LESSON 4 Topic 6 CLO3: Analyse the gathered data

using qualitative analysis data

Topic 6 • Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques, techniques (C4 , C5 : PLO9)
• Data Analysis using Qualitative
Analysing and Analysis Tools including Nvivo and
Interpreting
AtlasTi,
Qualitative Data
• Interpreting Qualitative Data

Why This Lesson

This lesson focuses on two main topics: Analysing and Interpreting Qualitative Data and Writing Qualitative
Research Reports. At the end of the Topic 6, you will be able to:
• Explain the qualitative data analysis techniques
• Apply Data Analysis Techniques using Qualitative Analysis Tools
• Interpret qualitative Data in a research report.

Data Analysis Strategies in Qualitative Research

Data analysis is the most crucial part of any research. In data analysis, the researcher summarizes the
collected data. It involves the interpretation of data gathered through the use of analytical and logical
reasoning to determine patterns, relationships or trends
(https://library.up.ac.za/c.php?g=485435&p=4425510).

The following extract explains Daa Analysis in Qualitative Research:

“In qualitative research, the researcher usually uses explanations in words (descriptions, observations,
impressions) or to code the large mass of collected data in the analyses, use of themes and categories. Data
analysis in qualitative research consists of preparing and organizing the data (i.e., text data as in transcripts,
or image data as in photographs) for analysis, then reducing the data into themes through a process of coding
and condensing the codes, and finally representing the data in figures, tables, or a discussion.

Miles and Huberman (1994) adopt a systematic approach to analysis that has a long history of use in
qualitative inquiry, and Wolcott (1994) uses a more traditional approach to research from ethnography and
case study analysis.

These three sources advocate many similar processes, as well as a few different approaches to the analytic
phase of qualitative research. the authors present different phases in the data analysis process. Huberman and
Miles (1994), for example, provide more detailed steps in the process, such as writing marginal notes, drafting
summaries of field notes, and noting relationships among the categories. Madison (2005), however, introduces
the need to create a point of view; a stance that signals the interpretive framework (e.g., critical, feminist)
taken in the study. this point of view is central to the analysis in critical, theoretically oriented qualitative

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studies. Wolcott (1994), on the other hand, discusses the importance of forming a description from the data,
as well as relating the description to the literature and cultural themes in cultural anthropology”. (Source:
Taken From UNITAR International University, 2021)

Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques

Qualitative data analysis is the process of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting qualitative data—non-
numeric, conceptual information and user feedback—to capture themes and patterns, and answer research
questions (https://www.hotjar.com/qualitative-data-analysis/methods/). Five data analysis techniques are
notable:

• Content Analysis
• Thematic Analysis
• Narrative Analysis
• Discourse Analysis
• Grounded Theory Analysis

Analysis Technique Description

Content Analysis Content analysis is a research method used to identify patterns in recorded
communication. To conduct content analysis, you systematically collect data from a set
of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual. Content analysis can be
both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) and qualitative (focused on
interpreting and understanding). In both types, you categorize or “code” words, themes,
and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results.
(https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-analysis/)

Thematic Analysis Thematic analysis is a popular method for analyzing qualitative data in many
disciplines and fields, and can be applied in lots of different ways, to lots of different
datasets, to address lots of different research questions!
It is best thought of as an umbrella term for a set of approaches for analysing
qualitative data that share a focus on identifying themes (patterns of meaning) in
qualitative data.
https://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/thematic-analysis.html
Thematic analysis helps to identify, analyze, and interpret patterns in qualitative data,
and can be done with tools like Dovetail and Thematic.
It can only be applied to qualitative data, and focuses on identifying patterns and
‘themes (https://www.hotjar.com/qualitative-data-analysis/methods/).
Narrative Analysis Narrative analysis is a method used to interpret research participants’ stories—things
like testimonials, case studies, interviews, and other text or visual data—with tools
like Delve and AI-powered ATLAS.ti. Narrative analysis provides product teams with
valuable insight into the complexity of customers’ lives, feelings, and behaviors.
Some formats narrative analysis doesn't work for are heavily-structured interviews and
written surveys, which don’t give participants as much opportunity to tell their
stories in their own words (https://www.hotjar.com/qualitative-data-analysis/methods/

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 It refers to a cluster of analytic methods for interpreting texts or visual data
that have a storied form. A common assumption of narrative methods is that
people tell stories to help organize and make sense of their lives and their storied
accounts are functional, and purposeful.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/narrative-analysis)
Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method that involves the close reading of
texts in order to interpret the stories they tell. The stories told by a text can provide
insights into the culture, values, and beliefs of the people who created them.
It is a way of understanding how people make sense of their experiences and find
meaning in them. These stories can be written down, or they can be spoken aloud.
They can be told to friends, family, or strangers. They can be private or public.
(https://researchmethod.net/narrative-analysis/)
Researchers use narrative analysis to understand how research participants construct
story and narrative from their own personal experience.
There is a dual layer of interpretation in narrative analysis. First the research
participants interpret their own lives through narrative. Then the researcher interprets
the construction of that narrative.
Narratives can be derived from journals, letters, conversations, autobiographies,
transcripts of in-depth interviews, focus groups, or other types of narrative qualitative
research and then used in narrative research.
(https://delvetool.com/blog/narrativeanalysis)

Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis is the act of researching the underlying meaning of qualitative data.
It involves the observation of texts, audio, and videos to study the relationships
between the information and its context.
The method focuses on the contextual meaning of language: discourse analysis sheds
light on what audiences think of a topic, and why they feel the way they do about it.
(https://www.hotjar.com/qualitative-data-analysis/methods/)
Discourse analysis is a qualitative method of analysis, which explores the meanings
produced by language use and communication, the contexts and processes of these
meanings and practices caused by these meanings.
Discourse analysis aims to perceive and categorize various meaning-making processes,
networks and practices from the data
(https://koppa.jyu.fi/avoimet/hum/menetelmapolkuja/en/methodmap/data-
analysis/discourse-analysis).
Grounded Theory In grounded theory-based analysis, the researcher generally analyzes the data as
Analysis follows: finding repeating themes by thoroughly reviewing the data; coding the
emergent themes with keywords and phrases; grouping the codes into concepts
hierarchically; and then categorizing the concepts through relationship identification.
Finally, the categories created through this process, as well as the links found between
them, are used as the basis for the development of a new theory
(https://www.maxqda.com/blogpost/grounded-theory-analysis#:).

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Analysing Qualitative Data Thematically

1. Familiarisation with the data:

This phase involves reading and re-reading the data, to become immersed and intimately
familiar with its content.

2. Coding:

This phase involves generating succinct labels (codes!) that identify important features of the
data that might be relevant to answering the research question. It involves coding the entire
dataset, and after that, collating all the codes and all relevant data extracts, together for later
stages of analysis.

3. 3. Generating initial themes

This phase involves examining the codes and collated data to identify significant broader
patterns of meaning (potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant to each
candidate theme, so that you can work with the data and review the viability of each candidate
theme.

4. Reviewing themes:

This phase involves checking the candidate themes against the dataset, to determine that they
tell a convincing story of the data, and one that answers the research question. In this phase,
themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them being split, combined, or
discarded. In Thematic approach, themes are defined as pattern of shared meaning
underpinned by a central concept or idea.

5. Defining and naming themes:

This phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each theme, working out the scope and
focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves deciding on an informative
name for each theme.

6. Writing up:

This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data extracts, and
contextualising the analysis in relation to existing literature

(https://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/thematic-analysis.html)

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 Analysising Data Using Nvivo and AtlasTi
Nvivo

NVivo is a software program used for qualitative and mixed-methods research. Specifically, it is used for the
analysis of unstructured text, audio, video, and image data, including (but not limited to) interviews, focus
groups, surveys, social media, and journal articles.

NVivo has a mixture of qualitative and quantitative analysis features: in particular, it can compute inter-coder
reliability and use cluster analysis to examine text or coding similarities.
• User interface and text analysis capabilities available for English, Spanish, French, German,
Portuguese, Japanese, and Chinese Simplified
• Integration with Evernote: import anything from an Evernote notebook (including OCR'd text, clipped
websites, and recordings made using the mobile apps) into an NVivo project for analysis
• Easy, code-free web scraping of social media data from Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and YouTube
using the NCapture browser plugin for Google Chrome and Internet Explorer

Unlike MAXQDA and Atlas.ti, NVivo does not have a dedicated mobile app; however, NVivo's ability to import
from Evernote can act as a substitute.

Why use Nvivo? It helps the researcher to

• Organize and analyze text, audio, video, or image data through the process of qualitative coding.
• Playback ability for audio and video files, so that interviews can be transcribed in NVivo.
• Import citations from EndNote, Mendeley, Zotero, Citavi, or other bibliographic management
software.
• Perform simple text analysis queries (such as text search or word frequencies) for text data in
English, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, and Simplified Chinese.

(Source: https://libguides.library.kent.edu/statconsulting/NVivo#:~:text)

AtlasTi

ATLAS.ti is a qualitative research tool that can be used for coding and analyzing transcripts & field notes,
building literature reviews, creating network diagrams, and data visualization
(https://guides.nyu.edu/QDA/atlasti#:~:text).

Main highlights of ATLAS.ti are

• User interface available in English, Spanish, and German
• Integrates all functionality of Google Earth
• Export project data in XML format: projects are fully portable
• Free dedicated companion apps for iOS and Android devices: useful if using tablet or mobile device to
collect data in the field
(https://libguides.library.kent.edu/statconsulting/NVivo#s-lg-box-9691851)

It facilitates data analysis in various areas, including education, psychology, sociology, health, engineering, IT,
social sciences, religious studies, history, law, anthropology, criminology, UX, UI, market research, tourism,
economics, medicine, management, policy, ecology and much more. https://atlasti.com/

© UNITAR International University Confidential Page 5 of 7

 Interpreting Qualitative Data

“Lincoln and Guba (1985) describes interpretation involves making sense of the data, the “lessons learned,”.
Interpretation in qualitative research involves abstracting beyond the codes and themes to the larger meaning
of the data. It is a process that begins with the development of the codes, the formation of themes from the
codes, and then the organization of themes into larger units of abstraction to make sense of the data. Several
forms exist, such as interpretation based on hunches, insights, and intuition. Interpretation also might be within
a social science construct or idea or a combination of personal views as contrasted with a social science construct
or idea. The researcher would link his or her interpretation to the larger research literature developed by others.
For postmodern and interpretive researchers, these interpretations are seen as tentative, inconclusive, and
questioning.

Creswell and Gueterman (2021) describe interpreting qualitative data as below:

“Interpretation in qualitative research involves several procedures: summarizing the

overall findings, comparing the findings to the literature, discussing a personal view of the
findings, and stating limitations and future research. In terms of overall findings, the
question “What were the lessons learned?” captures the essence of this idea (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). These lessons could be the researcher’s personal interpretation, couched in
the understanding that the inquirer brings to the study from a personal culture, history,
and experiences.
It could also be a meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information
gleaned from the literature or theories. In this way, authors suggest that the findings
confirm past information or diverge from it. It can also suggest new questions that need to
be asked—questions raised by the data and analysis that the inquirer had not foreseen
earlier in the study. Ethnographers can end a study, Wolcott (1994) said, by stating further
questions. The questioning approach is also used in transformative approaches to
qualitative research. Moreover, when qualitative researchers use a theoretical lens, they
can form interpretations that call for action agendas for reform and change. Researchers
might describe how the narrative outcome will be compared with theories and the general
literature on the topic. In many qualitative articles, researchers also discuss the literature
at the end of the study. Thus, interpretation in qualitative research can take
many forms; be adapted for different types of designs; and be flexible to convey personal,
research-based, and action meanings.
Finally, part of interpretation involves suggesting limitations in a project and advancing
future research directions. Limitations often attach to the methods of a study (e.g.,
inadequate sample size, difficulty in recruitment), and they represent weaknesses in the
research that the author acknowledges so that future studies will not suffer from the same
problems. Suggestions for future research propose research themes that studies might
address to advance the literature, to remedy some of the weaknesses in the present study,
or to advance new leads or directions that can point to useful applications or knowledge,” (Creswell &
Gueterman, 2021). (Source: Taken from UNITAR International University, 2021)

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 Tutorial Activity

Based on the article provided,

1. Explain clearly how qualitative data is collected and analysed in the study.
2. Provide your comments on the data collection and analysis procedures used in the study.
Article 1: Vu, P. & Feinstein, S. (2017). An exploratory multiple case study about using game-based learning
in STEM classrooms. International Journal of Research in Education and Science (IJRES), 3(2), 582-588. DOI:
10.21890/ijres.32808

References

Publication
Creswell, J.W. 1998. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J.W. & Guetterman, (2021.) Designing Quantitative and Qualitative Research. 6th Edition. Pearson
Education.
Bhandari, P. (2020) What Is Qualitative Research? Methods & Examples.
Guba, E., and Y. Lincoln. (1988). “Do Inquiry Paradigms Imply Inquiry methodologies?” In Qualitative
Approaches to Evaluation in Education, edited by D. M. Fetterman. New York: Praeger, 1988.
Haenfler, R. (2004). Rethinking subcultural resistance: core values of the straight edge movement. Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography, 33, 406–436.
Miles, M. B., and A. M. Huberman (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods. Beverly
Hills, Calif.: Sage
UNITAR International University (2021) LESSON 3 Data Analysis Technique and Presentation of Findings
Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Haliza Mohd Said. Unpublished.
Wolcott, H. F. (1994b). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Internet References
Analyzing Data. https://institutionalresearch.syr.edu/assessment/asesspp/analyzing-and-interpreting-data/
Mixed Methods Research. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/mixed-methods-research/Research Design.
(https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns
Questionnaire. https://luc.id/knowledgehub/what-is-a-questionnaire/
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach (3rd Ed.). Los
Angeles: Sage Retrieved from: https://lled500.trubox.ca/2016/225
McNamara, C. (1999). General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews, Authenticity Consulting, LLC, Retrieved
from: http://www.managementhelp.org/evaluatn/intrview.htm
Observation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation#cite_note-1
Pritha Bhandari. 2022. Data Collection: A Step-by-Step Guide with Methods and Examples Retrieved from:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/data-collection/
Thematic Analysis. https://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/thematic-analysis.html).
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