TOPIC 1: SORTING AND FILTERING DATA

- Sorting refers to arranging data in ascending or descending order

- Sorting helps in quick retrieval of records for example in telephone directory
- To sort the range of row, proceed as follows:
1. Highlight the row that you want to sort
2. Click Sort & Filter icon on the Home tab in the Editing group
3. Select sort A to Z or Z to A if the row has words like list of names or largest to
Smallest or Smallest to Largest if the row has numbers or select custom sort as
shown below:

FILTERING
- Filtering is a quick and efficient method of finding and working with subset of data in a
list
- Filtering is a process of displaying list of data that meet certain criteria or condition you
specify
- Microsoft has two commands for filtering:
- The autofilter: Uses simple criteria and include filter by selection
- Advanced filter: It uses more complex criteria
Using autofilter
- The autofilter command can be applied to only one list on a worksheet at a time.
- To autofilter a list:
1. Click a cell in the list to be filtered
2. On the data tab in the Sort & Filter group, click Filter. The filter drop down arrows are
inserted on the top cell of each column.
3. To display only the specific value, uncheck all the values you do not want to appear and
check all values to appear then click OK

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You can also filter by selecting Text Filters and specify the criteria
Advanced filter
1. The advanced filter works a slight different than the autofilter in that you have to manually
specify a criteria.
1. On the Data tab in the Sort & Filter group, click Advanced. In the Advanced Filter dialog box, do
the following
2. Select the “Filter the list in place” option
3. In the List range, specify the range of values o be filtered
4. In the Criteria range box, specify the range that covers the column and the criteria as shown
below:

Creating charts and graphs

- A chart also known as a graph is a pictorial representation of underlying data on a worksheet.

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 - Charts makes it easy for users to see comparisons, patterns and trends in data.
- Charts helps in analyzing data
- A chart is linked to the worksheet data it is created from, and whenever data on the
worksheet is modified, the chart is updated automatically.

Types of charts
-Some of the types of charts available in Microsoft Excel include:
1. Column charts: represents data as a cluster of columns comparing values across categories
2. Bar charts: represents data using clustered bars arranged horizontally. It is used o compare
values across categories
3. Pie charts: used to present data on a circular pie, portioned into sectors representing each
item being analyzed.
4. Line graphs: represents data as lies with markers at each data value in x-y plane
5. Scatter charts: compares pairs of values on same axis using scatted dots
6. Area graphs
Creating charts
To create charts
1. Select the range of data for which you want to create chart
2. On the Insert tab, select the type of chart you wish to create
3. Then click OK
Formatting and editing charts
- Once the chart has been created, the patterns, colours, size, location and orientation can be
changed.
- Once you double click the chart, Toolbar appears on the screen to enable you to edit and
format the chart.
Resizing and moving charts
- To resize the chart, click the chart and use the place holder on the edge to drag the chat to
size
- To move the chart, click inside the chart area then drag to desired position
Labelling data values
- Each representation of data in the chart can either be labelled by a value or text label
- To label the chart, On the Chart Toolbar, in the Chat Layout group, click the Quick Layout
command and select the layout that has data labels, then edit the chart tittle as appropriate.
Inserting tittles
-Each chart must have a heading showing clearly wat it represents. Also include axis. To include
axis, proceed as follows:
-On the Chart Toolbar in the Chart Layout group click Add Chart Element then select Chart
Tittle. Select Above Chart or Centered overlay as below:

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Inserting a legend
 A legend is equivalent to a key used to manually drawn charts.
 It shows what each colour or pattern of data series represents, for example green
representing boys and pink representing girls.
 Without legends, it would be difficult to know how to differentiate the data series
represented by ant chart
 To create legend
 On the Chart Toolbar, in Chart Layout group, click Add Chart Element and then
click legend.
 Select the appropriate position as shown below:

Changing the chart location

 Right click the chart then select Move Chart command from the shortcut menu that
appears
 In the move chart dialog box, specify where to embed the chart into the current worksheet
or new worksheet then click OK
Page setup for printing

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  Page setup refers to the way page margins, orientation, size and other page orientated
features are applied to the page.
Margins
 Margin control the extent to which content can be placed on the page and print area.
Margins include:
1. Left, top, right or bottom margins
2. Gutter: these is the extra space usually added to the left margin of the page to give
allowance for binding the printed pages.
 To setup margin, On the Page Layout tab in the Page Setup group, click margin then
select custom margin, click the margin tab and adjust as appropriate.
Page size, orientation and scaling
 In the Page setup dialog box, click the Pages tab
 Select the page orientation, size and scaling
i. Orientation determine whether the page will be portrait or Landscape
ii. Size can be A4, Letter A1 etc
iii. Scaling is used to fit the virtual page on the screen to the real page in the printer
iv. Print quality determine print resolution in dots per inch (dpi)

Headers and footers

 A header is a repeating text that is printed at the top of every page while a footer is
printed at the bottom of the page
 To insert the header, click the Header/Footer tab then type the appropriate word in the
spaces provided.
Specifying titles and the print area
 On the sheet tab, you can specify the rows and columns that have tittles that you want to
repeat on each worksheet as you print in case your worksheet spans more than one page.
 You can also specify if you want to print:
1. Gridlines: check the gridlines box
2. Black and white
Importing and liking files
Importing files
 It is possible to create a document in a word processor and then import it into Excel.

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  The text that is in the document maps directly into the Excel cells.
 There are two ways of achieving this:
1. Creating delimited text file (.txt) in which fields are separated by pressing the Tab key.
2. Use the comma separated values(csv) files. The comma (,) separates the fields in the file.

Importing delimited text file (.txt)

1. Open your word processor and type the following text
THE HOUR HAS COME
FIRST NAME SECOND NAME SCORE
Joseph chesule 60
Virginia Kwanyera 80
Seth Linje 90
Stephan Maluwa 75
The space between the fields should be created by pressing the Tab key
2. Save the file as text file (.txt) and close it
3. In excel, click the file command and then select Open command. Browse to the folder
you saved he file then click it. Select the view files of .txt format
4. Select the file and import then click Open button. Follow the few prompts and you will
finally get the imported file in excel
Importing using comma separated value file (csv)
 The process is the same as to that of delimited file only that instead of pressing the tab
key to mark the fields, we use commas (,) then save the file as .csv file.

Liking files
 Sometimes it becomes necessary to have spreadsheet that reference other spreadsheet file.
 For example, in retail stores you can maintain a master spreadsheet having all prices of
the goods. A sales spreadsheet can reference this information through links when
recording transaction.
 A link is a type of formula that fetches its data from anther worksheet or spreadsheet file
into the current spreadsheet file
 When you start the spreadsheet that linked to external one, it checks for the update in the
external files as it starts updating its data in the process.
 To link spreadsheet:
1. Open the workbook you want to link
2. In the source worksheet, highlight the cells you wish to link to and then click the Copy
command
3. Switch focus to the destination workbook, click the upper left corner of the range where
you wish the links to be.
4. On the Home tab, click the Paste drop down and then click the paste special command. In
the Paste Special dialog box, click paste Link option then Ok command

TOPIC 2: USING DATABASE

INTRODUCTION
 Managing data as a resource is an important task in any organization today.

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  This is because data within organization and its environment forms part of the strategic,
tactical, operational management and decision making
 In order to enhance convenient and easy storage and retrieval of data, we use database
 A database is a collection of related data items organized so as to provide consistent and
controlled access to the items.
TYPES OF DATABASE
 There are two main types of database; namely Manual and electronic or computerized
database
Manual database
 A manual database consists of a collection of repository files and folders each properly
tagged and kept in a proper sequence in a cabinet.
 For example, in a school the admission office stores all students’ files identified using
unique student numbers such as 201/2014, 202/2014 etc.
 However, as organization data and information data grows, manual organization becomes
difficult and time consuming resulting in the following problems:
1. Redundancy: redundancy refers t unnecessary duplication of data in multiple files
2. Lack of flexibility: it is difficult to search for a requested file or record
3. Lack of integrity: poor storage and maintenance of data may lead to unreliable and
misleading reports.
4. Lack of data sharing: Data or information in different manual files may not be available
to other users
Electronic database
 Electronic database refers to the use of electronic devices such as computers to stress and
organize files for easy access
 For example, in Microsoft, files are stored under one folder on a storage media
 An advantage of electronic database over manual filling is that the operating system and
electronic database system provide users with tools for easy storage and access of data
and information
Database management systems (DBMS)
 To create and manipulate database, we use a software referred to as Database Management
System (DBMS)
 The DBMS provide tools for creating, storing, searching and manipulating databases.
 Some examples of DBMS are:
1. Microsoft Access
2. OpenOffice Database
3. Microsoft SQL Server
4. Oracle
5. FoxPro
6. DbaseIV
7. Lotus Approach
8. Oracle’s MYSQL Server
Benefits of using DBMS
 Some of benefits of using Database Management System include:
1. Allow authorized users to add or delete records
2. Allow users to update or modify existing records
3. Interface between database files and other application programs

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 4. Organize files and records for easy access, retrieval and sharing
5. Ensure security and integrity of data by safeguarding it against unauthorized access and
modification
6. Keep statistics of data in a database

Common features of DBMS

 Most DBMS consist of objects or features used for creating and manipulating database.
Some of the objects available in most DBMS include.
1. Tables: A table is a database structure used to hold related records. Tables are organized
into rows and columns with each row representing a record while each column
representing fields in each record.
2. Queries: A database query is a statement used to request for information from a database.
In most DBMS software, query statements are written using a language known as
structured query language (SQL)
3. Forms: a form is a graphical interface that resembles an ordinary paper form. It is mostky
used for entering or viewing data from the database table or query.
4. Reports: Most database management system provide users with tools for creating reports
that displays data from a database in a more professional appearance. It is report
generator that provides the user with means to specify what to be printed on a report and
the layout which the report takes.

Database model
 A database model is a logical structure that determine how data is stored, organized and
manipulated by DBMS software.
 Five common types of database models are:
1. Hierarchical model
2. Network model
3. Relational model
4. Object/relational model
5. Object oriented model
 The most popular model is relational model
Hierarchical model
 In hierarchical model, files are arranged in top-down structure that resemble a tree.
 The top file is called a root, the bottom files are called leaves and intermediate files have
one [aren’t file and one or several children files
 For example, in the figure 1 below, to access level one data, the user has to access the
root first and follow the path to the level.
 A specific path leads to each item at the lower level
 Hierarchical model is rarely used in modern database system, hence absolute

Level 1
root

Level 2 Level 2 Level 2

leaf leaf leaf

Level 3 Level 3 Level 3 Level83of 68

Page Level 3 Level 3
child child child child child child
Network model
 Unlike hierarchical structure where one or more records have one parent record, the
network model allows each record to have multiple parents and child records.
 In network model, access to a record can be through multiple paths and from any record.
 This type of record is what is referred to as “Many-to-many” relationship
 Network model are still popular in powerful mainframe computers

Canteen

Customers Suppliers

Transaction

Network database model

Relational model
 In relational database model (RDBMS), data is organized into records that are stored in
related tables or files.
 A table is a collection of related records each record containing related fields
 The reason why it is called relational model is because two tables can be linked together
such that a record from one table references to a record or records in another table.
 For example, table 2.1 and 2.2 below shows Customers table and Orders table that are
related to each other through customer number and customer ID.
 In this case, the Orders table shows that customer number 450 (Bat Masamba) has three
orders in Orders table.
Table 2.1: Customer

Customer number Name Telephone number

900 Mary Njemile 0884173918
230 Peter Onani 0994270554
450 Bat Masamba 0883466365
Table 2.2: Order
Customer ID Order ID Date Amount (k)
900 380 12/12/2014 90,000
450 811 13/1/2014 78,00
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450 234 2/5/2014 75,000
450 567 3/8/2014 12,000

Object-oriented model
 Object-oriented model purely supports storage, access and manipulation of objects
 Although currently not popular in the market, object-oriented database management
systems (OODBMS) provides unification of application and database development
Object-relational model
 In software development, there is a shift from structured programming to object-oriented
programming.
 This shift raised a need for a database model that stores and manipulates objects
 Therefore, object-relational is an evolutionary hybrid model that has capabilities to
handle both relational and object-oriented and manipulation of data

Database structure
 For easy retrieval and manipulation, Relational database organize data into a structure
called a schema.
 A schema is an organization structure made up of fields at the lower level and database at
the highest level
1. Field: is a set of character that define single data value. For example, each column like
Surname, Firstname, gender, sex, in a table represents a fields.
2. Record: a record is a collection of related fields that represents a single data items. An
example of a record is a row in student examination report that may contain students’
name, admission number. Grades.
3. Table: a database table contains a set of related records. For example, in a school
database, a table may contain names of all students in the school and another table may
contain names of all teachers in the school, different tables are stored in the same
database.
4. Database: a database is a collection of related tables and each table consists of related
records made up of fields.
A database schema may look like the one below:

Creating database

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  Before you begin creating database, you need to design it first. This is because a design
results to better storage, access and maintenance of a database.
 The following are the consideration before creating a database
1. Estimate the amount of data expected to be stored in the database. This is important to
determine the number of tables to be created.
2. Study the requirements of the user carefully in order to define all the inputs, outputs and
relationships required to create database
3. Design prototype database preferably on the paper to determine fields and tables required
to implement the database.
4. Normalize the fields into separate tables to allows flexibility in database manipulation.
This process of decomposing fields into separate but related tables is referred to as
normalization.
5. Identify a field in each table that will be used to identify each record uniquely. Such field
is referred to as a primary key.
6. Give the most important fields first priority when designing a table structure. These fields
are those mostly used to sort and search for records in a database.
7. Design sample data forms and reports needed for interaction between the user and the
database system.
Creating database
 To create a database, proceed as follows:
1. Click start and open Microsoft Office, then click Access
2. Click the Blank database
3. Type the name for the database and specify the storage location. The database is saved
as .accdb file extension which stands for access database
4. Click Create tab and the blank database with the default Table 1 will be created as
shown in the figure below:

Creating a database table

 When Access if first launched, it creates a default Table 1. This table can be customized
as follows:
1. On the Home tab, click the View tab and then click Design View. Save As dialog box
pops up that requires you to save the table. Save the table with a name e.g. Register.

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 2. Using the table grid displayed, enter unique name for each field. A field name start with a
letter can be up to 64 characters including letters, numbers, spaces and punctuations.

3. Choose appropriate data type before adding another field. Access starts with Short text as
default data type
4. To save changes, click save button
5. Access will prompt whether you want to create primary key click YES

Setting primary key and indexes

 An index is used to speed up searching and sorting of records in a table while a primary
key is an index that uniquely identifies each record stored in a table
 A primary key prevents the user from making duplicate entries into a table.
 Therefore, a primary key has two functions:
1. To order records
2. To control redundancy (i.e. prevent users from making duplicate entries into a table)
 Once a field is set as a primary key, the datasheet is automatically indexed or sorted using
the primary key.
 To set the primary key, proceed as follows:
1. Open the table in Design View then click Design tab
2. Select the field you wish to set as primary key by clicking in the row header on the left of
the Field Name

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 3. Click the Primary key button on the Design toolbar

To set another field as an index or secondary key, proceed as follows

1. Open the table in Design View
2. On Design tab, click indexes button in Show/Hide group. The index regidter is displayed
on the screen as shown below:

3. In the Field Name column, select the field you wish to set as a secondary index other than
the primary key
4. In the Index Name, type the name of the index
5. In the sort order column, select the ascending of descending then close the window
Field Data Types
 The type of data to be used in a database must be clearly defined for the purpose of
manipulation and storage.
 For example, if a filed is to be used for calculation, it must be defined as a number
 The following data types are allowed in Access:
1. Short Text
 This type includes alphabetic letters, numbers, spaces and punctuations. Use this data
type for fields that do not need to be used for calculations such as Names, places.

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  This type of filed accommodates a maximum of 255 characters
2. Long Text
 Unlike short text data types that takes up to 255 characters, long Text takes up to 65,535
characters.
3. Number
 This type is made up of numeric numbers 0 to 9 that are to be manipulated
mathematically.
4. Calculated
 This is used to store data created from a formula. This is important particularly if a value
will be used in queries, forms and reports.
5. Date/Time
 Used to identify a field as either date or time field. This is because date in a database can
be manipulated mathematically, for example you can calculate age of a person by given
date of birth and current date
6. Currency
 Used to identify numeric values that have decimals or fractions. Use this data type when
dealing with monetary values such as fees balance
7. AutoNumber
 This is a numeric data type used if you wish Access to automatically increment the value
by one. The field is incremented by one each time you enter a new value
8. Yes/No
 This is a logical data type that is either yes or no or true or false. For example, fields that
requires you to answer whether you are married or not.
9. OLE object
 The term OLE stands for Object Linking and Embedding.
 This data type is mostly used for storing graphical objects such as pictures, drawings,
charts, among others.
10. Attachment
 This data type is used to store one or more files containing pictures, sound, video or word
document.

Field properties
 As you create more and more complex tables, you may need to use field properties to
specify details related to each filed in the table.
 The properties depend on the type of field selected.
 Click the field and then click General as below:

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1. Field Size:
 Field size allow the user to set the number of characters in a field instead of the default
255 for short text field. For numeric field, you can set the field size as an integer, Byte,
Single, Double or Decimal
 Integer and long integer: accept number with no decimals
 Byte: can only accept a number between 1 and 255
 Single, double and decimal: Accept number with decimals. (single precision
accommodates up to 38 decimal places while double precision accommodates up to 308
decimal places)
2. Format:
 Determine how information appears on the screen o when printed. For example, you can
format the numeric value as scientific, currency, percentage or general.
3. Precision:
 This property is used to specify the total number of digits that can be stored bot to the left
and right of the decimal point.
4. Decimal places:
 This property applies to number and currency type.
5. Input mask:
 Input mask is used to format a field into a specific format. For example, if you enter a
number such as 02000100409874 and the input mask is set as 000-(00000)-000000, it is
formatted and displayed as 020-(00100)-409874. This property is mostly used to format
phone numbers and address entry.
6. Caption:
 A caption is a more descriptive name for a field to be used in the table or a form display.
For example, the caption for stuName could be Student Name

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 7. Default value:
 This is a value that will appear automatically in the datasheet or form if nothing is entered
by the user. For example, Date() automatically displays the current date in the date field
8. Validation Rule:
 A validation rule may be an expression that restrict the values to be entered in a field. For
example, if you want to restrict the marks entered in a field to values between 0 and 100,
type >=0 And <=100 in the validation rule box.
9. Validation Text:
 This is a custom message that appears once the validation rule is violated. For example,
you may specify a validation text for the above validation rule to display “Enter a
number between 0 and 100” whenever a user enters a value outside this range.
10. Required:
 This is a validation property that ensures an entry is made in the field before proceeding
to the next filed or record. For example, if surname is required, you must enter it before
ypu proceed.
11. Allow zero Length:
 This is also a validation property that allows the user to proceed without making any
entry in the field set as Zero length.
12. Indexed:
 An index is a field that is used to speed up searching and sorting of records in a table. It
may also be used as a validation key to prohibit duplicate values in the field. Therefore,
we use index properties on specific fields such as Admission number to index records for
easy access and search.

DATA ENTRY AND MANIPULATION

Manipulating records
 Manipulating a database is a process of appending (adding) new records, editing records,
modifying the table structure.
Appending records
 There many ways of entering new records into a database table such as
1. Typing direct into the table in the datasheet view
2. Using a form
3. Import data from other applications such as spreadsheet
Typing direct in the Datasheet View
 To enter records by typing direct into database table, proceed as follows:
1. Double click the table you want to enter record OR click the table then click View then
select Datasheet View
2. Click the first row in the table and make entries. The following symbols appear:
 An arrowhead: Indicates that there is no new data entry or edit is pending
 Pencil: means that the current record entry is not yet saved

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  Asterisk: Marks a blank record below the current entry
 Record locked: Indicate that the current record is being edited by another user in a multi-
user or networked environment.
Deleting records: To delete a record, point the arrow then Right click and finally click Delete
Record
Editing record: To edit content field, click inside the cell and then type the new record
Searching for records: To find and replace a field, click Find or Press Ctrl + F then type what
you search to search.
Copying and moving records: Select the record you want tom copy or move, click COPY/CUT,
open the target datasheet and click Paste
Sorting and filtering records
2. Sorting refers to arranging records in ascending or descending order numerically or
alphabetically.
3. On the other hand, filtering refers to extracting records from a table that meets given
criteria.
To sort records: In the Datasheet View, select the records to be sorted, On the Home tab click
either Sort icon for Ascending or Descending order.
To filter records:
There are four ways of filtering records and these are:
1. Common filter
2. Filter by selection
3. Filter by form
4. Advanced filter
To filter records
1. Open the table in Datasheet View, then select the record to be filtered
2. On the Home tab, click Filter icon that looks like a Funnel.
3. Use the checkbox to specify values by checking the field
4. To remove the filter, click Toggle filter
Modifying a Database
 You can modify the table datasheet structure,
 Import a table from another database
 Export tables to another database
Adjusting column size: Point the column between the column header then drag to resize it
To adjust row height: Point the border between the row header ad drag to required row height

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Reordering table fields
 You can rearrange the fields by switching their positions. For example, instead of starting
with Firstname followed by Midname then Surname, we can change the order to start
with Surname, Firstname and then midname.
 To reorder fields: Select the column you wish to move by pointing to its header then
drag the column right or left on the top of filed where you want your field to appear and
drop.
CREATING RELATED TABLES
- One of the technical part in design of a relational database is to link tables using a foreign
key that references a primary key of another table
- A foreign key is a field in a database table that matches the primary column of another
table.
- There are three types of relationships between two tables, each named according to
number of records that may be involved in the relationship and these are:
1. One-to-one relationship
- This is a type of relationship where the primary (reference) table has only one related
record in the related (child) table and vice versa.
- For example, in a Christian marriage, a man can only marry one wife and a wife is only
married to one husband. In this case, there is only one record with that person I husband
table related to only one record in wife table. Figure below shows how to present one-to-
one relationship using an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)

Husband Wife

Most one-to-one relationship are forced by rule and don’t floe naturally as such you can just
combine both tables into one table
2. One-to-many relationship
- This is the most common type of relationship.
- In one-to-many relationship, one record from primary table correspond to one or more
related records in the child table but each record in the child table is related to one record
in the primary table
- For example, a student may take one or more subjects. In this case, there is only one
record with that student in Student table, yet there are several subjects related to the same
student in Subject table.
- Figure below shows how one-to-many relationship is represented using ERD

Student
One-to-
many
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 Subject

Creating one-to-many relationship

- Create one-to-many relationship using the tables below
- Note that primary key of Student table, AdmisionNumber is included in the Subject table
as a foreign key named StudentAdmision.

To create one-to-many relationship using Student table and Subject table above, proceed as
follows:
1. Create two tables, one named Student and the other one named Subject with the
following fields as shown from the diagram
Student: (AdmisionNumber, Fname, Lname, DOB, Grade)
Subject: (SubjectCode, StudentAdmision, Subjectname, lessonsallocated)
2. Click the Database Tool tab, then click Relationship button as shown below

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 3. In the Show table dialog box, select the Student table then click Add and then click
Subject table and click Add. The tables are displayed in the relationship window as
shown below:

4. Drag AdmisionNumber primary key on the Student table and drop it into the
StudentAdmision foreign key on the subject table. In the Edit relationship that appears,
click Create Button to establish the relationship shown below.

Enforcing referential integrity

- Referential integrity is a relational database integrity rule that ensures that every record
entered in the child table has a related record in the primary table.
- For example, if we do not have a student with AdmissionNumber M11 in the Student
table, we cannot enter subjects for her in the Subject table.
- To enforce referential integrity, proceed as follows:
1. Open the database and then display the relationship window in the Database Tool tab
2. Right click the link joining the two tables then click Edit Relationship (or just double
click it)

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 3. In the Edit relationship dialog box, select Enforce Referential Integrity check box

4. Click Ok to close the diagram

The relationship will look like below

Many-to-many relationship
-Many-to-many relationship also called non-specific relationship occurs when each record in the
primary table correspond to one or more records in the child table.
-For example, a teacher may teach more than one subject while one subject may be taught by one
more teachers.
-Figure below shows representation of many-to-many relationship using ERD

Many-many relationship

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 Teacher Subject

- As demonstrated earlier, many-to-many relationship requires a third table known as

Association table that convert the relationship to two one-to-many relationships. This is
so because relational databases do not handle many-to-many relationship
Creating Many-to-many relationship
- As discussed earlier, a third table called associated table is created that links the two
tables
- Note that the primary key of Techers and Subjects tables are included in the third
associated table named TeacherSucbject as shown below.

To create many-to-many relationship, proceed as follows:

1. Create three tables namely Teachers, Subject and teacherSubject with the following fields
Teachers: (Teacher_ID, Suname, FirstName, Gender)
TeacherSubject: (Teacher_ID, SubjectCode, Term, Year)
Subject: (SubjectCode, SubjectName, Lessonallocate)
NB: The primary key of TeacherSubject table is composite (two-in-one) primary key borrowed
from the two tables. According to normalization rule, Terms and Year in the TeacherSubject
table will depend on the composite primary key named Teacher_ID and SubjectCode
2. To create composite primary key, hold down the SHIFT key as you click the primary key
button on both Teacher_ID and Subject_Code.
3. Click the Database Tool tab then click Relationship button
4. In the Show dialog box, Select Teacher table then click Add button. Do the same with
Subjects and TeacherSubject as shown below:

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 5. Drag the Teacher_ID primary key on the Teachers table and drop it into the Teacher_ID
in the TeacherSubject table. Next, drag SubjectCode on the subject table and drop it in
the SubjectCode in the TeacherSubject table. In the Edit relationship that appears,
Enforce the referential integrity and click Create button

CREATING DATA FORMS

- A form is a graphical interface that enables the user to easily view and make data entrued
into an underlying table or query.
- In Microsoft Access, a form is designed using the form object and field controls
- A control is an object such as a text box, check box, command button or labels that you
place on a form design to display data or perform actions.
- These controls are found on a form Design Tools ribbon that appear once the form design is
displayed.
- There are two types of controls you can place on the grid:
1. Bound controls
2. Unbound controls

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 - A bound control is one whose source of data is a field in a table or query while unbound
control is a control whose source of data is not related to any data source
- You design or modify a form by placing these controls on the required position.

Designing a form
- There are two ways of designing a form
1. Using form Wizard
2. Using Design View
Designing form using Form Wizard
- A form can be designed using form wizard that takes you through a series of steps to select
the fields and layout. Examples of layout are:
1. Columnar form: The field or each record are displayed down a column on a separate line
with field labels to the left
2. Tabular form: Records are displayed from left to right across the page and labels appear
at the top of each column and each row represents a new record
3. Datasheet form: The form resembles a table in a datasheet view
4. Justified form: One record occupies the whole form.

-To create a form using the Wizard, proceed as follows:

1. On the Create tab, click Form wizard
2. In the form Wizard dialog box that appear, select the table you want to create form for
and the fields you want in the form and click Next
3. Select the layout of the form (columnar, tabular, datasheet, justified) and click Next
4. Type the Name of the Form
5. Click Finish. The form will look like below:

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CREATING FORM IN DESIGN VIEW
- Instead of using Form Wizard, you may create a form from scratch using Design grid.
Proceed as follows:
1. Open the database you want to create from
2. On the Create tab, click Form design. A design grid shown below will appear.
3. On the right of the design grid is a Field List Pane. Under the Pane, expand the field list

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 4. Drag and drop the field list on the design grid
5. Display the form on the form view to see how the controls appear in the form
I

This is in design view. In a form View, it will look like below

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To change to Form View, click View then click Form View
Form Navigation
Once the form is displayed, you will notice a navigation bar at the bottom as shown below

We use Navigation bar located at the bottom of the form to do the following
1. Display the first record in the table using

2. Display the previous record using

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 3. Display the next record using

4. Display the last record using

5. Add a New record using

Modifying form
To format Field controls on a form, proceed as follows
1. Open the form in Design view
2. To resize the control, click the control and resize to the required position
3. To move control, click the control and position the pointer onto he place holder or inside
the drag to the required location

Printing the form

A form can be printed either in design View or form View
1. Click the form tap to make it current
2. Select either design View or Form View
3. Click the Print menu

CREATING QUERIES
- The term query means a question.
- In database content, the term query refers to a question used to instruct a database to retrieve
data or perform operations
- The operations performed may be insert, update and deletion of data in a table
- The language used to query a database on behalf of the user is referred to as Structured
Query Language (SQL)

TYPES OF QUERIES
In relational database, queries are classified into two types
1. Select query
- This is the most common type of query used for searching and retrieving data from one
or more tables.
- A select query lets the user specify the search criteria and the records that meets the
criteria are displayed in a query data sheet called dynaset
2. Action query
- These queries are used to make changes to records in a table.
- An action query may be used to delete, update, add a group of records from one table to
another or create a table from another table
- There are four types of Action query and these are;
1. Update: Updates data in a table
2. Append query: Adds data in a table from one or more tables
3. Make table query: Creates a new table from a dynaset
4. Delete query: Deletes specified records from one or more tables

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Creating queries
- In Ms. Access, you can create a query in two ways
1. By using query Wizard
2. By creating query in Design View

Creating query using Query Wizard

- To create select query using query wizard, proceed as follows
1. Ensure that the database you want to create a query for is open
2. Click the Create tab, then Query Wizard Command
3. In the New query dialog box, choose Simple Query Wizard and click Ok
4. Select the table/Query to create the query from and the fields then click Next
5. Select whether to be Detailed or summery then click Next
6. Type the name of the query and click Finish

Creating Queries in design View

1. On the Create tab, click Query design
2. Select the table or tables you want to create query from and click Add as shown below:

3. Drag each field or selected fields from the table into the field row
4. Type the criteria in the criteria row;

-The following are the important sections of a query design grid that are used to specify the field
and criteria to be used to display the dynaset:
1. Field row: Fields from a table or tables to be used are displayed in this row. Each field
occupy its column
2. Table row: Indicate the table providing the fields.
3. Sort row: By clicking the down row in the sort row, you can specify the sort order, that is
ascending or descending order.

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 4. Show row: by clicking the show row, you specify whether to display the field in the
query results. When the box is not clicked, the field will not be displayed.
5. Criteria row: This I where you enter condition or expression that will be used by the
query to display specified records.
6. Or row: Used to specified an alternative condition.
Specifying query criteria
- In order to search for a particular record, you have to enter a conditional statement in the
criteria row.
- For example, if you want to display list of employees who earn salary less than 5000, then
you have to type <5000 in the criteria row under salary column.
- Other logical operators are: >, >=, <=, <> (not equal to), =
- You can also create compound expression using logical operators like AND, OR and NO, for
example:
 Use AND to display values in specific range, for example type >5000 AND <8000in
criteria row will display list of people whose salary is between 5000 and 8000
 Use OR if you e=want either one or both
 If you want data in particular range, use the word BETWEEN. For example, instead of
typing >4000 AND <6000 type BETWEEN 4000 AND 6000
 If u want list of records except those you do not want, then use NOT. For example, NOT
6000 will display the whole list except 6000
 To display list that you are not sure of but you can only remember certain letters, use
LIKE and wildcard. Wildcards are special symbols used in place of other characters... for
example, LIKE Sm?

Saving and running a query

 To save a query, click file then Save
 To run a query, click Run button on the Design tab
Crating query from multiple tables
- When you use fields from more than one table, there should be a relationship between the
tables. To create query based on related tables, proceed as follows
 Start the database window and click Create tab
 Click Query Design and on the Show Tables, choose the tables and click Add.
 Add the fields from the tales into QBE grid
 Save and run the query
Sorting queries
- In query Design view, go to sort
- Specify the sort order
- Display the Dynaset
Modifying queries
 You can modify the query by removing some fields, resizing columns, changing the
criteria and fields to be displayed.
 All these can be done by opening the query in Design View and do the needful
Printing tables, forms and queries
1. Open the database window
2. Select the table, or form or query you want to print
3. Click File then Print

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GENERATING DATABASE REPORT
- Reports are used to summarize and present information from a database while labels are
used for identity purpose.
- Report can also be designed using two way
1. Using report Wizard
2. Using Design View
Generating report using Wizard
- Just like a form wizard, a report wizard also takes a user through a number of steps by
answering a few questions. Proceed as follows:
1. Ensure that the database is open
2. Click the Create tab, then Report Wizard
3. On the report wizard dialog box, select a table or a query and the fields to be added to the
report the click Next
4. Choose if you want to add Grouping. Grouping is used to classify records using a
particular field. Click Next
5. Select the sort option if you want and click Next
6. In the layout box, select the type of layout and as well the orientation and click Next
7. In the style screen, select a report style either bold, casual or any other
8. Finally enter the name of the report
9. Click Finish
Creating report in design view
1. Click the Create tab the select Report Design. A blank report design is displayed
2. To select the table or query, click Property Sheet in Tools group of design ribbon
3. On the displayed Property sheet, click the data tab and then specify the query or table
name in the record source.
4. Click filed list button in the same group
5. Drag the each filed from the field list into the layout grid and drop it where you want it to
appear
6. Once you finish placing controls, click save icon
7. Enter the name of the report
8. To view the report, click he print preview button. The design will look like the one below

The report design grid has the following sections

 Report Header: Contains unbound control that display the title

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  Page header: Contains headings or labels for data items to be displayed in every column
 Detail section: Hold bound controls that display data items for a table or query it was
created from
 Page footer: Hold a control that will be displayed on every page such as page number
and date, for example =Now(), displays current date and time
 Report footer: Used to display summery information from a report such as totals
Modifying report design
- To modify the report, open the report in design View and make necessary changes then
save it.
Sorting and grouping
- Sorting arranges records in ascending or descending order based on specified field while
grouping keeps records together based on one or more fields in the table.
- When using the report wizard, you have the opportunity to group add grouping levels. For
example, if you select to group records using Student ID, all the records of a particular
students are grouped together on the report
To group and sort records, proceed as follows:
1. Open the report in design View
2. Click design tab then click Group and Sort
3. Click the field by which to group or sort. You can click the More button to add other
grouping and sorting options
4. Click the Close button to view the report
Printing reports
- You can print the report by:
1. Open the database
2. Select the report
3. Click File then Print
4. Set the print option
5. Click the Print option
GENERATING LABELS
- A label is a tag placed ion an item for easy identification.
- Examples of labels include: tags, mailing labels, bottle stickers.
- To generate labels using report wizard, proceed as follows
1. Open the database
2. Click Create tab then Label button in the Report group

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3. From the dialog boxes, specify the label size, font, fields to be included in the label, whether
to sort the label, the name of the label the click Finish
Modifying the label
-You can modify the label by manipulating the layout controls. You can do all these by
opening the label in a Design View
Database security
-Microsoft Access provides the user with data security features such as
1. Encryption
2. Password protection
3. Hiding database object
4. Providing user-level security
-A password protected database displays a dialog box that requests the password for opening.
1. Open the database in exclusive mode
2. On the Database Tools tab, point to Encrypt with password
3. On the Set Database Password dialog box that appears, type the password
4. Re-enter the password in the verify text box then click OK
To open the database in exclusive mode, proceed as follows:
1. Open Ms. Access and click Open Other File and then click Browse
2. Select the database file

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 3. Click Open arrow then select Open Exclusive
4. Click File tab then click Encrypt with Password
5. Type the password then click OK

TOPIC 3: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

NETWORKS
-In book 3, you learnt about basic principles of data communication networks.
-You were introduced to networking, network devices and communication media.
-In this book, you shall learn the following:
1. Types of networks
2. Network topologies
3. Reference models
4. Internet protocol addressing system
TYPES OF NETWORKS
- A network is defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner to exchange data, information or resources.
- This definition is broad and covers both computer networks and non-computer network
- Examples of non-computer networks are: road network, telephone networks, nervous
system etc.
- Computer networks ca be classified using several aspects but the most common
classification is according to size
- Currently, there are several types but the most common are the following five

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 1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Storage Area Network (SAN)
5. Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network
- This is a computer network that span a relatively small geographical area like in one bulding
or a school.
- It is usually owned by one organization. However, two LAN can be connected via data
transmission lines or electromagnetic waves.
- Most Local area network connect PC and server computer on a small network. A server is a
computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other computers on a network.
- LAN enable many users to share devices like laser printers as well as data. They also allow
users to communicate by sending messages or engaging in chart sessions.
- LAN transmit data at a very faster rate
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
- This network covers a metropolitan area like a town or city.
- It covers a radius of 5 to 50km
- Metropolitan network may be owned by a single company that has offices across a
metropolitan area or a service provider who provide network services to a subscriber in
the area.
- Metropolitan network is made up of many local area network in a metropolitan area
Wide Area Network
- This network is larger than metropolitan area network and covers large geographical; area
such as a country, a continent or the whole world.
- When it covers the whole world such as internet, it is called Global Area Network
- It consists of many local area network and metropolitan area network
Storage Area Network (SAN)
- This is a type of network where all data is stored in one powerful computer and be
accessed by users using their PCs, mobile phones, smartphones, tablet, laptops etc
- This powerful computer has powerful processor and huge memory and data storage
capacity. This forms what is called cloud computing.
- In cloud computing, processing power, data and programs can be located somewhere on a
network of powerful computer and simply accessed by users
- An example of SAN is Data center
Personal Area Network (PAN)

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- This is a type of network setup at home which allows users to share data using personal
devices like phones, laptops, tablets etc which has technology that enable them to
interconnect such as Bluetooth technology.
- This network is also called Home Area Network (HAN)

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
- The term network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have
been arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in a network.
- Therefore, a network topology can be viewed in two ways
1. Logical topology
2. Physical topology
Logical topology
-Logical topology also called signal topology refers to the way data passes from one device to
another on a network.
-Two types of logical topology are:
1. Ethernet
2. Token ring
Ethernet topology
- In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data when
no other computer is sending.
- Sending of the data is through broadcasting technology i.e. placing the data on a common
bus and all computers connected to the bus can ‘see’ it. However, the data has the address of
the recipient and only this computer picks the message from the bus.
Token ring topology
- In token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network I
a unidirectional manner.
- The token van only be taken up by the computer whose address is on the data held in the
token. After taking it, the computer reads the data and ten release the token. The token
then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.

Physical topology
- Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangements of computers on the
network.
- Examples of physical topology include:
1. Start topology
2. Bus topology
3. Ring topology
4. Mesh topology

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 5. Tree/hierarchical topology

Star topology
- In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across the
network by passing data through the hub.
- When the hub receives the data from a transmitting computer, it broadcast the message to
all other nodes on the network.

Advantages of star topology

1. It allows centralization of key networking resources like concentrators and servers
2. It gives the network administrator a focal point of network management. When the
network goes wrong, it is easy for administrator to trace the problem
3. Star topology are easy to configure
Disadvantages of star topology
1. It is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer.
2. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down
3. Installation is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own
Bus topology
 In this topology, all devices are connected to central cable called bus or backbone.
 This topology has a problem that the cable can only carry one message at a time and each
workstation on the network must be capable of knowing when it can send message and
when it cannot transmit.

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  A terminator is attached at each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back
and forth on the cable causing signal distortion.
 As the data passes through the cable, each workstation checks whether the data is
addressed to it. If the address matches the machine address, it receives the data otherwise
it rejects it.
 A network address of a computer on a local area network is called the Medium Access
Control (MAC) address.
Advantages of bus topology
1. Easy to install
2. It is less costly. Does not require complete cable per computer
Disadvantages of bus topology
1. A cable break in any section brings down the whole network
2. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the cable
3. The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable
because each computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that
increase in number of computers result in an increase collision as machine compete for
transmission.
Ring topology
- In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in a shape of a closed loop.
- Each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network
to its neighbour.
- A token is used to exchange data from one station to another.

Advantages of ring topology

1. They use short length cable
2. Easy to install

Disadvantages of ring topology

1. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire
network
2. Troubleshooting can be difficult

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 3. One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network. However, this is not the
case with IBM token ring where a device called multistation Access Unit (MSAU) is used
in the event a station fails.
Mesh topology
- This is the most common type of topology used in wide area network where there are
many paths between different location.
- Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between the node
- Every node has a connection to very other node in the network

Advantages of mesh topology

1. The network can still operate even when a node breaks down or a connection breaks
2. The network is reliable
3. Point to point connections optimize throuput of data
Disadvantages of mesh topology
1. It is expensive on cable due to redundant links
2. Administration of the network is difficult because of the peer to peer connections
Tree/hierarchical topology
- This is hybrid topology.
- Groups of star-configured networks ae connected to a linear bus backbone.

Network software
- Network software is the software that helps to efficiently utilize network resources.
- Network software is classified into two categories:
1. Network operating system

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 2. Network protocols
Network operating system
- These are operating systems specifically designed to optimize networked computers ability to
respond to service requests.
- Servers run on network operating system.
- In additional to normal operating system, network operating system performs the following
related functions:
1. Provide access to network resources e.g. printers and folders
2. Enable nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently
3. Support interprocess communications i.e. enable the various processes on the network to
communicate with each other
4. Respond to requests form application programs running on the network
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols
6. Implementing network security features
NB: Internetworking devices such as routers have their own operating system and hence can be
managed and configured for optimum performance

Network protocols
- Protocols are set of rules and procedures that govern communication between two different
devices or people.
- Therefore, network protocol refers to the rules and technical procedures that govern
communication between different computers.
- The data transmission process over the network has to be broken down into discrete
systematic steps. At each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and
procedures as defined by the network protocols.
- The work of these protocols must be coordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete
operations. This co-ordination is achieved through protocol layering.
- In a world that is full of innovation from different people, it is difficult to dictate uniformity
on how protocols are developed.
- To avoid protocols that conflict, a reference model for all developers was developed to give
guidance to all developers worldwide.
- Two reference models were developed
1. Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model
2. TCP/IP reference model

OSI reference model

- This protocol was developed by International Standard Organization(ISO)
- OSI model is not a protocol but a reference point, a standard guidelines or blueprint for hig
quality protocol development.
- OSI reference model has seven layers each performing distinct function as shown in the table
below:

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 LAYER FUNCTION
7 Application layer User application runs here and generate request for data
transmission or open received information
6 Presentation layer Format data for transmission e.g. ASCII, .tif etc
Encrypt or decrypt data
5 Session layer Set up transmission session between communicating devices
for synchronized data exchange
4 Transport layer Manage data transfer over a network to ensure reliability
3 Network layer Address information is added to the packet and internetwork
routing to destination
2 Data link layer Packs data into frames, add error checking information, sends
to physical network. All this is called Data Link control
(DLC)
1 Physical layer Data encoding, attach to physical medium, transmit bits in
voltage level format

Difference between Network and Internetwork

- The following points differentiate network and internet:
1. A network is a local area network that has homogeneous (similar) protocols while
internetwork is a network of networks that span a larger geographical area and have
different protocols
2. Network only relies on MAC address that comes with every network interface card to
exchange data while internetwork requires routing address such as IP address to exchange
data.
- Form the differences above, networking devices can be divided into two:
1. Networking devices
2. Internetworking devices
- Similarly, protocols can be divided into two
1. Networking protocols
2. Internetworking protocols
- All protocols that are designed to work at level 1 and 2 of OSI model are networking
protocols and they can be installed and used in networking devices.
- Similarly, protocols designed to work from level 3 to 7 are internetworking protocols and
can be installed to run on internetworking devices.
- A device operating at a particular level means it has capability to operate all protocols in the
lower levels.
- Figure below classifies the networking and internetworking devices based on the OSI
model

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OSI LEVEL OF OPERATION
7 Gateway
6
5 Internetworking devices
4
3 Router
2 Switch, Bridge, NIC card
Networking devices
1 Repeater, Hub

Repeater: Extend the length of a network by receiving weak corrupted signals,

regenerating them then sending them to the other part of the network. It
works at physical layer
Hub: A hub simply provides connectivity at the physical layer too. It has no packet filtering
or data addressing capabilities
Switch: It works at data link layer. It has to know the MAC address of the source and
destination of data for effective switching
Bridge: It works at data link layer. It has to know the MAC address of the data in order to
perform packet filtering on network segment
NIC card: It works at data link layer too since it has to know and send data to the right MAC
address on the network
Router: A router is an internetworking device. It operates at the network layer and runs
routing protocols like Internet protocol which enable routing of data beyond the local area
network
Gateway: It is the most powerful internetworking device. It operates at all levels of the OSI
model and has capability tom perform interprotocol conversion.
OSI LAYERS AND DATA TRANSFER ON NETWORKS
- The ISO OSI model can be used to describe how two devices attached to a network
communicate with one another. The following explanation highlight this process:
1. The user creates a message to be sent on the network using an application program
running at level 7(application layer) of the OSI model e.g. email application. Immediately
the user presses the SEND button, the message is passed to the application layer whose
protocols affix an application header (AH) in the message
2. The message is passed down the stack all the way to the physical layer. Each layer affixes
its header to the message. The message then I sent bon the network
3. At the receiving end, the message undergoes a reverse process i.e. each layer rips off its
header. For example, if the message was encrypted at the presentation layer, it is now
decrypted at that layer. As the message goes up the stack, all the headers will be removed
until the original message is presented to the receiving user application. The figure below
illustrates this process.
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Examples of protocols at each layer of OSI
Level 7: Application layer: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Level 6: Presentation layer: ASCII/EBCDIC/JPEG/TIF/GIF/MPEG/PKI etc. These protocols
format the data ready for transmission
Level 5: Session layer: Remote Procedure Call (RPC), Point to Point Tunneling Protocol
(PPTP), OSI Session Layer protocol (OSI-SP), SQL.
Level 4: Transport layer: Transport Control Protocol (TCP), User datagram Protocol (UDP),
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
Level 3: Network layer: Internet Protocol (IP), Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Level 2: Datalink layer: Ethernet, Token Ring, Point to Point Protocol (PPP), Wireless Access
Protocol (WAP), Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
Level 1: Physical layer: No protocol just encoding techniques, bit streaming, transmission
technique e.g. baseband or broadband etc
- There are many other protocols at each layer which have not been mentioned here. Below
is the brief explanation of the most important protocols at our level
Application protocols work at highest level of the OSI model
1. SMTP: The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is internet standard for electronic mail
2. FTP: The File Transfer Protocol enables a person to transfer files on the internet
Transport protocols work at the transport layer
3. TCP: The Transport Control Protocol ensures reliable transfer of data from source to
destination. It breaks down the data into packets and assigns them with sequence numbers
so that the message can be reconstructed at the destination
4. UDP: The User Datagram Protocol is unreliable data transfer protocol and is used to
transfer non-user data like signals etc.
5. SPX: Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) is part of Novell’s internetwork packet
exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequential data
6. NETBEUL: Initially, we had Network Basic Input Output System (NetBIOS). This
was exchanged by IBM to create a local area network protocol which was adopted by

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 Microsoft for its Windows NT platform and renamed NetBIOS Extended User Interface
(NetBEUI)

 Network protocols provide routing service. They handle addressing and routing
information, error checking and retransmission of requests. Some of examples of network
layer protocols are:
7. IP: Internet protocol does packet forwarding and routing using he addressing system
on the internetworks known as IP addresses. Each network on the internet has a unique IP
addresses.
8. OSPF: The Open Shortest Path First protocol helps in efficient routing of data on
internetwork i.e. it analyses all the next available routes or hops and chooses the one with
the least cost to transfer the packet.
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL MODEL
- The model was developed in 1978 long before OSI reference model
- It was developed to enable internetworking on the internet
- It combines the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet protocol (IP)into one.
- Its layered structure is similar to OSI only that it has four layers instead of seven.
- TCP/IP has the following structure:
1. The application layer
2. The transport layer
3. The internet layer
4. The network interface layer
- Note that TCP/IP does not have presentation, session and data link layers like OSI model
- The function of the missing OSI layers have been amalgamated in the four layers of TCP/IP
ISO OSI TCP/IP TCP/IP protocols
Application
TELNET
Presentation layer Application layer
SMTP

FTP

Session layer
Transport layer Transport layer TCP UDP
Network layer Internet layer IP IDMP etc.
Data link layer Network interface layer Ethernet, Token Ring etc.
Physical layer

Comparing OSI model and TCP/IP protocols

Similarities
1. They have similar architecture i.e. they both have layered design
2. They share a common application layer
3. The network layer in OSI and internet layer of TCP/IP perform same functions
4. Both model support packet switching and routing on networks
Differences
1. OSI has seven layers while TCP/IP has four layers

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 2. The session layer, presentation layer and data link layers present in OSI are missing in
TCP/IP although they are amalgamated in the four somehow

THE INTERNET AND INTRANET

- As discussed earlier on, the internet is a global network of computer networks
interconnected using TCP/IP protocols while the intranet on the other hand is a restricted
network belonging to an organization or agency interconnected using TCP/IP protocol
Differences between internet and intranet
1. Internet is accessible to every user worldwide while intranet is specific to few computers
within an organization
2. Internet has a wide access and provide a better access to website to a large population
while intranet provide a better access to website to a small population
3. Intranet is safe because it can be privatized as per need while internet cannot be
privatized so is not safe
However, internet and intranet have the following similarities
1. They both use internet protocols such as TCP/IP
2. Thy are both accessible via web browsers
3. Both can use instant messaging such as yahoo messengers or google talk
Methods of Internet Access
- The internet can be accessed in various ways using phones, laptops, computer, tablets etc.
- The internet is accessed using a special software called browser.
- The following methods are used to access internet

1. Connecting via telephone lines

- The physical telephone line has been the most widely used method of connecting a network
or computer to the internet. This is done using the following two ways:
a. Dial up connections: This used analog telephone line. A modem (modulation –
demodulation) was placed between the computer and the line. When the computer
wants to send data, the modulator enveloped the digital signal in an analog carrier, a
process called modulation. At the receiving side, another modem removes the
envelop or analog carrier wave, a process called demodulation.

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 b. Digital leased lines: Since the line is digital, no need for a modem but just a codec to
control how bits are sent/received by the computer. The connection is always up, no
need to dial up for connection.

2. Connecting via mobile telephone networks

- The mobile network is capable of carrying both voice and data
- People are able to access internet via their mobile phone.
- There are currently two types of mobile networks
i. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
-GSM networks have been evolving over time starting with 1 st generation, 2nd, 3rd to
currently to 4th generation. (Global System for Mobile communication) is a standard that forms
the basis for 2G. GSM mobile phones are divided into a handset and a removable SIM (Subscriber
Identity Module) card. SIM contain all the information about the user of it. You can fix this
remove able SIM in another handset to activate it using the same identity.

GENERATION TECHNOLOGY INDICATIVE

SPEED
2G General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) 71 kbits/s
2.5G Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution 384 kbits/s
(EDGE)
3G Universal Mobile Telecomm. System (UMTS) 2 Mbits/s
3.5G High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) 10 mbits/s
4G Long term evolution 299 mbits/s
NB: speed indicated here are design speeds, actual may vary depending on other factors
ii. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) network
- This has also evolved through stages too and the highest speed on 3G is known as
Evolution Data (EV DO) with speed up to 2 mbits/s’
- CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a technology that forms the basis of 3G mobile phones.
In CDMA there is no removable SIM. The entire information about the user and the account is
stored in the internal memory of the device or handset

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 - Figure below shows some examples of wireless modems that can be used on computers to
access the internet. A SIM card is installed in the devices.

Key Differences Between GSM and CDMA

a) The basic difference between GSM and CDMA is that the GSM is a SIM specific (i.e.
a mobile phone is identified in the network by the removable SIM inserted in that
phone) while CDMA is handset specific (i.e. the network identifies a handset by the
information stored in the internal memory and hence.
b) The technology used in GSM to identify multiple callers in a channel is TDM and
FDM. On the other hand, the in CDMA, multiple callers in a channel is separated by
the code (CDM).
c) The network tower serves all the mobile phone in a network cell in GSM. While in
CDMA there is a physical channel and a dedicated code for each cell in the network.
d) In GSM voice and data can be transmitted simultaneously whereas, CDMA can not
e) GSM roaming is worldwide while CDMA roaming is limited

3. Accessing the internet via fiber links

- One of the latest and fastest methods of accessing the internet is via fiber optic cables
- A subscriber simply applies to a service provider who comes and connect his/her premise
to the fiber network
- Although the initial expenses are high, the long run costs are cheaper

4. Wireless access using WiMax and Wi-Fi

WiMaX
- WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave.
- Small microwave transceivers are used to transmit and receive data signals both at the
service providers end and the customer across distances up to 30-50km
- Figure below shows a sample of WiMax transceiver

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 Wi-Fi
- Wi-Fi on the other hand is a wireless radio technology that is used to provide access to
the internet for computers and mobile devices like smartphones and tablets that have
internal wireless modem
- The access is usually via the wireless access point which create a radius of access called
Wi-Fi hotspot that covers a small radius like a bus, hall, airport etc.
- Wi-Fi that have Wi-Fi activated automatically detect and connect to Wi-Fi hotspot
hence to the internet whenever they are within range.
- Figure below depict Wi-Fi hotspot

ADDRESSING SYSTEM ON COMPUTER NETWORK

 All networks that are connected to the internet have a unique network number called IP
number.
 As a rule, every organization that has a network that is connected to the internet is
allocated only one IP address
Difference between IP address and MAC address
1. MAC address is a hardware address used to identify a device on the network while IP
address is used to identify a device on the internet
2. MAC address works at data link layer while IP address works at network layer
3. MAC address support hardware implementation of the network stack while IP address
support software implementation on the internet
4. MAC address remains fixed and follows the network device while IP address changes as
the network device moves from one network to another.
5. MAC address is assigned by the manufacturer of the device while IP address is assigned
by the technician when configuring internet
- There are two types of IP addresses
1. IP version 4 (IPv4)
2. IP version 6 (IPv6)
IPv4

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- This is the most common IP addressing system because it was the first to be created and
adopted widely.
- Each address is made up of 32 bits. Period (.) separate the bits into groups of 8.
- Each group of 8 bits can be converted to its decimal equivalent to create a dotted notation
that is easy to read.
- The internet address has two level structure
1. The network number or prefix: which is the first part of the address and is unique
worldwide
2. The host number on the local network
There is also a broadcast address within the address which is used send data to all host in the
network.
- Figure below shows the structure of the IP address

Network Number Host umber

OR
Network Prefix Host Number
Structure of an IP address
CLASSFUL IP ADDRESSING
 Internet addresses can be divided into classes.
 Designers of these addresses decided that for easier identification and routing, the length
of a network number can be varied to differentiate them into classes.
 Therefore, depending on the number of bits used for the network ID and the host number,
the address can be classified either class A, B, C, D and E
Class A
- In class A, the first bit (highest order bit) of the address is set to 0 and network number is
made up of the first 8 bits.
- This means that 24 bits are used to identify hosts on the internet.
Class B
- In class B, the first two bits start with 10
- The network number is made up of the first 16 bits and the host number is also made up of
6 bits
Class C
- In class C, the first three highest bits start with 110
- The network number is made of 24 bits and the host number is made up of 8 bits
- Figures below depicts the classes

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 - These first three classes are called primary classes and are the ones in commercial use all
over.
- Class D has its first four bits set as 1110 and is reserved for IP multicasting
- Class E has the first 5 bits set as 11111 and is reserved for research purpose
Interpreting IP numbers
- The lowest IP address therefor, is
- Binary notation 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
- Decimal notation 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
And therefore the highest would be
Binary notation 11111111.1111111.11111111.11111111
Decimal notation 255 . 255 . 255 . 255
i.e. between 00000000 and 11111111 there are 256 numbers or 2 n =28 = 256. We wrote 255 in
the decimal notation because we are counting from 0 i.e. when you count from 0, it becomes
2n -1 =255.
The all zeros and ones host addresses are reserved and never given out
- Number of networks and number of hosts per class can be calculated using this formula
Number of network = 2network bits
Number of hosts = 2hosts bits – 2
- As said earlier on, when calculating hosts IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased
because they cannot be assigned to hosts i.e. the first IP of a network is a network number
and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast

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 -For example
 192.168.1.0 is a network address
 192.168.1.255 is broadcast address
 192.168.1.2 – 254 are host addresses

 Class A addresses are assigned to networks with very large number of host. The first bit
of the first octet is set to 0 and therefore, the first octet ranges from 1-127 i.e
00000000 – 01111111
1 - 127
 So the class A IP addresses starts from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x, the default subnet mask is
127.x.x.x

 Class B addresses are assigned to medium to large-sized networks

 An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10 i.e:
10000000 – 10111111
128 – 191
Therefore, class B IP addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x, the default subnet
mask is 255.255.x.x

Class C addresses are assigned for small networks. The first bit of the first octet is set to
110 i.e:
11000000 – 11011111
192 – 223
Therefore, the IP addresses for class C range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. the default
subnet mask is 255.255.255.x
Therefore
Class A has number of networks = 28bits = 256
Number of Hosts = 224 bits -2=

Class B has Number of networks = 216 =

Number of Hosts = 216 – 2 =

Class C has Number of networks 224 bits =

Number of Hosts 28bits -2=
Summary of IP in Binary
CLASS FIRST OCTET
Class A 0
Class B 10
Class C 110
Class D 1110
Class E 1111

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Summary of IP in Decimal Notation
CLASS FIRST OCTET
Class A 0 to 127
Class B 128 to 191
Class C 192 to 223
Class D 224 to 239
Class E 240 to 255

For example,
128.8.74.1 is a class B
10.10.191.1 is class A
202.3.2.56 is a class C
Excise
Name the class of each of the following IP addresses:
a. 227.12.14.0
b. 193.15.45.22
c. 17.13.130.7
d. 253.5.15.111
e. 132.11.78.56

IP space Exhaustion Problem

- We have calculated that classful addressing has limited number of unique network numbers
that could be generated i.e. 232 = 4, 294, 967, 296
1. Initially, it was apparent that this number of networks could exist but as the internet grew, all
this space nearest exhausted and it became difficult to register a new network on the internet.
As such, two new addressing system was developed i.e. Classless addressing and IPv6
2. In classful addressing system, small organizations were allocated class C because it has host
number 8 bits which is 28-2, large organization were allocated class B which has 16 bits for
host i.e. 216 - 2 and very large organization were allocated class A which has 24 bits for host
i.e. 224. Assuming an organization has 300 hosts that means it should be allocated class B, but
more hosts will be wasted, so need for classless addressing system.

Classless IP addressing system

- Classless IP addressing is also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
- In this addressing system, instead of having fixed boundaries between the octets, IP address
can be assigned with the boundary of the network number and host number placed anywhere
within the 32bits address
- Routers can be told where the network number end by including a slash (/) at the end of the IP
address
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- For example, 98.168.100.0/24 means the network is 24 bits and therefore, the host is 8 bits.
The following gives more examples:
Address Number of addresses per IP
192.168.10.0/24 28 =255
192.168.10.0/22 210 = 1024
192.168.10.0/20 212=
192.168.10.0/19 213=
192.168.10.0/18 214 =
Difference between classful and classless addressing
1. In classful addressing, there is strict addressing layout specifications for the network
number and host number for various classes while in classless, this is not so and the
number of bits used for the network number and host number for an address varies
according to the size of the network.
2. In classful addressing, the class of the address determines the number of bits for the
network number and host number while in classless, we use front slash forward by
number of bits that represent the network number e.g. /8, /24, /16 etc.
3. Classful addressing brings order in the way network numbers are allocated. Classless
addressing is not as orderly because network and host bits can take an arbitrary number
depending on the size of the network hence increasing routing cost.

IP version 6 (IPv6)
- This is the new generation internet addressing system architecture designed to succeed
IPv4.
- It uses 128 bits addresses, so has very big space of 2128
- The IPv6 address consists of 8 groups of hexadecimal digits ranging from 0-F separated
by a colon for example:
2002:2c0:2001:2:213:123:249:22
- Only leading zeros are omitted, trailing ones are not. The above address is actually
2002:02c0:2001:0002:0213:0123:0249:0022
IPv6 address has the following characteristics
1. It uses 16 bit hexadecimal numbers
2. Numbers are separated by full colons (:)
3. Abbreviations are possible e.g. leading zeros in contiguous blocks are separated by
double colons(::) e.g.
2002:2c0:0000:0000:2:3c:3b:33 is equivalent to
2002:2c0::2:3c:3b:33
Specifying the network and host number

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 - We use CIDR prefix representation i.e. a slash followed by the length of the network
number written after the IPv6 umber e.g.
2002:db6:12::/48 means the first 48 bits are for network number and therefore 80
bits are for host number. The last two colons (::) here indicates that all remaining
numbers are zeroes.
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
1. IPv6 address consists of 128 bits while IPv4 has 32 bits
2. We use decimal notation to write IPv4 addresses and IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers
3. IPv6 separates the hexadecimals using colons (:) while IPv4 separates the decimals using
dots(.)
4. IPv6 was designed with modern internet and gargets technology in mind hence it is more
flexible and extensible i.e. it caters for wired and wireless
5. IPv6 has a lot more usable space than IPv4

IP configuration on Networks
- After the computer has been connected to the internet using transmission media, it still
needs to be configured in order for it to be able to communicate with other computers on
the local area network and access internet
- On windows 7 computer, this is done on Network Sharing Center
- Follow the procedure below:
1. Open Control Panel
2. Click Network and Sharing Center (NSC) link
3. In the NSC dialog box, you see all the available connections for which you can configure
their IP
4. On the left pane, click the Change Adapter settings link to view all available network
connection whether active or not
5. Right-click the one you wish to configure then select properties command
6. In the dialog box that appear, click on Internet protocol version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and then
click Properties button then click Use the following IP address option
7. Enter the IP address and the one for default Gateway

TOPIC 4: NETWORK APPLICATIONS

INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB
 Internet refers to a global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of
communication and sharing of resources.
 On the other hand, World Wide Web (WWW) refers to interlinked hypertext documents
also known as websites that are accessed using a special software called web browser.
 The term web in WWW is adapted from spider to refer to this interlinking of documents.

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  The term web is a set of related hypertext documents on the web that contain information
such as images and videos.
WEB BROWSER
 To view and navigate webpages and other information on the World Wide Web, a special
software known as a browser is used.
 With a browser, one can view information on the internet which contains text, images,
videos and navigate between other documents using hyperlinks.
 Examples of browsers are: Apple Safari, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Monzilla
Firefox, Opera etc.
 The main purpose of a web browser is to connect to web servers, request web pages, and
then properly format and display the documents.
 Each web document file is written in a language called Hypertext Markup Language
(HTPM) that include text, description of the page structure, and links to other pages,
images or media.
 Figure below shows a sample of a web browser known as Monzilla Firefox

Hypertext document
 The term hypertext document refers to a web page that has links to the same or other
pages on the web.
 By clicking on a link, a user is taken by the browser from the current page to other page
 Hypertext is structured in a way that it allows you to navigate from one page to another
instead of reading in a linear way like a book.

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  To organize hypertext document for easy access, the webpage has a unique address called
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
 For example, when you visit the site such as Google, you type URL written as
http://www.google.co.
 A URL consist of three parts namely
1. Protocol: which indicate how to get information such as http
2. The internet hostname of the computer where the content is stored such as google.com
3. The directory or other locations on that site where the content is located that follows the
forward slash
SEARCH ENGINES
 A search engine is a special site on the web that help users easily find information stored
on other websites.
 Examples of search engines are:
 Google (www.google.com )
 Yahoo (http://search.yahoo.com )
 Lycos (http://www.lycos.com )
 Bing (www.bing.com )
 Alta vista
 Excite
 Figure below shows an example of a search engine called Google

Using search engine

- As said earlier on, search engine helps internet users to search for information on the
internet. Follow the steps below to search for a word
 Identify a search engine
 Enter the keyword in the search box
 Use quotation marks to identify the keyword
 From the displayed search results, identify the site that contains the information you
want.

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How search engine works?
 Search engine normally consists of three components namely
1. Web robot or crawler
2. Indexing database (engine)
3. Query engine
 The three components operate as follows:
1. Before the user invoke a search engine, a program called spider searches for new items on
the web to add to the search engine index database as shown in figure below. This
gathering of information before user’s request make search faster.

2. The search engine indexing database receives everything the spider brings to it. It scans
the document for keywords and generate the indexes and then store them in an index
database.
3. Once the user submits the search string (a word or phrase), the query engine receives the
indexing database and process the request as follows
 Looks the keywords specified in the user queries form the index database
 Retrieves associated documents and rank them according to some preferences or
criteria such as the most visited pages
4. The result and time taken to search for the request are displayed on the browser. If the
result did not match required information, the user can refine the search words.
In summary, you need to know the meaning of the following terms and how they apply to web
design
 Website: a collection of more webpages linked together in a meaningful way that, as a
whole, describes a body of information
 Search engine: Special type of website that help users easily search information from
other websites.

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  Web server: A computer on internet or intranet that delivers web pages and other files in
response to browser requests.
 Web page: Like in a book, a web page is a single document on a website containing text
and any other items that are displayed within that page.
 Home page: The first page also known as index for a website that is loaded form which
you can navigate to other pages on the same or another websites
INTERNET SERVICES
- Internet has become very popular nowadays because of the very important services that it
offers to people.
- Users become addicted whenever they start using internet. Internet offers the following
services:
1. World Wide Web
- This is a vast virtual space on the internet where information is made available. This
information is made available on
 A website: Is a group of related web pages or other resources located on the web
server. The first page on a website is called a home page
 Web portals: provide specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports
updates, financial, news and links to select website
 Blog: Website that contains personal information which can be easily updated. It
may be used for business, advocacy and complain
 Multimedia: Sites that are meant for entertainment. It contains photos, movies,
music, web TV and internet radio.
2. Electronic mail and fax
- An electronic mail simply refers to e-mail is a message transmitted electronically on the
internet.
- What you need to send and receive e-mail is to open an e-mail account
- Other than sending e-mail, you can also use your computer to send fax messages in place
of using ordinary fax machine.
3. Instant messaging.
- This is a messaging service that allows two or more people to communicate directly.
- To get the service, you need to first register with an instant messenger such as WhatsApp,
Google+, Facebook, Yahoo Messenger, Twitter etc
4. Electronic commerce (e-commerce)
- This is buying and selling of goods and services on the internet.
- Companies or individuals develop websites to auction their goods and services
- The advantages of this is that
o It reduces operation cost (i.e. travel expenses to meet customers or customers to
meet sellers)
o It also increases sales because you reach many customers worldwide
- However, the disadvantage is that
o People deal with each other without ever meeting
o Again there is lack of proper laws to govern the business

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 5. Electronic learning (E-learning)
- In e-learning, teaching and learning as well as learning materials and lecturers are made
available over the internet.
6. Newsgroups
- These are organized groups of internet users who wish to share ideas and interests. Once
you join the newsgroup, you can participate in the discussion forums and debates.

Browsing on the WEB

- To browse also called surfing is to explore or navigate from one website to another
Format of the web address
- The web address also referred to as Uniform Resource Locator (URL) general format is
protocol://domain-name.topleveldomain. for example, to visit government website type
http://www.malawi.gov.mw in the URL box.

 Protocol: this is the rule that define how to access the content used to connect to the site
or resource. Two common examples are:
1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http://): That define standard for accessing website
2. File Transfer Protocol (ftp://): Is used for uploading content to the webserver.
 Domain name: This is the name of the server where the website or resource is located.
For example www.malawi is a domain name or website name located in www directory
 Top level domain: This represent the type of service offered by the organization. For
example, .gov.mw means that a government located in Malawi. The following highlights
other commonly used top level domains:
Top level Type
.edu Education institution
.org Non-profit making organization
.mil Military organization
.com Commercial institution
.net An organization providing network services
.ac An academic institution
- The top level domain may also have two letters extension added after the business domain
part to indicate the country in which the business or the site is located e.g.
[email protected]. This part mw stands for Malawi
- Other domain name could be
 sa (South Africa)
 ke (Kenys)
 uk (United Kingdom)

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  us (United States)
 ug (Uganda)
 tz (Tanzania)
 jp (Japan)
 au (Australia)
Hyperlinks
- hyperlinks or links are used to navigate from one page to another. To navigate from
current page to another, proceed as follows:
1. move the mouse pointer to the hyperlink until it turns to pointing finger
2. click the hyperlink once. The browser will take you to the specified page
Navigation toolbars
- The navigation toolbar consists of buttons you can easily navigate the web in Monzilla
Firefox. These include Back, Forward, refresh, home, search and stop
- Figure below shows navigation toolbar

The list below highlights the function of each button on the navigation toolbar
1. Back button: Takes the user to the previous visited web page
2. Forward button: Takes the user to visited pages after the current incase the user clicked
the back button
3. Stop button: Is used to stop loading the current web page
4. Refresh button: This is used to reload or refresh a web page
5. Search box: Where the search word is typed
6. Bookmarks: Used to bookmark the page to be revisited later
7. History: This icon is displayed on the list of recently visited web pages
8. Download: This icon is used to download the current web page
9. Home icon: The icon takes the user to the home page of the website
10. Menu icon: Clicking on this displays the main menu

Bookmarking the web page

- A bookmark is a link to a website address saved in a browser to facilitate quick access
later. You can bookmark pages that are likely visited by adding them to bookmark list
- To bookmark a site
1. Identify or load the web page you would like to revisit
2. Click bookmark icon on the navigation toolbar that resemble a star

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 3. Use the suggested name or type a new name in the box.

To view the bookmarks

1. Click the icon that resembles a clipboard on the navigation toolbar or press ctrl + Shift + B
2. On the pop-up list displayed, select the bookmark you wish to revisit
Printing the web page
1. Click File then Print
2. Set desired print properties
3. Click OK

Electronic mail (e-mail)

- To create, send and receive e-mail, an email software such as Outlook Express, Yahoo
mail, Gmail, Hotmail or Eudora are required.
- To use e-mail, you need to create account with this software (Gmail, Yahoo, Hotmail etc)

Creating a new e-mail

- To create e-mail account such as Google mail, Yahoo and Hotmail requires some
information about you e.g. first name, last name, date of birth and username.
- For example, to create e-mail account using Gmail, proceed as follows:
1. Launch a preferred internet browser and go to Google home by typing
http://www.google.com
2. Click sign-up displayed at the top right corner or click Create account
3. In the page that appears enter your first name, last name, date of birth, gender and country
and username as well as password

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 4. Sometimes you are provided with what is called CAPTCHA which ask you to enter letters
written on it in order to prove that you are not a robot
5. Choose location and click “I agree to the terms of service”
6. In the page that appears, you may create a public profile
7. Click Continue to Gmail to proceed to your Gmail account inbox and other folders
8. Once in Gmail, you can set other option like adding photos etc.

Checking for E-mail

- To open am e-mail I Gmail
1. Load the e-mail hope page by typing www.gmail.com
2. In the login page, enter username and password
3. Click sign-in

e-mail address format

- Just like a normal postal address, an e-mail address determines the destination of an email.
- A typical email address would look like [email protected] where:
1. ireenmakuwa is the name of the e-mail account
2. @ symbol separates the account name and the domain name
3. Gmail.com is the server where the email account is hosted
4. The period “.” Is read as dot and used to separate different parts of the e-mail address
5. Com identifies the type of nature of business of email service provider

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Creating a new e-mail message
- The standard format of an e-mail message comprises of three basic parts namely header
information, message body and signature
- Figure below shows a sample of gmail account

1. Header information: The header is made up of the following sections

 Address: That’s where you enter e-mail address of one or more recipients
 Subject: You specify the title of the message
 Attachment: You can add files such as documents, photos and videos to be sent
2. Message body: This is where you type the message you want to sent
3. Signature: The signature provides additional information about the sender as full name,
address and telephone number
- To compose an email, either in yahoo, Gmail or Outlook, proceed as follows:
1. Click New/Compose e-mail button
2. Type the recipient address or get it from address book
3. Type the subject of the message
4. Type in the message body
5. Click Send button
Inserting file attachments
- You can attach a file to the e-mail to be sent. The file could be picture, video or text and
should not be bigger than 25MB
- To attach such files, proceed as follows:
1. Click the Attach File at the bottom that resembles a paper clip
2. Select the file from your computer (if there are more files, press ctrl key as you are
selecting)

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 3. Click Open button to attach the selected files. The attached file will appear at the bottom
of the composed e-mail as shown below:

Managing contacts
- To avoid typing errors when entering e-mail addresses, add the contacts in the address
book. To do this, proceed as follows
1. Switch to inbox and point to e-mail address you would like to add contact. A pop up
appears such as the one below:
2. Click Add to contacts link
3. To change the contact, click the link immediately displayed to view contact details

SOCIAL NETWORKING
- There are two terms used in reference to social networking. These are:
1. Social media
2. Social networks
- Social media refers to content that you upload onto social network sites. The media
content may be in form of text, videos, photos or slideshows that people can respond and
comment on.
- On the other hand, Social networks are web-based sites that allow individuals to create a
public profile to share information with people they share interest, activities etc. some
examples of social networks are Facebook, Twitter, Linkedln, WhatsApp, Flicker,
Google+, Myspace and Mxit. It has the icons below

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 - Therefore, social networking refers to creating social relationships to interact with other
people on social networks by uploading media contents
- To interact with people, you upload pictures, texts photos and videos. Some social
networks allow users to create groups to share common interests or affiliations, stream
live videos and setup geosocial forums. Social networking has transformed the globe into
social village

Significance of social networking

- Social networking has both advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of social networking

1. Global connection: Social networking helps people make new friends and stay in touch
globally
2. Marketing: Social networking can be used to help advertise goods and services
3. Technology use: Social networking uses accessible technologies such as mobile phones
that make it possible to motivate people towards using other ICT devices such as
computers and services such as internet
4. Social cohesion: Social networking can be used to keep in touch with the family members
in a fractured society where physical meeting may not be possible due to risks or limited
infrastructure. People interact using videos and live charts.
5. Career opportunities and employment: Social networking can be a powerful engine for
job searches.
6. Political power: Social networking can leverage political groups that might not otherwise
have access. An example is US president Barack Obama who beat his rivals by
capitalizing on use of social networks
7. Security: Social networking can be used to counteract terrorism and organize criminals.
Security detective can sniff into media content to isolate cases of terrorism and organized
crimes.
8. Health and wellbeing: Social networking ca be used to get help of difficult personal by
tabling it into a public wall to solicit for support from friends.

Disadvantages of social networking

1. Threat to productivity: Social networking can be a big waste of time that has even causes
job losses due to low productivity in a workplace. Some people become more addicted to
social network which waste their time to do other important work.
2. Face-to-face connection endangered: Social networking has potentially reduced need for
physical social interaction by creating a virtual society that isolate people from their
physical meeting.

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 3. Cyberbullying and crimes against children: Use of social networks can expose
individuals particularly children to harassment or inappropriate content. Unless parents
should filter the content otherwise, children may be exposed pornography.
4. Digital divide: Social networking magnifies the gap between people who have access to
computer technology and those that don’t have access.
5. Security and privacy: Social networking can compromise privacy in a big way. Innocent
people may upload their photos, videos etc. on social media and criminals may use this
information for malicious reasons such as fraud, identity theft, terrorism and
embarrassing
6. Social networking can be used to establish government and to advance terrorism: This
has been witnessed in the recent Arab countries such as Egypt, Libya and Tunisia
7. Corrupted language: This is the use on non-standard or un grammatical language which
makes people addicted and adopt that language to be used in day-to-day talk thereby
limiting standard language development.

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

- In distributed computing, three fundamental concepts are used: distributed systems,
distributed operating systems and distributed applications
1. Distributed system: Distributed system refers to networks of heterogeneous (different)
computers, applications and using shared resources which are geographically dispersed
across networks. Figure below shows a layout of distributed system on which distributed
applications are deployed:

Two examples of distributed systems are:

a. Internet: A vast collection of computer networks. Most hardware and software
manufacturers are competing to provide software and hardware assess through internet
service referred to as “Cloud Computing”

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 b. Intranet: A privately owned internet administered by an organization to provide secure
access to the organization services. An example is bank intranet that provide real time
access to banking services anywhere any time using computers and mobile phones
2. Distributed operating system: This is a special type of operating system that controls,
integrates and homogenizes use of heterogamous hardware and software resources in a
distributed system. Some examples are Mach, Chorus, UNIX
3. Distributed application: This is an application that is distributed across several servers in a
distributed system. The main responsibility of a distributed server running on a distributed
operating system is to coordinate and provide efficient access to information and services. Some
common examples of distributed applications include:
1) Online flight-reservation: Most airlines provide online web-based or mobile applications
for real-time booking and payment of flight
2) Distributed cash dispensing machines: To enhance access to withdrawal and deposit
transactions, most banks distribute processes to multiple servers across their continents.
3) Video conferencing applications: Some video conferencing applications are distributed to
provide quality of services in sound and video transmission even across continents
4) The world wide web: described earlier on

- It is the responsibility of distributed systems to manage these applications in order to ensure

reliability of services and information even in case of partial breakdown. This is achieved
through the following distributed mechanisms
 Hardware management and control. The distributed system manages and coordinates
allocation of hardware resources such as processors, memory and storage depending on
the location of the user.
 Load balancing: Distributed system may divide a processing task to available processors
to optimize processing speed. This distribution of processing tasks across multiple
processors is what is referred to as Load balancing
 Data access: As opposed to centralized system where data access may delay due to
number of users and network limitations, distributed system and applications provide
convenient and efficient access because a copy of data is accessed from nearest server.
For example, when you type a search word on Google, the result is displayed instantly
because the results are fetched from a nearest mirror.
 Security and reliability: Ii it responsibility of distributed system and applications to
enforce security in data transmission and reliability against error in input or hardware
failure.

Benefits and challenges of distributed system

- Distributed systems and deployment of distributed applications poses a number of benefits
and challenges relating to heterogeneity of networks, computer hardware, operating
systems, security and implementation by different programmers.

Advantages of distributed systems

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 - As opposed to centralized system, distributed applications offers the following benefits
1. Reliability: Due to load balancing distribution of record copied to multiple servers across
to the user, distributed applications provide increased availability and shorter response
time.
2. Incremental growth: In distributed systems and applications, scaling up the system only
requires extension rather that’s replacing computing devices.
3. Shared utilization of resources: Distributed applications enhances data sharing
4. Communication: Distributed applications such as social networks e.g. Facebook and e-
mail applications facilitates efficient interactions spread all over the globe.
Disadvantages of distributed systems
1. Network performance: In places of poor connectivity, delay may occur between operations
such as cash withdrawal in an ATM causing frustration or failure of transactions
2. Poor implementations of distributed applications expose users to more security risks due
to multiple access points for intruders and possible communication with insecure systems
3. Software complexity: distributed system are complex to take them run on different
platform making it difficult and time consuming to troubleshoot such systems in case of
failure.

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