to the Mughal court and did not reach the people.

• The Mughal rulers brought Persian painters with them. At the same time they patronized Indian painters and the
collaboration between these two schools of painters resulted in the synthesis.

• Apart from Persian books of fables, themes from Mahabharata, Ramayana were also selected.

• Indian scenes and landscapes came into vogue.

• Paintings were based upon close observation of nature with high aesthetic merit.

• Under Jahangir, the Mughal school paintings acquired greater charm, refinement and dignity.

• The emperor Jahangir had a great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals and
flowers.

• Inspired by their overlord, the Mughal courtiers and the provincial officers started patronizing the artists trained
in the Mughal technique of painting.

• The artists who were employed in the Imperial Government were known as the first grade artists. The works
accomplished by these first grade artists is known as the Imperial Mughal Painting.

• Artists available to the provinces were of inferior merit, thus, the works accomplished in the provinces was known
as ‘Popular Mughal’ or ‘Provincial Mughal’ painting, which possessed all the important characteristics of the
Imperial Mughal painting with some inferior quality.

Mughal paintings involved a diverse range of subjects and themes

Life and times of Mughal rulers:
• Mughal painting marks a unique blend of Persian and Indian ideas. Mughal painting was essentially a court art,
developed under the patronage of the ruling Mughal emperors and began to decline when the rulers lost interest.

• The subjects treated were generally secular, revolving around themes like battles, court scenes, receptions,
legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, and the likes.
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• Imperial Mughal painting represents one of the most celebrated art forms of India. It arose with remarkable
rapidity in the mid-sixteenth century as a blending of three distinct traditions:
o Court painting of Safavid Iran.

o Indigenous Indian devotional manuscript illumination.

• Indo-Persian or Sultanate painting, which is it is a hybrid of provincial Persian and local Indian styles.
• The result of this merging resulted in paintings of unprecedented vitality, brilliant coloration, and impossibly
precise detail, is something dramatically more than the sum of its parts.

Contemporary social and political life of the people:

• Mughal Court paintings provide an insight into the life and times of rulers of the period. These paintings also
reflect the contemporary social and political condition of the people. Social customs and courtly traditions are
vividly depicted in these paintings.
• Mughal painting forms a dramatic episode in the history of India. Its aims and standpoint are secular and
realistic: it is interested in passing events and most typically in the exact delineation of individual character in
the portraiture of men and animals.
• It is dramatic rather than static, aristocratic more than surreal and academic rather than vocational.
• After Mughal, there came “company paintings” in India. But they were not as realistic and detailed as Mughal
miniature paintings.
Conclusion
When the Mughal Empire was in decadence, various other schools of painting with Mughal influence emerged in
several regional courts, including the Rajput and Pahari paintings.

Value addition
Contributions of Mughal emperors to Painting:
Akbar:
• Akbar ordered the creation of many paintings and also paid close attention to the final output of all these
artworks.
• He was very particular about the details and the artistic elements involved.
• Akbar had an impressive number of painters in his court. Between 1560 and 1577, he commissioned a number
of massive painting projects.
• One of the earliest painting projects commissioned by Akbar was ‘Tutinama’ which literally translates to ‘Tales
of a Parrot.’ There is Hamzanama as well.
• Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations.
• From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of
art.
• Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.
Jahangir:
• Much like his father (Akbar), Jahangir too had an inclination toward arts, which proved beneficial for the
growth of Mughal art.
• The Mughal painting continued to grow under his reign.
• It is generally stated that during Jahangir’s time, the art of painting reached its climax and with him
departed its soul.
• Jahangir was not only interested in painting; he was also its keen judge. He established a gallery of
painting in his own garden.
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Shahjahan:
• Though Mughal painting continued to expand during the reign of Shah Jahan, the paintings that were
displayed in the court became increasingly rigid and formal.

• However, he commissioned a large number of paintings meant to be his personal collection.

• These paintings were based on themes like gardens and pictures that gave great aesthetic pleasure.

• He also ordered many works that portrayed lovers in intimate positions.

• One of the most important works produced during his reign was the ‘Padshanama.’

• This work was made to look lavish with generous volumes of gold plating.

• The ‘Padshanama,’ which narrated the achievements of the King, contained several paintings of the
courtiers and servants as well.

• The work was so elaborate that even servants were painted with amazing details that provided a great
individuality to each and every character.

• While the servants and courtiers were portrayed using the frontal view technique, the king and other
important dignitaries were portrayed by adhering to the rules of strict metamodeling.

• During the reign of Shah Jahan, the aesthetics of Mughal painting were retained which contributed to the
growth and development of Mughal paintings.
• Many of the paintings produced under the leadership of Shah Jahan are now housed at various museums
around the world.
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4. Delhi Sultanate played a pivotal role in introducing Islamic architectural styles to India. The subsequent
fusion with indigenous Indian architectural elements led to the evolution of a distinctive Indo-Islamic
style. Discuss. (250 words)
Introduction
The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed
from A.D. 1206 to 1526. Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis – ruled under the
Delhi Sultanate. New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period. The
synthesis of Indian and Islamic architectural features led to emergence of Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic
architecture.

Body
The Indo-Islamic architecture under the sultans of Delhi includes both religious and secular structures
Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture which exhibit Indian, Islamic,
Persian, Central Asian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish influences.

Religious buildings
• Earliest example of building activity by a Sultan of Delhi was the Quwat-ul-Islam mosques built by Qutub-
ud-din Aibak.

• Another architectural specimen of this period was the mosques-Arhai Din ka Jhonpra, built at Ajmer.

• Other notable imperial monuments constructed by Iltutmish were Hauz-i-Shamshi, Shamsi-idgah, the
Jami Masjid at Badaun and the Atarkin ka Darwaza at Nagpur.

• Alauddin Khilji built Jamait Khan Mosque at the shrine of Nizam -ud-din Auliya and the Alai Darwaza at
the Qutub Minar.

• The Tombs of Mubarak Shah and Muhammad Shah of the Sayyid Dynasty and the Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi
of the Lodhi Dynasty were noteworthy architectural specimens of the Sayyid and Lodhi rule.

• Secular Buildings
• The most magnificent piece of architecture of this era was the Qutub Minar. Qutub-ud-din Aibak started
the construction of the Qutub Minar at Delhi but could not complete it during his life time. It was
completed by Iltutmish.

• Alauddin Khilji founded the city of Siri and built a palace of thousand pillar within it,

• Alauddin Khilji also constructed a magnificent tank known as the Hauz-i-Khas near the city of Siri.

• The city of Tughlaqabaad constructed by GhiyasuddinTughlaq was a notable construction of the Tughlaq
rule.

• Mohammad bin Tughlaq constructed the new city of Jahanpanah near the City of old Delhi, the fort of
Adilabaad and some other buildings in Daulatabaad.

• The city of Firozabaad, Firoz shah Kotla fort- palace were important imperial constructions of the time of
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

The new structural changes introduced by the Sultanate rulers

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The Turks introduced arche and dome method, slab and beam method, lofty towers or minarets
and decorations using the Arabic script. They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters.
• The use of lime-mortarin the construction of buildings and houses altered the building techniques
• They also added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
• Synthesis of indigenous motifsuch as ball motif, lotus etc.
• In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into mosques. For example,
the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was built by using the materials obtained from
destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
• Later, they began to construct new structures. The most magnificent building of the 13th century was
the Qutub Minar which was founded by Aibek and completed by Iltutmish.
• With the arrival of artisans from West Asia the arch and dome began to show up with precision and
perfection. Gradually local artisans also acquired the skill. The tomb of Balban was adorned with the
first true archand the Alai Darwaza built by Alaud-din Khalji as a gateway to the Quwwatul-Islam
Mosque is adorned with the first true dome.
• Tughlaqs went for introduction of innovative features in architecture also, such as
• “batter” or sloping walls
• use of stone rubble as the principle building material
• a new type of arch called the four centred arch
• the emergence of the pointed dome
• the introduction of an octagonal plan of tomb building.
Conclusion
Later on, with the Mughals, the art of pietra dura, jali work became more prominent. They also built lofty
forts, palaces and cities. The Mughals were also fond of laying gardens with running water, which is an
extension of gardens introduced by Delhi Sultanate. Delhi Sultanate paved way for large scale construction
of buildings in Indo-Islamic architecture.
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5. Sufi saints’ teachings and practices resonated with people from various religious backgrounds, contributing
to a cultural and spiritual tapestry that emphasized the shared humanity of all individuals. Explain. (250
words)
Introduction
Sufis were a group of religious-minded people who turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the
growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution. Sufism entered India in the 12th
century with Muslim invaders and became popular in the 13th century. The socio-religious movement saw many
mystic Sufis, who were unorthodox Muslim saints. These Sufis had a deep study of vedantic philosophy and had
come in contact with great sages and seers of India. Sufism emphasizes upon leading a simple life. Sufi saints
preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint
like Khwaja Moinuddin Chisthi, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Auliya etc.

Body
The word ‘Sufi’ derives its name from another Arabic word ‘Suf which means wool. The Muslim saints who wore
garments of coarse wool began to be called Sufi saints. The Sufi saints lived and worked in the midst of the
common people. They needed to reach out to common people in order to spread their socio-religious and
philosophical messages. They did everything to establish brotherhood, love and friendship between the Hindus
and Muslims.
Features of Sufism in India
• Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam.

• While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and blind observance of religious rituals, the
Sufi saints seek inner purity.

• They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and
sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.

• Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following
His commands, and by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a
perfect human being.
• The sufis thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience
• Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz).
• Sufis bridged the communal divide as is evidenced by the reverence the Subcontinent’s non-Muslim
population exhibited for Sufi saints. Sufism around the world and in the Subcontinent had the depth to
connect beyond caste, creed and gender
Impact of Sufism:
• Sufism does not believe in caste system.
• They broke all societal rules and stereotypes, and lived their lives as they pleased.
• They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious values. Saints
like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines. Their call to social
equality attracted many a downtrodden.
• The efforts of Sufi saints helped to lessen religious fanaticism in India.
• Their stress on social welfare led to the establishment of works of charitable naturee. opening of
orphanages and women service centres.
• A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of society.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste.
• The efforts of Sufi saints helped to promote equality and lessen the evils of casteism. They also tried to
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infuse a spirit of piety and morality.

• Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.
• At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men of
their moral obligations. To a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
• Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of
prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
Conclusion
Sufi movement a deep-rooted change came about to lay the foundations of a liberal and composite Indian
society. The Sufi movement is a characteristics feature of the medieval Indian Period. As the Sufi saints’ holiness,
asceticism and relatively open hospices appealed to the masses and numerous followers thronged to them
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6. What were the factors and forces behind the rise of Bhakti movement in India? Throw light of nature of
Bhakti movement in south India. (250 words)
Introduction
Bhakti was accepted as a means to attain moksha along with jnana and karma. The Bhakti Movement originated
in the seventh-century in Tamil, South India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It
swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th and 17th
century CE. The Bhakti Saints moved against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and
professed that ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation.
Body
Factors that led to the Bhakti movement:
Political:
• It has been pointed out that as the popular bhakti movement could not take root in Northern India before
the Turkish conquest because the socio-religious milieu was dominated by the Rajput-Brahman alliance
which was hostile to any heterodox movement.

• The Turkish conquests brought the supremacy of this alliance to an end.

• The advent of Islam with the Turkish conquest also caused a setback to the power and prestige commanded
by the Brahmans.

• Thus, the way was paved for the growth of non-conformist movements, with anti-caste and anti-
Brahminical ideology.

• The loss of power and influence by the Brahmans and the new political situation ultimately created
conditions for the rise of the popular monotheistic movements and other bhakti movements in Northern
India.
Socio-economic:
• It has been argued that the bhakti movements of medieval India represented sentiments of the common
people against feudal oppression.

• The Vaishnava bhakti saints broke away from orthodox Brahminical order only to the extent that they
believed in bhakti and religious equality.
• Normally, they continued to subscribe to many basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism.
Religious:
• Evils in the Hindu Society:
Hindu society was full of many social anomalies like rigidity of caste system, irrelevant
rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas. Common men in general had
developed an adverse attitude towards these social evils and were in need of a liberal form of
religion where they could identify themselves with simple religious practices.
• Complexity of religion:
The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very complicated for the common
people. They wanted a simple way of worship, simple religious practices and simple social customs.
Alternative was Bhakti marga—a simple way of devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
Role of Religious Reformers:
The chief exponents of the movement were Shankara, Ramanuja, Kabir, Nanak, Shri Chaitanya,
Mirabai, Ramananda, Namdev, Nimbarka, Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tukaram, Vallabhacharya
and Chandidas. They were the propounders of Bhakti movement and gave a call to the people to worship
in the simplest possible way of devotion and love.
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Challenge from Rival Religion:

the impact of the Muslim rule and Islam put dread in the heart of Hindu masses. The Hindus
had suffered a lot under some of the fanatic rulers. They wanted some solace to heal their despairing
hearts.
Influence of Sufism:
The Sufi saints of the Muslim community also inspired the movement. Some similar chords
in the two evoked resonance.
Nature of Bhakti movement in south India
• The Bhakti Movement was essentially founded in South India and later spread to the North during
the late medieval period.
• This Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon that crystallized in South India during Late
Antiquity.
• It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and
love to God as the chief means of spiritual perfection.
• The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite
devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees), who disregarded the austerities
preached by Jainism and Buddhism but instead preached personal devotion to God as a means of
salvation.
• These saints, some of whom were also women, spoke and wrote in local languages like Tamil and
Telugu and travelled widely to spread their message of love and devotion to everyone, irrespective
of caste, colour and creed.
• The South Indian bhakti saints were critical of Buddhists and Jains who enjoyed a privileged status
at the courts of South Indian kings at that time. They won over many adherents of Buddhism and
Jainism both of which by now had become rigid and formal religions.
• Bhakti Saints from South India
• Shankaracharya, a great thinker, distinguished philosopher and leader of the Hindu revivalist
movement of the 9th century, who gave a new orientation to Hinduism.
• He was born in Kaladi (kerala) and propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and
Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes)
• Ramanuja (1017-1137) who hailed from modern Andhra Pradesh. He was a great Vaishnava teacher.
• He popularised the cult of devotion to a personal God and emphasized that salvation can be
achieved through the bhakti marga alone.
• He redefined the Vedanta philosophy by laying greater stress on devotional worship to a personal
God who constituted the supreme reality.
• Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava saint from the south. He advocated a system of
pure non-dualism. He glorified the intense love of Radha and Krishna.
• He advocated a universal religion that did not believe in distinctions of caste, creed, sex, or
nationality. He insisted on the complete identity of both soul and world with the supreme spirit. Hiss
philosophy was known as shuddhadvaita or pure nondualism.
• Madhvacharya, a Vaishnava saint from the south wrote as many as thirty-seven works on
Vaishnavism.
• His works mostly deal with the bhakti cult based on the concept of dualism (dvaita) as distinct from
the monistic philosophy of Shankaracharya
• Basavanna or Lord Basaveshwara was an Indian 12th-century statesman, philosopher, a poet and
Lingayats saint in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti movement and a social reformer in Karnataka.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

• He was a philosopher and a social reformer, who fought against social evils of his time such as caste
system and the ritual practices of Hinduism.
• His teachings were based on rational, progressive social thoughts. His teachings and philosophy
transcend all boundaries and address the universal and eternal.
• Akkamahadevi:During the 12th century CE, Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi,
belonging to the southern region of Karnataka, established herself as an ardent devotee of Shiva
whom she addressed as Chennamallikarjuna.
Conclusion:
• Bhakti cult was out-of-the-box thoughts on religion. It was mainly against the common religious
views, and most importantly, it was strongly against the caste system. With such long-lasting
impacts, the religious depression of the medieval society was set aside. The teachings acted as a
healing balm to the suppressed classes. A deep-rooted change came about to lay the foundations
of a liberal and composite Indian society.
Value addition
Salient features of the Bhakti movement:
• The Bhakti movement in many ways broke barriers of gender, class and caste.
• At the same time, it shattered stereotypes associated with the perception of spiritualism;
denounced orthodoxy and the rigid ritualistic practices of worship, and established a more personal
and informal connection between the devotee and the divine.
• During the Bhakti movement, the lower classes rose to a position of great importance.
• The Bhakti movement gave equal importance to men and women which gave way to the
importance of women in society.
• The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the
dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact
that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans
and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”
• Ramananda opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society
irrespective of caste. His disciples included Kabir, a weaver; Ravidasa, he was a cobbler; Sena, he
was a barber; thus, emphasizing the equality among people of all occupations and caste.
• Sant Kabir aided the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through
Bhakti or pure devotion. He criticized all forms of worship of idols.
• Guru Nanak condemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His idea of religion
was highly practical and strictly moral.
• Nathpanthis, Siddhars and Yogis condemned the ritual and other aspects of orthodox religion and
the social order, using simple, logical arguments. These groups became particularly popular among
“low” castes.
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7. Buddhism and Buddhist culture serve as integral components of India’s soft power projection, offering
historical, cultural, and spiritual ties that connect with nations worldwide. Discuss. (250 words)

Introduction
Soft power is a concept in international relations coined by political scientist Joseph Nye. It refers to a
country's ability to influence others and shape opinions through non-coercive and non-military means. Unlike
hard power, which relies on military force or economic coercion, soft power is about attraction and persuasion.
Buddhism plays a crucial role in projecting soft power globally through historical, cultural, and spiritual ties.
The Indian government has been actively investing in its Buddhist diplomacy efforts, with a focus on
promoting tourism through the development of the “Buddhist tourist circuit”. Additionally, the PM has made it
a point to visit Buddhist sites during his Southeast and East Asian visits. By hosting such a high-profile event, the
Indian government hopes to demonstrate its commitment to preserving and promoting Buddhist culture and
heritage, as well as strengthening ties with the global Buddhist community. With its strong historical and cultural
ties to Buddhism, India is well-positioned to play a leading role in shaping the discourse around Buddhist issues
on the global stage.
Body
Buddhism as soft power
Historical Connections:
• Origin in India:
Buddhism originated in the 6th century BCE in what is now Bihar, India, with Siddhartha
Gautama, later known as Buddha.
• Spread Across Asia: Buddhism spread from India to various parts of Asia, including Sri Lanka, Tibet, China,
Japan, and Southeast Asia. This historical connection provides India with a shared heritage and historical
ties with these nations.
Cultural Influence:
• Cultural Exchanges:
• The spread of Buddhism facilitated extensive cultural exchanges between India and other nations. This
exchange of ideas, art, and literature has created a cultural bridge between India and countries with
Buddhist traditions.
• Architectural Heritage: Many Buddhist monuments, such as the stupas at Sanchi and the Ajanta and
Ellora caves, are not only significant for India but also attract global admiration. These sites contribute to
India's cultural influence.
Spiritual Ties:
• Shared Philosophical Values: Buddhism shares philosophical and ethical values that resonate with people
worldwide. Concepts such as compassion, non-violence, and mindfulness have universal appeal,
fostering a sense of connection among diverse cultures.
• Diplomacy and Soft Power: India often leverages its Buddhist heritage in diplomatic relations. For
instance, cultural exchanges, events, and tourism initiatives centered around Buddhism enhance India's
soft power by fostering goodwill and understanding.
• Global Diplomacy: India actively engages in diplomatic initiatives that highlight its Buddhist heritage. For
example, the International Buddhist Conclave is a platform that brings together Buddhist scholars,
practitioners, and enthusiasts from around the world.
• Bilateral Relations: India's Buddhist connections have been used to strengthen diplomatic ties,
particularly with countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia where Buddhism has a significant presence.
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Eg: ‘Samvad’ – Global Hindu-Buddhist Initiative: A Samvad framework was then pushed jointly by India
and Japan in subsequent years, a geocultural use of Buddhism to offset the geoeconomic allure of China’s Silk
Road project.

Soft Power in Contemporary Context:

Global Interest in Mindfulness:
The growing global interest in mindfulness, meditation, and well-being aligns with Buddhist principles.
This has led to an increased interest in Indian practices such as yoga and meditation, contributing to India's soft
power projection.
Conclusion
Buddhism and Buddhist culture form integral components of India's soft power projection, fostering
historical, cultural, and spiritual ties with nations worldwide. By emphasizing its shared heritage with Buddhist-
majority and culturally influenced nations, India establishes connections that transcend geographical and political
boundaries, contributing to its influence on the global stage.
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8. Gandhara School encapsulates foreign techniques and Hellenistic spirit of realism which is evident in its
art. Elucidate. (250 words)
Introduction
Gandhara art, style of Buddhist visual art that developed in what is now northwestern Pakistan and
eastern Afghanistan between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE. The style, of Greco-Roman origin, seems
to have flourished largely during the Kushana dynasty and was contemporaneous with an important but dissimilar
school of Kushana art at Mathura.
Body
The Gandharan craftsmen made a lasting contribution to Buddhist art in their composition of the events
of the Buddha’s life into set scenes.
Gandhara art encapsulates foreign techniques and Hellenistic spirit of realism
• In its interpretation of Buddhist legends, the Gandhara school incorporated many motifs and techniques from
Classical Roman art, including vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands, tritons, and centaurs. The basic
iconography, however, remained Indian.
• The materials used for Gandhara sculpture were green phyllite and gray-blue mica schist which in general, belong
to an earlier phase, and stucco, which was used increasingly after the 3rd century CE. The sculptures were
originally painted and gilded.
• The Hellenistic influence was nowhere more dramatic than in Gandhara, a term now used to describe the school
of semi-classical sculptures of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the early centuries of our era.
• In contrast with Mathura School, the Gandhara School images are known for their anatomical accuracy, spatial
depth, and foreshortening.
• The Gandhara school drew upon the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religion and represented the Buddha
with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling those seen on Roman imperial statues.
• This style of art was closely associated with Mahayana Buddhism and hence the main theme of this art was Lord
Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• The Buddha and Bodhisattva figures resemble the Greek God Apollo with broad shoulders, a halo around the
head. The physical features such as muscles, nails, hair have been done with great detail.
• All early Bodhisattvas are shown in wearing turbans, jewelry, and muslin skirts, a costume that was an adaptation
of the actual dress of Kushan and Indian nobles.
• Thus, it can be conjectured that in idea and conception this style was Indian and in execution it was foreign. One
example of the Gandhara style of art is the Bamiyan Buddha statues.
• The Gandhara depiction of the seated Buddha was less successful.

Conclusion
The schools of Gandhara and Mathura influenced each other, and the general trend was away from a
naturalistic conception and toward a more idealized, abstract image. Gandhara School of Art can be said as an
influence and culmination of both the Indian as well as foreign traditions due to its strategic location.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

9. The Vijayanagar architecture represents a distinctive and remarkable phase in the history of Indian art and
architecture. Comment. (250 words)
Introduction
The rulers of Vijayanagara borrowed concepts and building techniques which they then developed further.
Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles, which
evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles.
Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami
Chalukyas. However, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was also used for reliefs and sculptures.

Body
Vijayanagara architecture and its progress
• They used the Dravidian style of architecture later added some unique features to it and it came to be called as
Vijayanagara style.
• Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami
Chalukyas.
• Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate pillared kalyanamandapa
(marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the entrance of the temple) built of wood,
brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses.
• This Dravida style became popular during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples
constructed over the next two centuries.
• The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows
secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.

Unique features of Vijayanagara architecture

• Religious architecture
• The Tamil Dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South
Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years.
• Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam.
• In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha)
passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual
celebrations.
• Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars, which depict charging horses, figures from Hindu
mythology, and yali (hippogriphs).
• Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male deity, with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his
female counterpart.
• Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the
Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I
• Hampi Stone chariot is influenced by Raths made in Mahabalipuram by Pandayas. Example: Dharmaraya rath,
Draupadi Rath etc.
• Palaces and Courtly Architecture:
• Most of the palaces faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and
earth walls.
• They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings decorated with carved friezes.
• The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows
secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

• Examples are the Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers.
• Civic Architecture
• Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they regulated
access.
• The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate are regarded as
typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans.
• Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a
base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure.
Conclusion
The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style, the Vijayanagar style. Though often
characterized as Dravida Style, it had its own distinct features as discussed above. The rulers were great patrons
of art and architecture and it is a beautiful amalgamation of various architectural
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10. India’s vibrant tapestry of cultures is woven with a multitude of folk dances, each unique and brimming
with significance. These dances are more than just entertainment; they are a window into the soul of a
region, its traditions, and its people. Elaborate. (250 words)
Introduction
Folk dances are regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range from simple, joyous
celebrations of the seasons, harvest or birth of a child to dances for the propitiation of demons or for invoking
spirits.

Body
Characteristics of Folk-dances:
• Every state and its regions have different dance styles and folk music; with which they express the nature of their
community.
• Every part of India has its unique folk dance, which isn’t as complex as the classical form of dance but, in its
simplicity, it reflects the deep-sited beliefs of their people.
• They are extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement.
• Some dances are performed separately by men and women while in some performances men and women dance
together.
• On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves, accompanied by artists with instruments.
• Each form of folk dance has a specific costume and rhythm.
• Most of the costumes, worn for folk dances, are colourful with extensive jewels and designs.
• Bhangraof Punjab; Rasa Lila; Jhumar; Kaksarof Bastar; Chhau in Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal; Bihu of
Assam; Theyyam in the Malabar region of kerala; Dollu of Karnataka are few of the many folk-dance forms.
• Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala; Kalbeliafolk songs and dances of Rajasthan and Chhaudance
are included in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Linkages of folkdances with culture:

Seeking divine intervention:
• The dance is performed in groups to celebrate the nine days Hindu festival of Navratri.

• It is performed in rings and concentric circles representing the cycle of birth and death in Hinduism, leaving only
one constant which is the divinity of God symbolized by the idol of the Goddess or the Garba Deep.
• Depiction of good over evil:
• Ex: Bardo Chham is performed by the Sherdukpen tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. The dancers wear masks of 12
different animals and perform to the beats of many percussion instruments. Sherdukpen tribe believes that there
are 12 different evil forces and they all appear in different months to mar the happiness of the community. The
masks represent evil forces and the main objective of this art form is to ward off these evil forces.
Performed before harvesting crops:
• Bhangra and Giddhaare folk dances of from the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, mostly performed
during the harvest festival of Baisakhi.

• Pulikaliis a colorful recreational folk art from, performed on the occasion of annual harvest festival of Onam.

• Ponungis one of the most important folk dances of Arunachal Pradesh. Performed before the harvest of
staple crops, it has women dancers.
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Performed during various festivals:

• Raslilais the most popular form of folk dance of India, especially during the festivals of Krishna Janmashtami
and Holi in the regions of Mathura and Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh.

• Bihuforms the most important part of the Bihu festival celebration. The dance is performed by young men
and women, accompanied by the playing of pipes & drums.

• Buiyadance performed by the Digaru Mishmis of Arunachal Pradesh, is the main attraction of many tribal
festivals.
• Celebration of nature:
• Bagurumbais believed to have been inspired from nature, it can be further classified into different dance
forms – each inspired from elements of nature like animals, plants, birds, insects, water, air and so on.
• To relax and rejuvenate:
• Jhumuris the dance is performed by the tribal people who work in tea estates of Assam. It is often their only
recreational activity and this certainly rejuvenates them after a long and tiring day.
• Showcase of rich tradition and culture:
• Ojapali dance of Assam.

• Cheraw Dance of Mizoram.

Paying respects to the deity worshipped by the tribe:

• ongkram Dance of Meghalya.

• Celebration of victory over an enemy:
• Chang Lo dance of Nagaland.
• To celebrate weddings:
• Matki Folk Dance of Madhya Pradeshis considered as an important dance art from the state, performed
usually on wedding occasions.

o Maruniis the main attraction of Sikkim weddings.

Conclusion
Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in different parts of the country its own distinct style taking
on the culture of that particular region, each acquiring its own flavour. The tribal and folk dances of India draw
the most fascinating canvas shaded with vivacity and the deep-rooted culture. These dances are not merely a
form of dance rather a way of life for Indian people. Each of them has enfolded an entrenched history and
culture within itself.
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11. Puppetry in India is a vibrant and intricate expression of cultural narratives and regional identities,
showcasing the country’s diverse heritage. Elaborate. (250 words)
Introduction
A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious inventions of the man. Puppetry is a type of narrative
theatre; at the crossroads between bardic storytelling and theatre plays. Shows include live music, narration and
gestures taken from dance. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional
entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are mostly based on epics and legends.
Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture are
reflected in them.
Body:
Puppetry in India
• The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic ‘Silappadikaaram’written around the 1st or
2nd century B.C.
• In Sanskrit terminology Puttalikaand Puttika means ‘little sons’.
• Ancient Hindu philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened God Almighty to a
puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage.

• Srimad Bhagavata,the great epic depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his childhood say that with three
strings-Satta, Raja and Tama, the God manipulates each object in the universe as a marionette.
• Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd century BC to 2nd
century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-cum-director of the human theatre
has been termed as ‘Sutradhar’meaning the holder of strings.
• Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of traditional
puppet theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all creative expressions like painting,
sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc.
• For instance, theKathputli of Rajasthanis accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional
music. In Kundhei of Odisha, the music is drawn from the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes
influenced by the music of Odisha dance.
• Almost all types of puppets are found in India. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place
in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are mostly based on
epics and legends.
• In Tholu Bommalatta of AP, the music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region and
the theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. Episodes
enacted in Gombeyatta of Karnatakaare usually based on Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays. The music
that accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends folk and classical elements.
• Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity.
• In Thogalu Gombeyatta of Karnataka, the puppets however differ in size according to their social status,
for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.
• Regional styles of painting and sculpture are reflected in them.
• : the traditional glove puppet play is called Pavakoothu. It came into existence during the 18th century
due to the influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet performances.
The face of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the
peacock, etc. The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is based on the episodes from either the
Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
• However, the art of puppetry is dying due to the following reasons:
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

• Lack of patronage in the modern age.

• Competition from Electronic media which is a preferred mode of entertainment. People find it more
appealing to watch mythological stories of Ramayan and Mahabharat on electronic media rather than in
Puppetry.
• Puppetry Art is usually confined to only devotional and mythological stories.
• With changing times, Puppetry does not take up modern social issues.
• Puppetry lacks modernization in terms of script, lighting, sound and other stage effects.
• Conclusion:
Besides traditional puppetry, India is home to a lively contemporary scene. Independent India opened up
to artistic exchange, and new forms and techniques affected puppetry, introducing new styles and giving
origin to a refined urban puppet theatre. The birth of modern troupes and the opening to the
international scene created new contexts for traditional puppetry to flourish. Several festivals organized
in the last decades offer the stage to traditional troupes. So far modernity threatened the very survival
of traditional puppetry, but a more conscious use of contemporary means and opportunities is actually
the key to preserve this rich heritage of India.
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12. The architectural marvels of the Vijayanagara Empire stand as a testament to its socioreligious
ethos. Discuss the innovative features of Vijayanagara temple architecture and analyze how they
reflect the cultural and religious environment of the time. (15 M)
Introduction
The architectural brilliance of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) is a powerful
reflection of its socio-religious environment. The temples built during this period showcase
innovation, blending religious devotion and cultural diversity, and stand as testaments to the
empire’s rich heritage.
Body
Innovative features of Vijayanagara temple architecture

Virupaksha Temple Hazara Rama Temple

1. Rayagopurams (temple towers): The construction of massive gopurams became a

distinctive feature, symbolizing divine authority and serving as navigational landmarks for pilgrims.
E.g., The Ranganatha Temple in Srirangapatna has an imposing gopuram

2. Mandapas (pillared halls) : The expansive mandapas were used for religious
ceremonies and housed public events, reflecting social inclusivity in worship.
E.g., The Vittala Temple's Mandapa is known for its musical pillars,
showcasing artistic innovation.
3. Kalyana mandapas (marriage halls) : These halls were designed specifically for
conducting divine weddings, emphasizing the role of temple spaces in religious
rituals and festivals.
E.g., The Kalyana Mandapa at the Vittala Temple exemplifies intricate
design with richly carved pillars.
4. Pushkarinis (water tanks): Temples integrated elaborate water management systems
with sacred water tanks (Pushkarinis) to support religious rituals and daily life.
E.g., The Pushkarini at the Krishna Temple in Hampi was essential for
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

purification rituals.
5. Intricate sculptural art :Temples were adorned with sculptures depicting deities,
mythological stories, and scenes of courtly life, reflecting the religious and cultural
narrative.
E.g., The Hazara Rama Temple in Hampi features carvings of the Ramayana
and daily life.
Cultural reflection in Vijayanagara temple architecture
1. Patronage of arts: Vijayanagara rulers were patrons of the arts, and temple
architecture became a primary canvas for cultural expression, symbolizing royal
authority and artistic excellence.
E.g., King Krishnadevaraya’s contributions to the Vittala Temple showcase
his devotion to both culture and religion.
2. Cultural fusion: The architecture exhibited a blend of Dravidian, Chalukya, and
Hoysala styles, reflecting the empire’s cultural syncretism and openness to different
traditions.
E.g., The Lotus Mahal in Hampi exhibits a fusion of Indo-Islamic and
Dravidian architectural styles.
3. Social spaces for public gatherings: Temples were not only religious but also
cultural centers where social events, festivals, and public meetings took place,
reinforcing their role as hubs of community life.
E.g., The Annual Hampi Utsav continues to celebrate this cultural legacy.
4. Emphasis on music and dance: Temples often incorporated spaces for musical
performances and dances, linking religious devotion with artistic expression.
E.g., The Vittala Temple’s musical pillars demonstrate the blending of art,
culture, and religious rituals.
5. Artistic storytelling: Temple walls were used as a medium to tell stories from epics
and mythology, blending religious teaching with cultural storytelling.
E.g., The Hazara Rama Temple's intricate carvings narrate the Ramayana,
showcasing how temples served as cultural archives.

Religious reflection in Vijayanagara temple architecture

1. Bhakti movement influence: Temples were key in promoting the Bhakti movement,
where devotion to personal gods like Vishnu and Shiva was central, making religion
more accessible to the masses.
E.g., The Vijaya Vitthala Temple is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, a form of
Vishnu, emphasizing the Bhakti tradition.
2. Royal patronage and divine authority: Temples served as centers of political and
religious power, with kings often claiming divine right through their association with
temple deities.
E.g., The Krishna Temple in Hampi, built by Krishnadevaraya, reflects his
devotion to Lord Krishna and his desire for divine legitimacy.
3. Integration of sacred and natural landscapes: Temples were often located in sacred
geographies, blending religious symbolism with the natural environment, reinforcing
the divine connection.
E.g., The Achyutaraya Temple was built near the sacred Tungabhadra River,
aligning the temple with sacred geography.
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4. Deities and divine icons :Temples housed richly adorned icons of major deities,
reinforcing the central role of Vishnu, Shiva, and Parvati in religious practice.
E.g., The Lakshmi Narasimha statue in Hampi is one of the largest
monolithic sculptures, emphasizing the focus on divine presence.
5. Religious festivals and rituals: The temples were centers for grand religious
festivals, which not only reinforced devotion but also enhanced the cultural life of the
empire.
E.g., The annual Purandara Dasa Aradhana at the Vittala Temple is a major religious event honoring the
Bhakti saint Purandara Dasa.

Conclusion
The architectural marvels of the Vijayanagara Empire reflect both its cultural richness and
deep religious devotion. These temples, through their innovative designs and religious
significance, continue to inspire India’s heritage and devotion, serving as powerful
reminders of the empire’s lasting legacy
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13. Both Buddhism and Jainism share numerous similarities, yet their fundamental philosophical differences
distinguish each as a distinct religion. Analyse. (250 words)
Introduction
Mahavira and Buddha were contemporaries and there was much in common between Buddhism and
Jainism. Because of striking resemblances between the two, certain scholars have opined that Jainism owes its
origin to Buddhism or Jainism is only a branch of Buddhism.
Body:
Similarities:
• Both possessed the background of the Aryan culture and were inspired by the ascetic ideals and the philosophy
of the Upanishads, particularly that of Sankhya-Yoga.
• Both were the products of intellectual, spiritual and social forces of their age and therefore, both stood up as
revolts against the prevalent Brahmanical religion.
• Both emerged in eastern India which by that time had successfully retained some features of the pre-Aryan
culture.
• Both were started by the members of the Kshatriya caste and both appealed to the socially down-trodden, the
Vaishvas who were not granted social status corresponding to their growing economic power, and the Sudras who
were definitely oppressed.
• Both, Mahavira and Buddha, the founders of Jainism and Buddhism respectively were Kshatriya princes and were
able to get support for their cause from the contemporary ruling class, different Kshatriya rulers and economically
prosperous Vaishvas.
• Though both did not attack the caste system, they were opposed to it and therefore, drew large converts from
the lower strata of the society.
•
• Both opposed the ritualism and the sacrifices of Brahmanism and also challenged the supremacy of the
Brahmanas.
• Both believed that Nirvana or salvation of an individual meant his or her deliverance from the eternal chain of
birth and death.
• Both denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority.
• Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life rather than practice of ritualism or even devotion to and
worship of God as a means to attain salvation.
• Distinctions:
• Jainism is a much more ancient religion as compared to Buddhism. According to Jaina traditions it had twenty-
four Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them.
• The Jaina concept of soul is different from that of Buddhism. Jainism believes that everything in nature, even
stone and water, has a soul of its own. Buddhism does not believe so.
• The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is different in Buddhism as compared to Jainism. While Jainism
emphasized it very much, Buddhism remained liberal in its interpretation in foreign countries, and even
permitted eating of animal flesh where it was a necessity or traditional diet of the people.
• Buddhism emphasized elimination of caste distinctions more as compared to Jainism.
• Jainism advised practice of strict asceticism to attain salvation while Buddhism advised its Upasakas to follow
the middle path or Tathagata marg.
• According to Jainism, women and men householders cannot attain salvation while, according to Buddhism, it is
possible for both.
• In Digambara sect of Jainism, it is necessary for the monks to go naked while Buddhism denounced it.
• Buddhism emphasized the organisation of Sanghas more as compared to Jainism.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

• According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during
one’s own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism
describes Nirvana as freedom from body. Buddhism describes it as destruction of the self or detachment from
worldly existence.
• Buddhism proved more adaptable to circumstances as compared to Jainism. That is why while Buddhism spread
all over Asia and accommodated the traditions of the local populace, Jainism remained confined to India alone.

Conclusion:
Thus, there is no doubt that Jainism and Buddhism were and still are two distinct and independent religious
sects. Monier Williams is right in his conclusion when he writes, “Buddhism and Jainism were not related to
each other as parent and child rather as children of common parents, born at different intervals though at about
the same period of time and marked by distinct characteristics, though possessing strong family resemblances.”
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

14. Discuss the challenges and prospects associated with deciphering the Indus script. Highlight its significance
in understanding the cultural and historical legacy of the Indus Valley Civilisation. (15 M)
Introduction
The Indus script, used by one of the most sophisticated Bronze Age civilisations, remains
undeciphered despite significant efforts. Deciphering it could provide transformative insights
into the socio-economic, political, and cultural systems of the Indus Valley Civilisation
(IVC), reshaping our understanding of early human civilisation.

Body
Challenges in deciphering the Indus script
1. Short length of inscriptions: Most inscriptions are very brief, averaging 5 characters,
offering limited linguistic or syntactical context.
Eg: The longest inscription found has only 26 characters, making comprehensive decoding difficult
(Source: UNESCO).
2. Lack of bilingual texts: Unlike the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian hieroglyphs, there are no inscriptions with
corresponding translations to a known language.
Eg: Mesopotamian cuneiform was decoded using Akkadian texts, but no such artifact exists for the
Indus script.
3. Uncertain linguistic lineage: Debate persists on whether the script belongs to Dravidian, Sanskritic, or
other language families, or even if it represents a writing system at all.
Eg: Asko Parpola supports the Dravidian hypothesis, while Farmer and Witzel argue it might be a
non linguistic symbol system.
4. Discrepancies in sign count: Scholars propose varying numbers of symbols, ranging from 62 (S.R. Rao) to
676 (Bryan Wells), complicating standardisation efforts.
Eg: Bryan Wells’ 2016 study identified 676 signs, while Parpola earlier suggested 425 signs.
5. Loss of cultural continuity: The IVC's sudden decline and lack of continuity with later civilisations left the
script without descendants or direct connections.
Eg: Unlike Vedic traditions, which have continuity, IVC’s traditions and symbols faded after 1900
BCE.
6. Challenges in interpreting rebus symbols: Many symbols may represent homophones or abstract ideas,
increasing ambiguity.
Eg: Parpola theorized that the fish symbol represented "star" due to a Dravidian homophone (min
or meen).
Prospects of deciphering the script
1. Revealing socio-economic systems: Deciphering the script could uncover details about trade, taxation, and
urban governance in the IVC.
Eg: Mukhopadhyay (2023) suggested the seals could be tax stamps and inscriptions permits for
trade or craft.
2. Validating linguistic evolution: Could confirm connections between the script and early Dravidian
languages, such as Brahui, still spoken in Balochistan.
Eg: Brahui, a Dravidian language, persists in Pakistan, supporting the
Dravidian hypothesis.
3. Establishing cultural exchanges: The TNSDA study showed 90% similarities between Indus symbols and
graffiti marks in Tamil Nadu, indicating early South India-IVC interactions.
Eg: 15,184 graffiti-bearing potsherds from Tamil Nadu matched 60% of Indus signs, revealing
potential cultural parallels.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

4. Insights into religious and symbolic practices: Could uncover spiritual systems, rituals, and their symbolic
representation in IVC.
Eg: Symbols like the unicorn seal and fire altars suggest possible religious significance.

5. Strengthening regional cooperation: Tamil Nadu’s $1 million reward and advanced AI-based linguistic
tools have renewed global scholarly interest in deciphering efforts.
Eg: Collaborative efforts by Indian and Finnish scholars using machine learning to analyze patterns
in inscriptions.
6. Economic trade insights: Deciphering could provide clarity on trade links with Mesopotamia and the
Persian Gulf.
Eg: Indus seals found in Mesopotamian sites like Ur indicate extensive trade networks.
Significance in understanding IVC’s legacy
1. Advanced urban planning: Deciphering could provide details about city planning, zoning, and drainage
systems unique to the IVC.
Eg: Mohenjo-Daro’s grid-like streets and public baths reflect early urban governance models.
2. Cultural continuity of South Asia: Could connect the IVC to modern South Asian civilisational ethos,
providing evidence of indigenous development.
Eg: Studies by Iravatham Mahadevan argue for a pre-Aryan Dravidian heritage in the IVC.
3. Validation of trade and administration: Could reveal how the IVC managed complex trade and taxation
systems over vast distances.
Eg: Bead workshops in Lothal and Indus seals in Oman suggest wellorganized trade practices.
4. Decoding governance models: The symbols may provide insights into political and administrative
structures.
Eg: Use of standardized weights and seals points to a centralised system of control.
5. Technological and artistic advancements: Understanding symbols and inscriptions can reveal IVC's
knowledge systems in metallurgy, agriculture, and art.
Eg: High-tin bronze artifacts in Tamil Nadu graves link to northern sources, indicating metallurgical
knowledge transfer.
6. Strengthening historical narratives: Deciphering can bridge gaps in understanding South Asia’s Bronze Age
and its contributions to global heritage.
Eg: Findings could challenge or refine current Indo-Aryan migration theories.
Conclusion
Deciphering the Indus script is not just a linguistic challenge but a gateway to unlocking the mysteries
of one of humanity’s greatest civilisations. While significant obstacles remain, modern technology,
international collaboration, and dedicated research efforts provide hope that the key to the script—and the
culture it represents—will soon be revealed. This will not only rewrite ancient history but also deepen our
understanding of India’s civilisational roots.
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15. Ancient Indian literature is a timeless repository of cultural and moral wisdom”. In this context, examine
how its themes have shaped Indian society and assess their continuing relevance in the modern world.
(250 Words)
Introduction
Ancient Indian literature is a timeless repository of cultural, philosophical, and moral
wisdom, deeply influencing the Indian way of life. Its themes—ranging from dharma
(righteousness) to karma (action)—have shaped societal norms and continue to hold
relevance in modern times.
Body
Ancient Indian literature serves as a repository of cultural and moral wisdom:
1. Dharma (Righteousness): Ancient texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana
provide deep insights into the concept of dharma, or duty, which guides moral and
ethical behavior in Indian society.
E.g.: In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna teaches Arjuna about the
importance of performing one’s duty without attachment to the outcomes.
2. Karma (Action and Consequences): Ancient texts emphasize the law of karma,
which teaches that every action has consequences and promotes personal
responsibility.
E.g.: The Upanishads discuss karma as a central theme, explaining how it
affects one's future and spiritual progression.
3. Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Jain and Buddhist literature stress the concept of ahimsa, or
non-violence, influencing both Indian culture and global movements like Gandhian
philosophy.
E.g.: Gandhi's non-violent resistance was inspired by the Jain philosophy of
ahimsa, as seen in texts like the Acharanga Sutra.
4. Gender Roles and Equality: While some ancient texts reinforced traditional gender
roles, others, like the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, celebrated the intellectual
contributions of women such as Gargi, who debated philosophical concepts with
male scholars.
E.g.: Gargi is renowned for her intellectual dialogues with the sage Yajnavalkya, symbolizing the role
of women in ancient Indian thought.
Influence of ancient Indian literature on Indian society
1. Dharma and Social Order: Ancient texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana
emphasized the concept of dharma, guiding societal behavior.
E.g. Bhagavad Gita’s teachings on duty continue to influence personal and
professional life ethics.
2. Varna System and Social Hierarchy: The Manusmriti laid down the principles of varna (caste) which defined
social roles and responsibilities.
E.g. The varna system shaped India's social structure historically, though later
critiqued for its rigidity.
3. Gender Roles and Family Structures: Texts like Manusmriti and Kamasutra shaped traditional gender roles,
marital norms, and family hierarchies.
E.g. Sita and Draupadi from the Ramayana and Mahabharata set idealistic
roles for women but also show resilience and agency.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

4. Education and Knowledge Systems: Works like the Upanishads and Vedas contributed to the development of
the Gurukul system, promoting holistic education.
E.g. The focus on critical thinking and inquiry continues to influence
modern education, especially in spiritual contexts.
5. Environmental Ethics: Texts like the Atharva Veda and Puranas emphasized the symbiotic relationship between
humans and nature, fostering respect for the
environment.
E.g. Ancient traditions of worshipping rivers and trees continue to shape India’s environmental consciousness
today.
Continuing relevance in the modern world
1. Moral Philosophy and Ethics: Ancient Indian texts provide ethical guidance applicable to personal, corporate,
and governance contexts in modern India.
E.g. The Bhagavad Gita's emphasis on karma resonates in leadership and
decision-making models today.
2. Holistic Wellness: Ancient texts like Charaka Samhita promote a holistic approach to health, which is being
integrated into modern practices like Ayurveda and Yoga.
E.g. The global popularity of yoga and Ayurvedic medicine reflects their
enduring relevance.
3. Secularism and Pluralism: The Vedas advocated pluralism, which is central to India’s constitutional values today.
E.g. The notion of sarva dharma sambhava (equal respect for all religions)
guides India's secularism.
4. Sustainable Living: Themes of ahimsa (non-violence) and minimalism from Jain and Buddhist texts promote
sustainable consumption.
E.g. The Zero Waste philosophy advocated by Gandhian values is rooted in
these ancient concepts.

5. Modern Governance and Leadership: Texts like Arthashastra offer strategies on

statecraft, diplomacy, and governance still relevant in modern political frameworks.
E.g. Chanakya’s strategies are studied in modern political and management
courses.
Conclusion
Ancient Indian literature continues to serve as a rich source of wisdom that informs
modern values, ethics, and practices. As India moves forward, its ability to adapt and
integrate these timeless teachings ensures their continued relevance in addressing contemporary challenges in
governance, sustainability, and societal harmony
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16. Maha Kumbh has been a unifying force for centuries, embodying India’s diversity. Discuss its role in
promoting national integration in contemporary times. (10 M)
Introduction
The Maha Kumbh stands as a living symbol of India's diversity, uniting people across regions,
cultures, and beliefs under the shared ethos of spirituality and heritage.

Body
• Maha Kumbh as a unifying force for centuries, embodying India’s diversity
• Spiritual confluence of diverse traditions: Maha Kumbh integrates Hindu sects like
• Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism, creating a common platform for ritual
• practices.
Eg: Akharas of Naga Sadhus and Vaishnavite saints jointly conduct
• processions and rituals.
• Representation of regional diversity: Pilgrims from all Indian states, speaking different languages and observing
distinct customs, participate in Maha Kumbh.
Eg: Devotees from Kerala’s Guruvayur temple perform rituals alongside
• Kashi-based Tirtha purohits at the Sangam.
• Historical significance as a knowledge hub: Maha Kumbh has historically been a center for religious and
philosophical dialogue, transcending sectarian boundaries.
Eg: Madhavacharya and Ramanujacharya are believed to have participated in early Kumbh gatherings to
discuss Vedic interpretations.
• Breaking caste and class barriers: Maha Kumbh creates an egalitarian space wher individuals from all castes
and economic backgrounds perform rituals together.
Eg: Kalpvas tradition, where all devotees live in equal austerity, irrespective of status.
• Shared cultural memory through mythology: The event draws from shared cultural texts like the Puranas,
creating a unifying historical narrative.
• Eg: Stories of the Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean) are commemorated by all participants, linking
them to a common heritage.
Role in promoting national integration in contemporary times
Fostering unity through collective faith: Maha Kumbh unites people across socioeconomic, regional, and
linguistic divides through shared ritual
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

Eg: Over 1.5 crore devotees participated in the Paush Purnima dip (2025),

including pilgrims from rural and urban India.

Economic linkages across states: The event boosts inter-state trade, with artisans,
• vendors, and suppliers from diverse regions contributing to the economic ecosystem.
Eg: Brassware from Moradabad, sarees from Varanasi, and handicrafts from Odisha were
major attractions in Maha Kumbh 2025.
Global soft power projection: Maha Kumbh’s international appeal strengthens India’s cultural diplomacy
by showcasing its spiritual heritage.
Eg: Pilgrims from 183 countries visited in 2025, while global media covered the event
extensively.

Platform for inter-community dialogue:

Events like Kumbh encourage mutual respect and understanding between communities through shared
experiences.
Eg: Khoya-Paya camps and announcements, ensuring cooperation between police,
volunteers, and diverse attendees.
Technological integration for inclusivity:
The use of digital platforms ensures equal access to information and participation for all segments of society.
Eg: The Digital Maha Kumbh platform, with 33 lakh users from 183 countries in January
2025, offered travel, accommodation, and ritual details.
Conclusion
The Maha Kumbh exemplifies India's strength in diversity, serving as a timeless bridge across cultural, linguistic,
and social divides. As India moves forward, such events will
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17. Analyze the role of Chola bronze sculptures as both sacred objects of devotion and artistic masterpieces. How did
they reflect the socio-political environment of their time? (15 M)
Introduction
The Chola bronze sculptures (9th–13th century CE) are remarkable for blending sacred
spirituality with aesthetic excellence, serving both as divine icons of worship and
masterpieces of Indian art, while reflecting the socio-political dynamics of the Chola era
Body

Role of Chola bronze sculptures as sacred objects of devotion

1. Living embodiments of the divine: The bronzes were treated as living deities after consecration, playing a central role in
rituals and processions.
Eg: The Nataraja of Chidambaram temple, symbolizing Shiva’s cosmic dance, is revered as a dynamic divine presence.
2. Integral to temple festivals: Used in processional festivals (Utsavas), these bronzes allowed deities to be accessible to
the masses beyond temple sanctums.
Eg: The Chidambaram Natyanjali festival, where bronze deities are paraded during Mahashivaratri.
3. Bhakti movement influence: The bronzes embodied Bhakti ideals, promoting personal devotion and emotional
connection with the divine.
Eg: Poet-saint Thirugnana Sambandar’s reference to Shiva as the “thief
who stole my heart” reflects intimate devotion.
4. Representation of multiple deities: They depicted both Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions, reflecting religious diversity
and inclusivity in Chola society.
Eg: Bronzes of Vishnu with Lakshmi and Bhudevi alongside Shaiva deities in Chola temples.
5. Royal and community patronage: Commissioned by kings, queens, and merchant guilds, bronzes reflected collective
religious devotion.
Eg: Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi’s active role in commissioning bronze sculptures across Chola temples.
Chola bronze sculptures as artistic masterpieces
1. Mastery of lost-wax casting technique: The Cire Perdue (lost-wax) method allowed intricate detailing and lifelike
expressions in bronzes.
Eg: The Nataraja bronze in the Madras Government Museum showcases fine craftsmanship and dynamic
movement.
2. Exquisite iconography and proportions: Sculptures adhered to Shilpa Shastra principles, achieving ideal proportions and
symbolic depth.
Eg: The Ardhanarishvara bronze represents the fusion of masculine and feminine divine energies with perfect symmetry.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

3. Realistic and naturalistic detailing: The bronzes exhibit realistic body forms, graceful postures, and delicate facial
expressions, blending idealism with naturalism.
Eg: The depiction of Krishna as Navanita Krishna (butter thief) shows playful, lifelike charm.
4. Dynamic expression of movement: Sculptures like the tribhanga (three bends posture) demonstrate mastery in
capturing fluid motion in static forms.
Eg: The dynamic depiction of Shiva as Nataraja, frozen in a moment of cosmic dance.
5. Fusion of spiritual and sensual aesthetics: The bronzes seamlessly combine spiritual symbolism with sensual elegance,
reflecting Chola aesthetic ideals.
Eg: The bronze of Uma (Parvati) exudes both divine grace and human-like beauty through intricate detailing.
Reflection of the socio-political environment of the Chola period
1. Symbol of royal legitimacy: Bronzes reinforced the divine authority of Chola kings,
often portraying rulers as patrons of gods.
Eg: Inscription’s credit Rajaraja Chola I with commissioning bronzes to
assert both religious devotion and political dominance.
2. Impact of political expansion: Chola conquests in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia
facilitated access to resources like copper for bronze production.
Eg: Rajendra Chola’s naval expeditions (11th century CE) secured trade
routes that supplied materials for bronzes.
3. Economic prosperity and artistic flourishing: The Chola empire’s agricultural
surplus and thriving maritime trade funded large-scale temple and bronze
commissions.
Eg: The Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur, built under Rajaraja Chola,
features exquisite bronze collections supported by temple donations.
4. Role of women as cultural patrons: Elite women, like Sembiyan Mahadevi,
actively commissioned bronzes, reflecting their influence in religious and cultural
spheres.
Eg: Temples in Kumbakonam feature bronzes sponsored by royal women,
showcasing their patronage role.
5. Religious pluralism and temple networks: The spread of Shaivism, Vaishnavism,
and Shaktism through temple networks fostered artistic diversity.
Eg: The coexistence of Shaiva and Vaishnava bronzes in Chola temples
reflects the religious harmony of the period
Conclusion
Chola bronzes are timeless symbols of sacred devotion and artistic brilliance, mirroring the
Chola dynasty’s religious fervor, political power, and cultural sophistication. They continue
to inspire awe as icons of India’s artistic and spiritual heritage
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18. Traditional storytelling formats such as folk theatre, oral epics, and puppetry are facing challenges in
contemporary India. Suggest measures for their revival and assess their relevance in the digital era. (15 M)
Introduction
India's traditional storytelling forms like folk theatre, oral epics, and puppetry have been
intrinsic to its cultural heritage but face existential challenges due to urbanization, lack of
institutional support, and changing audience preferences.
Body
Challenges faced by traditional storytelling formats
1. Declining patronage and commercialization: Reduced state funding and audience
interest have led to their marginalization.
Ramlila performances in Uttar Pradesh have witnessed fewer sponsors,leading to fewer shows (Source: Cultural Ministry
Report, 2023).
2. Competition from digital entertainment: OTT platforms and social media have altered entertainment consumption patterns,
making traditional formats seem outdated.
Eg: The rise of YouTube storytellers and web series has overshadowed local folk performances like Nautanki.
3. Erosion of traditional knowledge transmission: The guru-shishya parampara is weakening as younger generations prefer
alternative careers.
Eg: Puppetry arts in Rajasthan, once passed down through families, are now being abandoned due to lack of livelihood
(Source: INTACH Report,2022).
4. Loss of linguistic and cultural diversity: Standardization of entertainment in dominant languages (Hindi, English) is sidelining
regional dialect-based performances.
Eg: The Dastangoi (Urdu storytelling) tradition is struggling to sustain itselfdue to linguistic decline.
5. Infrastructure and legal constraints: Lack of performing spaces and restrictive
policies hinder the survival of folk arts.
Eg: Street performances like Therukoothu in Tamil Nadu face hurdles due to municipal regulations restricting public
performances.
Measures for revival
1. Institutional and financial support: Government schemes must ensure direct grants, fellowships, and scholarships for
artists.
Eg: Guru-Shishya Parampara scheme (Ministry of Culture) should be expanded to cover more oral storytelling
traditions.

2. Integration with formal education: Folk storytelling should be incorporated into school curricula to create early
awareness.
Eg: The NCERT recently introduced chapters on Indian oral traditions in social studies textbooks (2023 revision).
3. Leveraging digital platforms: Digitization of performances and online promotions can expand audience reach.
Eg: "Kattaikkuttu Sangam" (Tamil Nadu) live-streams performances on YouTube, attracting global viewers.
4. Cultural tourism and festivals: Linking storytelling traditions with tourism can provide sustainable income.
Eg: Surajkund Mela promotes puppetry arts like Kathputli of Rajasthan
through live shows and workshops.
5. Legal protection and artist welfare: Copyright laws and social security schemes for folk artists should be strengthened.
Eg: UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list includes Baul Songs of
Bengal, helping in international recognition and funding.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

Relevance in the digital era

1. Fusion with modern formats: Storytelling can adapt to contemporary mediums like animation and short films to retain
relevance.
Eg: Netflix’s "Bombay Rose" incorporates Indian folk painting styles to narrate stories innovatively.
2. Increased accessibility through online platforms: Folk storytelling can reach global audiences through YouTube,
podcasts, and social media.
Eg: Dastangoi revivalists use Instagram Live to engage younger audiences.
3. Promotion of cultural identity and soft power: Traditional storytelling can serve as an instrument of India’s cultural
diplomacy.
Eg: The Ramayana Festival (ICCR initiative) showcases Ramayana storytelling styles from various Indian states abroad.
4. Preservation through AI and archiving: Artificial Intelligence-based documentation of oral epics can safeguard them
from extinction.
Eg: The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) is digitizing
folk theatre manuscripts and performances.
5. Commercial viability through collaborations: Partnerships with brands, OTT platforms, and tourism boards can sustain
these arts.
Eg: Rajasthani puppetry artists collaborated with Amul advertisements, bringing folk puppetry to mainstream media.

Conclusion
Traditional storytelling must embrace technological advancements without losing its
essence. A blend of institutional support, digital adaptation, and commercial viability can ensure its survival in
contemporary India.
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19. Theatre and Performing Arts in India are deeply intertwined with social and political movements. Discuss this in
the context of the evolution of regional theatrical traditions in India. (10 M)
Introduction
Theatre in India has historically been a powerful medium of resistance, awareness, and reform, influencing both
social structures and political movements. From classical traditions to modern street plays, it has continuously evolved
to reflect and shape societal changes.
Body

Fig: Bhand Pather Fig: Nautanki

Interconnection of Theatre and Performing Arts with Social-Political Movements
1. Medium of Social Awakening: Theatre has historically been a tool for raising awareness on social injustices.
Eg: Bengali Theatre’s Neel Darpan (1860) exposed the exploitation of indigo farmers under British rule.
2. Freedom Struggle and Nationalism: Plays and folk performances were instrumental in mobilizing people during the
independence movement.
Eg: Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) (1943) used theatre to spread anti-colonial sentiment.
3. Dalit and Marginalized Voices: Theatre has provided a platform for subaltern communities to assert their identity.
Eg: Bhim Natya (Maharashtra) promotes Ambedkarite philosophy and Dalit empowerment.
4. Political Satire and Protest: Theatre has been a vehicle for critiquing policies and exposing corruption.
Eg: Safdar Hashmi’s Jana Natya Manch (1980s) staged street plays critiquing government policies, leading to his
assassination in 1989.
5. Influence on Law and Policy: Theatre has influenced legislative changes and social reforms.
Eg: Vijay Tendulkar’s Sakharam Binder (1972) exposed domestic abuse and triggered debates on women’s rights,
leading to stricter censorship laws.
Evolution of Regional Theatrical Traditions in India
1. Classical Theatre and Spiritual Roots: Ancient theatre was deeply rooted in religious and social traditions.
Eg: Kutiyattam (Kerala), recognized by UNESCO (2001), continues to preserve Sanskrit theatre traditions.
2. Folk Theatre as Social Commentary: Folk traditions have reflected contemporary socio-political themes.
Eg: Jatra (Bengal) was used during the Naxalite movement to portray class struggles.
3. Post-Independence Experimentation: Modern theatre introduced new themes of democracy, corruption, and human
rights.
Eg: Habib Tanvir’s Naya Theatre (1950s) blended folk with contemporary themes to depict societal issues.
4. Censorship and State Interventions: Governments have imposed restrictions on politically sensitive plays.
Eg: Vijay Tendulkar’s Ghashiram Kotwal (1972) was banned for exposing caste-based exploitation and corruption.
5. Digital and Contemporary Theatre: The rise of digital platforms has expanded theatre’s reach and impact.
Eg: YouTube-based Theatre Groups like Jana Natya Manch use digitalperformances for social activism.
Conclusion
Theatre and performing arts have been a powerful force for social and political change, evolving with the times while
challenging authority, advocating for justice, and preserving cultural heritage. Strengthening their role through policy
support, digital integration, and cultural preservation initiatives is essential for their continued impact
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

20. Evaluate the impact of Sufi traditions on Indian music, literature, and visual arts during the medieval period.
(10 M)
Introduction
Sufi traditions played a transformative role in enriching India's cultural landscape, blending
spiritual ideas with artistic expressions, which significantly influenced music, literature, and
visual arts during the medieval period.
Body
Impact on Indian Music
1. Introduction of Qawwali and Sufi Music: Sufis introduced devotional music genres
like Qawwali that combined Persian, Arabic, and Indian musical styles.
Eg: Amir Khusro is credited with developing Qawwali and Khayal forms in
the 13th century.

2. Fusion of Classical and Folk Elements: Sufi music integrated local folk tunes with
classical ragas, creating a unique spiritual appeal.
Eg: The Chishti order extensively used folk tunes in devotional gatherings.
3. Instruments and Innovation: Sufi saints promoted instruments like the tabla and
sitar, which gained prominence in Indian music.
Eg: Amir Khusro is often credited with modifying the sitar and tabla.
4. Cultural Bridges: Sufi music served as a bridge between diverse communities,
promoting unity through shared musical traditions.
Eg: The Ajmer Sharif Urs festival continues to showcase this cultural
confluence.
Impact on Indian Literature
1. Introduction of Persian Literary Styles: Sufi poets enriched Indian literature with
Persian forms like ghazal and masnavi, blending mysticism with social themes.
Eg: Bulleh Shah's Punjabi poetry emphasized humanism and universal love.
2. Mystical and Metaphysical Themes: Sufi literature introduced deep philosophical
ideas about divine love, unity, and human morality.
Eg: Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya's teachings inspired poetic narratives that
transcended religious boundaries.
3. Vernacular Expansion: Sufi saints popularized vernacular languages like Punjabi,
Sindhi, and Awadhi, fostering regional literature.
Eg: Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai’s Sindhi poetry remains influential in regional
culture.
4. Promotion of Oral Traditions: Sufi storytelling traditions played a vital role in
preserving and popularizing moral values.
Eg: Kabir’s dohas blended Sufi mysticism with social commentary.
Impact on Visual Arts
1. Mughal Miniature Paintings: Sufi themes inspired Mughal paintings, particularly in
depictions of saints, mystical experiences, and celestial motifs.
Eg: Akbar’s court commissioned paintings of Sheikh Salim Chishti,
highlighting Sufi influence.
2. Architecture and Decorative Arts: Sufi-influenced architectural designs integrated
floral motifs, geometric patterns, and calligraphy.
Eg: The Ajmer Dargah reflects distinct Sufi-inspired aesthetic elements.
 GENERAL STUDIES - 1

3. Mystical Symbolism in Art: Sufi ideas of spiritual transcendence influenced artistic

styles emphasizing abstract and symbolic forms.
Eg: The Naqshbandi school developed intricate designs symbolizing spiritual
enlightenment.
4. Calligraphy and Sacred Art: Arabic calligraphy flourished under Sufi influence,
blending Quranic verses with Indian artistic styles.
Eg: The Bijapur mosques prominently feature Sufi-inspired calligraphy.
Conclusion
Sufi traditions significantly shaped India's artistic heritage, blending spiritual insights with
cultural creativity. By nurturing music, literature, and visual arts, Sufism fostered a rich
pluralistic ethos that continues to resonate in modern India.
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21. Jain philosophy deeply influenced Indian art and architecture. Examine the contribution of Jainism to
temple architecture. Analyse its significance in the evolution of Indian sculptural art (10M)
Introduction
Jain philosophy, with its core ideals of non-violence, asceticism, and spiritual liberation,
fostered a unique architectural and sculptural tradition, reflecting both material finesse and
metaphysical depth.
Body
Contribution of Jainism to temple architecture

Fig- Dilwara Temple (Rajasthan)

1. Use of intricate marble architecture: Jain temples are renowned for exquisite
marble carvings symbolising purity and spiritual clarity.
Eg: Dilwara temples of Mount Abu, built between 11th–13th centuries,
feature intricate marble craftsmanship reflecting Jain ascetic values.
2. Development of temple complexes: Jainism pioneered temple-city complexes
enhancing religious congregations and learning.
Eg: Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, a major Jain pilgrimage centre since
3rd century BCE, houses multiple temples and educational institutions.
3. Promotion of rock-cut architecture: Early Jain patrons advanced rock-cut cave
temples integrating natural landscapes with spirituality.
Eg: Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, Odisha, commissioned by King
Kharavela (1st century BCE), display early Jain rock architecture.
4. Adoption of vastu principles with symbolism: Jain temples adhere to vastu shastra,
aligning structures with cosmic principles.
Eg: Ranakpur temple, Rajasthan, built in 15th century, is based on vastu
mandala, symbolising cosmic order.
5. Elevation of structural aesthetics through symmetry: Jain temples emphasised
symmetry reflecting inner spiritual balance.
Eg: Palitana temples, Gujarat, over 860 temples on Shatrunjaya hills,
demonstrate architectural symmetry signifying spiritual ascent.
Significance in the evolution of Indian sculptural art
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1. Emphasis on spiritual iconography: Jain sculpture focused on depicting tirthankaras

with serene expressions symbolising detachment.
Eg: Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola, 57 feet monolithic
statue, built in 981 AD, embodies spiritual asceticism.
2. Advancement of fine stone carving techniques: Jain artists achieved unparalleled finesse in detailing ornaments and
motifs.
Eg: Dilwara temples, the marble ceilings showcase detailed carvings of lotuses and mythological narratives.
3. Development of narrative friezes: Sculptures portrayed didactic tales promoting ethical living and non-violence.
Eg: Ellora Jain caves (9th century CE) exhibit sculptural friezes depicting Jain cosmology and life of tirthankaras.
4. Promotion of monumental sculptures: Jainism encouraged grand statues symbolising human potential for
liberation.
Eg: Bahubali statues at Karkala and Dharmasthala, erected during 15th century, signify renunciation and spiritual
victory.
5. Integration of aesthetic minimalism: Jain sculpture maintained restraint, reflecting the principle of aparigraha (non-
attachment).
Eg: Sculptures in Lakkundi, Karnataka, represent minimalistic yet spiritually profound art from the Chalukyan
period.
Conclusion
Jain architectural and sculptural legacy continues to inspire India’s cultural landscape,
offering a harmonious blend of spirituality and artistry that can enrich future sustainable heritage
conservation models
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22. The transmission of Indian cultural elements to Central Asia and China was not limited to Buddhism alone”.
Analyze the role of trade routes in shaping artistic and cultural interactions between India and its neighbours.
(15 M)
Introduction
The transmission of Indian cultural elements to Central Asia and China was not confined to
Buddhism alone but extended to language, art, medicine, astronomy, and tradecraft.
Trade routes played a crucial role in fostering these artistic and cultural interactions, leaving a
lasting impact on India's neighbours.
Body
Indian cultural transmission beyond Buddhism
1. Sanskrit language and scripts: The Brahmi script influenced Central Asian scripts
like Kharosthi, seen in manuscripts from Khotan and Turfan.
Eg: The Karosthi script was widely used in Bactria and Xinjiang (2nd century BCE).
2. Hindu deities and epics: Hindu influences, including Shiva and Vishnu, were
depicted in Central Asian art and culture.
Eg: The Shiva sculpture from Penjikent, Tajikistan (7th century CE) reflects Hindu influence.
3. Ayurveda and medicine: Indian medical texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita reached Central Asia
and China.
Eg: Xuanzang (7th century) studied Indian medicine and took Ayurvedic knowledge back to China.
4. Astronomy and mathematics: The Indian decimal system and zero concept influenced Chinese and Central Asian
scholars.
Eg: Yi Xing, a Tang dynasty monk (8th century), adopted Indian astronomical methods.
5. Textile and handicrafts: Indian cotton, silk, and dyes were highly sought after and shaped artistic traditions.
Eg: Ajanta-style murals in Dunhuang caves, China (5th–7th century CE) reflect Indian influence.

Role of trade routes in shaping artistic and cultural interactions

1. Silk Road as a cultural bridge:
The Silk Road was crucial in transmitting Indian religious, artistic, and philosophical ideas to China and
Central Asia.
Eg: Gandhara art, blending Greek, Indian, and Persian styles, spread through Bactria (Afghanistan).
2. Maritime trade and cultural exchange:
Indian traders, scholars, and artists carried cultural elements to Southeast Asia and China via sea routes.
Eg: The Pallava Grantha script influenced the development of Khmer and Thai scripts (7th century CE).
3. Buddhist monastic network:
Indian Buddhist monks carried manuscripts and teachings, leading to significant cultural exchanges.
Eg: Kumarajiva (4th century CE) translated Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese, influencing Mahayana Buddhism.
4. Artistic synthesis in Central Asia:
Indian artistic traditions blended with Persian and Greek styles, resulting in unique artistic expressions.
Eg: The Bamiyan Buddhas (Afghanistan) (destroyed in 2001) showcased a fusion of Indian and Hellenistic art.
5. Knowledge hubs along trade routes:
Indian universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila played a key role in knowledge transmission.
Eg: Nalanda University (5th–12th century CE) attracted scholars from China and Central Asia, including Xuanzang
and Yijing.
6. Textile and craft diffusion:
Indian dyes, weaving techniques, and textile designs influenced Central Asian and Chinese industries.
Eg: Indian indigo was prized for silk dyeing in China during the Tang dynasty (7th century CE).
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7. Temple architecture diffusion:

Indian temple architectural styles influenced religious structures in Southeast Asia and China.
Eg: The Angkor Wat temple (Cambodia) was inspired by South Indian Dravidian architecture (12th century CE).
8. Manuscript and literary exchange:
Indian literary works, including Panchatantra and Jataka tales, were translated and widely circulated.
Eg: The Panchatantra was translated into Persian (Kalila wa Dimna) in 750 CE and later into Chinese and
European languages.
Conclusion
Trade routes acted as catalysts for cultural diffusion, integrating Indian art, language, and knowledge systems
with its neighbours. Modern trade corridors like INSTC and BIMSTEC can further revive and strengthen such
historical linkages, fostering deeper cultural and economic ties.
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23. Evaluate the strategic and administrative significance of Ashokan Edict sites along the
Mauryan routes. How did these edicts contribute to unifying the Indian subcontinent under a
centralized moral code? (15 M)
Introduction
Ashoka’s edicts, inscribed on rock surfaces and pillars across the Mauryan Empire, were
crucial instruments for propagating Dhamma (moral code) and strengthening centralized
administration. These inscriptions provided strategic insights into governance, societal
values, and unification efforts in ancient India.
Body
Strategic significance of Ashokan edict sites
1. Geopolitical positioning: Edict sites were strategically placed along trade routes,military highways, and key
frontier regions, ensuring maximum outreach.
Eg: Rock Edict XIII at Girnar, Gujarat, marks a major trade corridor.
2. Control over key trade routes: Edicts along major commercial routes ensured state presence, facilitating
revenue collection and security.
Eg: Rock Edict at Sopara (Maharashtra), located near ancient maritime routes.
3. Cultural diplomacy: Edicts in frontier regions spread Mauryan influence beyond India's borders, promoting
diplomatic ties.
Eg: Rock Edict XIII mentions contacts with Hellenistic kings such as Antiochus II and Ptolemy II.
4. Symbol of imperial authority: Pillar edicts, adorned with Ashoka’s symbolic lion capital, reinforced Mauryan
dominance.
Eg: Sarnath Lion Capital, adopted as India's national emblem.
5. Crisis management and disaster relief: Edicts addressed social welfare, strengthening state control during
calamities.
Eg: Rock Edict VII emphasized medical aid for humans and animals.
Administrative significance of Ashokan edict sites
1. Decentralized governance: Edicts empowered provincial governors by providing standardized instructions.
Eg: Rock Edict VI ordered officials to report public grievances directly to the emperor.
2. Moral policing and social harmony: Edicts promoted respect for elders, religious tolerance, and non-violence.
Eg: Pillar Edict VII promoted inter-religious harmony.
3. Codification of Dhamma: The edicts institutionalized ethical conduct, improving law and order. Eg: Rock
Edict XII discouraged sectarian conflict.
4. Efficient communication strategy: The use of Prakrit, the common language, ensured better comprehension
among the masses.
Eg: Edicts at Dhauli (Odisha) and Jaugada (Odisha) were inscribed in localdialects.
5. Promotion of social welfare: Edicts mandated the construction of hospitals, wells, and rest houses for travelers.
Eg: Rock Edict II emphasized public amenities.
6. Contribution to unifying the Indian subcontinent under a centralized moral code
Pan-Indian ethical framework: The propagation of Dhamma fostered a common moral consciousness across
diverse regions.
Eg: Rock Edict XIII condemned violence and encouraged compassion.
7. Religious pluralism: By promoting tolerance, Ashoka mitigated sectarian disputes and integrated various faiths.
Eg: Rock Edict VII advocated respect for all religious sects.
8. Promotion of non-violence: Ashoka’s emphasis on Ahimsa reduced internal strifeand rebellion.
Eg: Rock Edict I banned animal sacrifices.
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9. Unification through common language: The widespread use of Prakrit simplified communication across regions.
Eg: Edicts in Kandahar (Afghanistan) were inscribed in Greek and Aramaic to connect with foreign subjects.
10. Role in fostering identity: By propagating values like compassion, duty, and charity, Ashoka reinforced a
shared socio-political identity.
Eg: Ashoka’s reference to subjects as his “children” (Rock Edict IV) strengthened emotional unity.
Conclusion
Ashoka’s edicts combined strategic foresight and administrative acumen, serving as tools to unify the diverse
Indian subcontinent. Their emphasis on ethical governance, cultural harmony, and social welfare created a moral
framework that continues to inspire modern ideals of inclusive governance and peace.
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24. Ellora conveys a religious and philosophical message, reflecting the spiritual beliefs and cultural heritage
of ancient India. Discuss. (250 words)
Introduction
Ellora is an archaeological site in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, built by Kalachuri, Chalukya and Rashtrakuta
dynasties. Ellora caves comprise 34 monasteries and temples, dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff,
extending over more than 2 km. The caves were built during the 5th to 10th centuries, and represent one of the
finest examples of Indian rock-cut architecture.
Body
Factors that make Ellora, the pinnacle of rock-cut architecture in India
• Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the civilization of
ancient India to life.
• Not only is the Ellora complex a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries
devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of co-existence and religious tolerance that
was characteristic of ancient India.
• The rock-cut activity was carried out in three phases from the 6th century to the 12th century.
• The earliest caves (caves 1–12), excavated between the 5th and 8th centuries, reflect the Mahayana
philosophy of Buddhism then prevalent in this region.
• The Brahmanical group of caves (caves 13–29), including the renowned Kailasa temple (cave 16), was
excavated between the 7th and 10th centuries.
• The last phase, between the 9th and 12th centuries, saw the excavation of a group of caves (caves 30–34)
reflecting Jaina philosophy.
• Amongst the caves of the Buddhist group, Cave 10 (Visvakarma or Sutar-ki-jhopari, the Carpenter’s cave), Cave
11, and Cave 12 (Teen Tal, or three-storied monastery, the largest in this category) are particularly important.
• These caves mark the development of the Vajrayana form of Buddhism and represent a host of Buddhist
deities.
• The prominent caves of the Brahmanical group are Cave 15 (Dasavatara, or Cave of Ten Incarnations), Cave 16
(Kailasa, the largest monolithic temple), Cave 21 (Ramesvara), and Cave 29 (Dumar Lena).
• Amongst these, Cave 16 is an excellent example of structural innovation, and marks the culmination of rock-
cut architecture in India featuring elaborate workmanship and striking proportions. The temple is decorated
with some of the boldest and finest sculptural compositions to be found in India.
• The sculpture depicting Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva, is especially noteworthy.
• The remains of beautiful paintings belonging to different periods are preserved on the ceilings of the front
mandapa (pillared hall) of this temple.
• The Jaina group of caves (caves 30 – 34) is exquisitely carved with fine, delicate sculptures, and includes fine
paintings dedicated to the Digambara sect.
• Through their art and architecture, the Ellora Caves serve as a window to ancient India, including socio-cultural
phenomena, material culture, politics, and lifestyles.
Conclusion
Ellora Caves includes all the elements necessary to express its Outstanding Universal Value, including the
architectural and sculptural elements that bear witness to Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism in an uninterrupted
sequence of monuments from AD 600 to 1000.The Ellora Caves are authentic in terms of the forms and designs,
materials and substance, and locations and setting of paintings, rock-cut architecture, sculptures, and unfinished
temples of three different faiths, i.e. Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism.
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25. Carnatic music is encapsulated by centuries of musical tradition, cultural expression, and spiritual exploration.
Discuss. (150 words)
Introduction
Music has always been an important part of Indian life. The range of musical phenomenon in India extends
from simple melodies to what is one of the most well- developed “systems” of classical music in the world.
Carnatic music owes its name to the Sanskrit term Karnâtaka Sangîtam which denotes “traditional” or
“codified” music. Composed of a system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala), it has a rich history and tradition.
Carnatic Sangeet has developed in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture.
T.M. Krishna, the stormy petrel of Carnatic music, and this year’s winner of The Music Academy, Madras’s
prestigious Sangita Kalanidhi award, is an ardent artiste and an avid activist.

Body
Carnatic music: Features
• It is an indigenously developed style of classical music
• The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula which includes within its fold all
the modes used in ancient as well as modern systems of music of the different parts of the world.
• It is strongly Kriti-based
• Unity ofraga, tala and shruti in every piece
• The system gives equal importance to melody and rhythm.
• Mixing the three degrees of speeds
• Fewer instruments are used in Karnataka than in northern Indian music, and there are no exclusively
instrumental forms.
• There is an even balance between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of the compositions of great
masters) and creativity (on the spot improvisations).
• Some of the important Carnatic music compositions are- Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam,
kritanam, kriti, pada, javali, pallavi etc
Rhythmic Aspect of Carnatic Music
• Tala: The Rhythmic Pulse:
• Definition: Tala refers to a fixed time cycle or meter with a specific number of beats.
• Role: Underpins all compositions and improvisations.
• Tala Cycles: Seven principal talas—Dhruva, Matya, Rupaka, Jhampa, Triputa, Ata, and Eka.
• Structure: Composed of laghus (counts) and drutams (beats).
• Mathematical Precision: Carnatic music thrives on rhythmic complexity.
• Kriyas: Hand gestures and finger counts synchronize with the melody.
• Tala Exploration:
• Eduppu: Starting point of a composition within a tala cycle.
• Nadai: Subdivision of each beat into various rhythmic units.
• Sam: First and most significant beat of the cycle.
• Shifts and Creativity: Musicians navigate the tala system, introducing subtle shifts for fresh perspectives.
• Percussion Instruments:
Mridangam:
• Double-headed drum.
• Deep bass and loud projection.
• Integral part of Carnatic ensembles.
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Ghatam:
• Clay pot with a narrow mouth.
• Played with various parts of the palm.
• Creates unique sounds in rhythmic patterns.
Conclusion
Carnatic music, with its intricate ragas and rhythmic talas, weaves a mesmerizing tapestry of emotions and
creativity. Carnatic music has played an important role in uniting Indians by generating the feeling of oneness and
nationalism during national movement. Even today it is practiced during festivals, as a stage performance, in
cinema’s and bringing fame for Indian culture by reaching wider in western world.