STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Learning Module 1:
Introduction to Differential Equations

Prof J. Mahachi, Pr.Eng, Pr.CPM, FSAICE

University of Johannesburg

School of Civil Engineering & Built Environment

Email: [email protected]
Cell: 082 904 9569
 House Keeping & Announcements
• Safety Rules
• COVID-19 Regulations
• Cell phones off or on silent and only used during breaks
• Delegates private conversations limited to breaks
• Interactive session encouraged
• Class Notes
• ECSA CPD
 Course Outline
• Introduction to Differential Equations
• SDOF Free vibration, with no damping
• SDOF Free vibration with damping
• SDOF Forced vibration
– Harmonic Loading
– Periodic Loading
– Pulse Loading
– Transient loading (Seismic/Earthquake loading)
• MDOF
• Vibration of Continuous Structures
• Foundations of Reciprocating Machines
 Learning Outcome: Module 1
• At the end of this learning module, a learner will be able to:
– To solve second order homogeneous differential equations with
constant coefficients
– To solve second order non-homogeneous differential equations with
constant coefficients
– To understand use of hyperbolic functions in solving differential
equations
Liner Homogeneous Second Order Differential
Equations with Constant Coefficients
𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎𝑦 ′ + 𝑏𝑦 = 0

a and b are constant and real.

𝑥∈ℝ

𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 is a solution
⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 𝜆𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ; 𝑦 ′′ = 𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆𝑥
∴ 𝜆2 + 𝑎𝜆 + 𝑏 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 = 0

Characteristic Equation
Linear Homogeneous Second Order Differential
Equations with Constant Coefficients
For non- trivial solution;
𝜆2 + 𝑎𝜆 + 𝑏 = 0
1 Case 1: Two distinct real roots
• 𝜆1 = −𝑎 + 𝑎2 − 4𝑏
2
Case 2: Two complex conjugate roots
1
• 𝜆2 = 2 −𝑎 − 𝑎2 − 4𝑏 Case 3: A real double root

∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝜆1𝑥 and 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝜆2𝑥

Basis of solution
Example 1:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

Characteristics equation: 𝜆2 + 𝜆 − 2 = 0
• 𝜆1 = 1 ; 𝜆2 = −2

∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
Example 2:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 0

• 𝜆2 + 1 = 0 ; 𝜆1 = 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 = −𝑖

∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
General Solution

A solution: 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 𝑥 ; 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ (𝑐1 & 𝑐2 arbitrary constants)

is a general solution of the differential equation:

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎𝑦 ′ + 𝑏𝑦 = 0 (1)

On the interval I- of the x-axis, iff the functions 𝑦1 and 𝑦1 constitutes a

basis of solutions (1) on I, i.e. they are not proportional on I.
Example 3: General Solution

1. Distinct Real Solutions

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

• 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑦2
• ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡:
𝑦1

∴ 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥

Example 4: Initial Value Problem & Boundary Value

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦 0 = 4 ; 𝑦′ 0 = 1
General Solution: 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑦 0 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 4 (1)
𝑦 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑐2 ⋅ 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑦 ′ 0 = 𝑐1 ⋅ 𝑒 0 − 2𝑐2 ⋅ 𝑒 0 = 𝑐1 − 2𝑐2 = 1 (2)

• Solving 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
𝑐1 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 = 1

∴ 𝑦 𝑥 = 3𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
Exercise

a). Find the General Solution of: 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 = 0

Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
b). Find the General Solution of: 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ = 0
Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑐2
c). Find the Solution of: 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 = 0 ; 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 0 = 6 ; 𝑦 ′ 0 = −4
Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 5𝑒 −𝑥
d). Find the Solution of: 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 = 0 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ; 𝑦 0 = −1 ; 𝑦 ′ 0 = −5
Ans: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 3𝑥
Complex Roots: Euler Formula

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑝+𝑖𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑥

𝑝−𝑖𝑞 𝑥
• 𝑦2 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑞𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 cos 𝑞𝑥 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑥

1
∴ 2
(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 cos 𝑞𝑥
Real Valued. Therefore solution to differential equation
1
2𝑖
(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 sin 𝑞𝑥
Complex Roots

2. Complex Roots

• 𝜆1 = 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 ; 𝜆2 = 𝑝 − 𝑖𝑞

• 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙

• 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑝+𝑖𝑞 𝑥 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝑝−𝑖𝑞 𝑥
General Solution: Complex Roots

𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 𝐴 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑞𝑥 ;
Example 5
Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 10𝑦 = 0

Characteristics equation 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 10 = 0

• 𝜆1 = 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 = 1 + 3𝑖

• 𝜆2 = 𝑝 − 𝑖𝑞 = 1 − 3𝑖

•𝑝=1 ; 𝑞 = 3: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 𝐴 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑞𝑥

• 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑒 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 ; 𝑒 𝑥 sin 3𝑥

Solution: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝐴 cos 3𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 3𝑥
Example 6: Initial Value Problem

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 10𝑦 = 0 ; 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 0 = 4 ; 𝑦′ 0 = 1

Solution: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝐴 cos 3𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 3𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 − 3 𝐴 sin 3𝑥 + 3𝐵 cos 3𝑥
𝑦 0 =𝐴=4
𝑦 ′ 0 = 𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 1
∴ 𝐴 = 4 ; 𝐵 = −1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 4 cos 3𝑥 − sin 3𝑥
Exercise

Find the General Solution;

𝑦 ′′ + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 ; 𝜔≠0

Answer: 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑥

Solutions with Double Roots
3. Double Roots

• Basis: 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ; 𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥

• General Solution:
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 + 𝑐2 ⋅ 𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥
or
𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝜆𝑥
Example 7:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ + 8𝑦 ′ + 16𝑦 = 0

Characteristic Equation: 𝜆2 + 8𝜆 + 16 = 0

• λ = −4 (double root

• Basis: 𝑒 −4𝑥 ; 𝑥𝑒 −4𝑥 𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝜆𝑥

• General Solution:

𝑦 = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 −4𝑥
Example 8: Initial Value Problem

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 4𝑦 = 0 ; 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 0 = 3 ; 𝑦 ′ 0 = 1
• General Solution: 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑦 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑦 0 = 𝑐1 = 3

𝑦 ′ 0 = 𝑐2 + 2𝑐1 = 1

∴ 𝑐1 = 3 ; 𝑐2 = −5
⇒ 𝑦 = (3 − 5𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
Summary
CASE ROOTS BASIS GENERAL SOLUTION
1 Distinct real
𝜆1 ; 𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆1𝑥 ; 𝑒 𝜆2𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆1𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝜆2𝑥

2 Complex Conjugate
𝜆1 = 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 cos 𝑞𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑞𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑥
𝜆2 = 𝑝 − 𝑖𝑞 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 sin 𝑞𝑥

3 Real double root

𝜆 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ; 𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝜆𝑥
Extension to Other Order of Homogeneous
Equations

Method can be extended to any homogeneous linear equation of any

order with constant coefficients
Example 9:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′′ − 2𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0

Characteristics equation: 𝜆3 −2𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 2 = 0

𝜆1 = −1 ; 𝜆2 = 1 ; 𝜆3 =2

𝑦1 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 2𝑥
Example 10:

Solve: 𝑦 𝑣 −3𝑦 𝑖𝑣 + 3𝑦 ′′′ − 𝑦 ′′ = 0

Characteristic Equation: 𝜆5 − 3 ⋅ 𝜆𝑖𝑣 + 3𝜆𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝜆2 = 0

𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 0 ; 𝜆3 = 𝜆4 = 𝜆5 = 1

Solution:

𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 𝑥 + 𝑐5 𝑥 2 𝑒1⋅𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 𝑥 + 𝑐5 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
Exercise

Solve:

i. 𝑦 ′′ − 16𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(0 = 1 ; 𝑦 ′ (0 = 20

Answer: 𝑦 = 3𝑒 4𝑥 − 2𝑒 −4𝑥

ii. 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 4𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(0 = 0 ; 𝑦 ′ (0 = −3

Answer: y = −3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥

iii. 𝑦 ′′ + 6𝑦 ′ + 9𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(0 = −4 ; 𝑦 ′ (0 = 14

Answer: 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 4 𝑒 −3𝑥

Non-Homogeneous Second Order Linear
Differential Equations

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎𝑦 ′ + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑥

𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑦ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑝 (𝑥

Homogeneous Particular
Solution Solution
Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Linear Non-homogeneous Second Order Differential Equation

with constant coefficients:

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎𝑦 ′ + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑥 (1)
Assume an expression of 𝑦𝑝 similar to 𝑟(𝑥 containing unknown coefficients, which are
determined by inserting 𝑦𝑝 and it ′ s derivatives into (1)
Example 11:
• Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 = 10𝑒 −2𝑥

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦𝑝′ = −2𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 ; 𝑦𝑝′′ = 4𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥

⇒ 4𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 − 4 −2𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 + 3 𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 = 10𝑒 −2𝑥

4𝑘 + 8𝑘 + 3𝑘 = 10
2
∴𝑘=3

2
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑘𝑒 −2𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
3

𝑦ℎ = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥

𝑥 3𝑥
2 −2𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑦ℎ + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑐1 𝑒 + 𝑐2 𝑒 + 𝑒
3
Example 12:

• Solve: 𝑦 ′′ +4𝑦 = 8𝑥 2

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝑘3

𝑦𝑝′ = 2𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2

𝑦𝑝′′ = 2𝑘1

⇒ 2𝑘1 + 4 𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝑘3 = 8𝑥 2
2𝑘1 + 4𝑘3 + 4𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 4𝑘2 𝑥 = 8𝑥 2
Example 12 (Cont…)

• Equate coefficients of 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and 𝑥 0

4𝑘1 = 8 ⇒ 𝑘1 = 2

4𝑘2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑘2 = 0

2𝑘1 + 4𝑘3 = 0 2 × 2 + 4𝑘3 = 0 ; 𝑘3 = −1

∴ 𝑦𝑝 = 2𝑥 2 − 1

𝑦ℎ = 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 1
Example 13:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 10 cos 𝑥

𝑦𝑝 = 𝐾 cos 𝑥 + 𝑀 sin 𝑥

𝑦𝑝′ = −𝐾 sin 𝑥 + 𝑀 cos 𝑥

𝑦𝑝′′ = −𝐾 cos 𝑥 − 𝑀 sin 𝑥

−𝐾 cos 𝑥 − 𝑀 sin 𝑥 + 𝐾 sin 𝑥 − 𝑀 cos 𝑥 − 2 𝐾 cos 𝑥 + 𝑀 sin 𝑥 = 10 cos 𝑥

⇒ −3𝐾 − 𝑀 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 − 3𝑀 = 0

∴ 𝐾 = −3 ; 𝑀 = −1 ; 𝑦𝑝 = −3 cos 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
Exercise:

• Find: 𝑦𝑝 : 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑦𝑝 = 3𝑥 2 − 6
• Find: 𝑦𝑝 : 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 6 sin 𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑦𝑝 = −3𝑥 cos 𝑥
• Find general solution: 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
• Find general solution: 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 0 ⋅ 5𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
Summary: Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Term in: r 𝑥 Choice for : 𝑦𝑝

kepx 𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑥 P
kx n 𝑘𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑘𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑘1 𝑥 0
+ 𝑘0

K cos 𝑞𝑥 𝐾 cos 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑀 sin 𝑞𝑥 𝑖𝑞

𝐾 sin 𝑞𝑥 𝑖𝑞
Example 14:

Solve for 𝑦𝑝 : y ′′ −3y′ + 2y = 4𝑥 + e3𝑥

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘0 + 𝑐𝑒 3𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑘1 = 2 ; 𝑘0 = 3 ; 𝑐 =
2

1 3𝑥
∴ 𝑦𝑝 = 2𝑥 + 3 + 𝑒
2
Hyperbolic Functions
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
• 𝑒 = 1+𝑥+ + + + ⋯ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
2! 3! 4!

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
⇒ 𝑒 −𝑥 =1−𝑥+ − + ⋯
2! 3! 4!
1
sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
2
1
cosh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
2

∴ cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 1

cosh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 2
Hyperbolic Functions (Cont…)

• From 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
⇒ cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 2 = 𝑒 2𝑥

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥
From (2) cosℎ2 𝑥 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 sinh 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑥
2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
2 2 1
⇒ cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
2

∴ cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥 = cosh 2𝑥 (by default)

∴ cosh 2𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 1
Deductions: Hyperbolic Functions

Deductions:
• sinh 𝑥 − 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 − cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
• cos ℎ(𝑥 − 𝑦 = cos ℎ 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
sinh 𝑥 1
• tanh 𝑥 = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
1 1
• sech 𝑥 = ; coth 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
Osbourne’s Rule: Hyperbolic Functions

In any identity connecting circular functions of general angles replace

each circular function by the corresponding hyperbolic function but
change the sign in front of a product or an implied product of two
sines; e.g. sin2 𝑥 ; tan2 𝑥 ; sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦

• e.g. sin 3𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

• ⇒ sinh 3𝑥 = 3 sinh 𝑥 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ3 𝑥
Example 16:

Solve: 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 = 0
• Basis 𝜆2 − 4 = 0 𝜆2 = 4 ⇒ 𝜆 = ±2
• 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −2𝑥

Alternatively; cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 = cosh 2𝑥 + sinh 2𝑥 cosh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 −2𝑥 = cosh 2𝑥 − sinh 2𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴 cosh 2𝑥 + sinh 2𝑥 + 𝐵 cosh 2𝑥 − sinh 2𝑥
= 𝐴 + 𝐵 cosh 2𝑥 + 𝐴 − 𝐵 sinh 2𝑥

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 cosh 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 sinh 2𝑥
Enjoy Structural Dynamics