Stem

• Definition - The stem is the continuation

of the plant’s axis typically above the soil
surface.
 Stem
• No sharp line, but a gradual merging of
one into the other, exists between root and
stem. Typical stem carries leaves and
buds.
• Some stems are formed underground, as
is true of white potato; the tuber is an
enlarged portion of an underground stem.
 Stem functions
• Primary function –– is the pathway for the foods
(produced in leaves), minerals and water (absorbed by
roots) that are transported throughout the plant.

• Secondary functions -
- providing for growth in length or extension
- serving as the connecting link between the leaves and
roots,
- translocation of materials,
- production and support of leaves,
- storage of food materials,
- manufacture of food materials if they are green,
- support to whole plant,
- vegetative reproduction.
Morphological characteristics
Types of stem:
• herbaceous stems (peas, beans,
common grasses, clover, alfalfa, wheat
and corn)
- monocotyledonous
- dicotyledonous
• woody dicotyledonous stems (trees and
bushes)
 Characteristics of herbaceous stems:

• are soft and green,

• have very little or no tough woody tissue,
• have little growth in diameter,
• are short-lived,
• outer surfaces have epidermis and stomata,
• chlorophyll is present,
• are able to manufacture food,
• present are collenchyma and sclerenchyma,
which give support to the leaves.
 Characteristics of woody stems:

• hard and thick,

• long-lived,
• outer surfaces are rough and covered with cork
(trees and shrubs),
• have lenticels (openings beneath which the cells
are loosely arranged with many intercellular
spaces for gas exchange),
• only young woody stems contain chllorophyl,
• increases in diameter mainly from the production
of wood and cork
• In both types, leaves
and buds are present
at specific locations
along stem. Each
point of attachment is
termed a node, and
the distance between
nodes is called
internode
 Length of individual stem

Depends on:
• growth of the internodes,
• type of plant (i.e. tree, bush, grass)
• environmental conditions (e.g., temperature,
light, soil fertility)

New stems and leaves develop from buds.

 Typical arrangements of vascular
bundle scars:
When the leaf falls, and vascular
bundle scars are visible in each leave
scar
 By arrangement on the stem, buds are
termed:

• opposite – if two are at the

node
• alternate – if only one bud
present at the node
• whorled – if there are three
buds at the node
• adventitious – buds that
develop on roots, stems or
leaves and give rise to new
shoots.
 Internal structure of woody stems
Stems are considered to consist of primary (develop from an apical meristem)
and secondary (arise from a cambium) tissues.
 The primary stem system

This system provides for growth in height or

extension and consists of three regions:
• Cell division
This region exists within the buds of the
stems. The mass of meristemic cells
occur at the terminal portion or apex that
is dividing. Thus, the primary function
of this region is the making of new
cells.
Internal structure of woody stems
 The primary stem system
• Cell elongation
This region exists from the base of the buds downward through several
nodes and internodes. Apical meristem now has begun to differentiate into
specific permanent tissue. This usually occurs a few mm below the apical
meristem, and we can recognise three distinct areas:
The protoderm is the outermost layer of cells and will eventually develop into
the epidermis as they continue differentiating.
The procambium appears as isolated groups of cells arranged in a circular
fashion. This cells are much longer than neighbouring cells and can be
recognised as the beginning of vascular tissue.
The ground meristem are the cells of which eventually form pith and the
cortex. As they mature and differentiate, they gradually develop into the
various tissue.
Where secondary growth is involved, the vascular cambium arises in part of
vascular bandles. These two parts are termed the fascicular cambium
and the interfascicular cambium. The vascular cambium becomes a
complete cylinder and produces continuous cylinders of secondary
vascular tissues.
The cells of this region develop large vacuoles for the absorption of abundant
quantities of water. This absorption of water, together with the cell-
stretching hormones, elongates the cells.
 The primary stem system
Cell differentiation, or tissue formation
• This region consists of the remainder of the stem which
growth in length. The cells in this region differentiate into
distinct tissues:
1. Epidermis. It mainly consists of cells with thick walls.
Usually, the outer wall contains a layer of waxlike material
called cuticle. The thickening of the walls and the cuticle
combine to greatly reduce transpiration of stems. Thus, an
important function of the epidermis in stems is to keep
absorbed water within the plant.
2. Cortex. The cortex usually contains both living and dead
tissues. In general, the living tissue stores carbohydrates as
grains of starch, and the dead tissue, the thick-walled,
elongated fibers, gives strength and rigidity to stems. In this
way, the stems have the ability to hold the leaves in the
light and support large crops of flowers and fruits.
3. Vascular bundles. This tissue consists of:
 Vascular bundles
– Primary phloem. As mention previously, the function
of phloem is the transportation of the many
manufactured compounds- various foods, hormones
and vitamins.
– Primary xylem. The function of this tissue is the
transportation of water and the essential raw
materials in the water. In addition, the xylem tubes
and vessels, because of their structure, give strength
and rigidity to stems.
– Vascular cambium. Function of this tissue is to
increase growth in stem diameter. Meristemic cells,
derived from procambium or the ground meristem,
form a narrow cylindrical sheath of tissue, the
vascular cambium.
 The primary stem system

4. Pith. This tissue is found in the central

portion of stems consisting of
parenchyma-storage cells. The function
of these cells is the storage of food,
particularly starch-the most important
reserve carbohydrate.
 The secondary stem system

The secondary tissue is limited to gymnosperms and

dicots only. In this plants the stems grow in diameter,
or thickness. This growth in thickness is due to the
activity of:
1. Vascular cambium. Cambium divides and
forms new cells. These cells differentiate
into three tissues:
– Secondary phloem
– Secondary xylem
– Medullary rays
 The secondary stem system
• The secondary phloem and secondary xylem take over the
functions of the primary phloem and the primary xylem; and the
medullary rays store and translocate foods radially.
• Concentric rings that form in the secondary xylem can be seen
quite readily whenever a tree is cut down. One ring usually
develops each year, and so the term annual ring or growth
ring is used.
• Resin ducts or canals are the characteristics of the pine wood
(secondary xylem). They are scattered throughout the wood
and bark of various cone-baring trees, notably pine. Resin is
collected for commercial use by cutting through the wood and
allowing the resin to drip into containers. It is used in the
preparation of varnishes, perfumes, and turpentine which
produced by distillation.
The secondary stem system in Gymnosperms
 The secondary stem system
2. Cork cambium and cork. The cork cambium develops
from certain cells in the pericycle or cortex and gives
rise to the layer of cork. Since these two cambia
develop in the roots and stems of dicots, the anatomy
of the secondary root and secondary stem is similar.

• So, the main functions of the secondary plant

tissue are: providing for growth in thickness, or
diameter, and serving as the connecting link
between the primary root system and the
primary stem system, and also support and the
storage of reserve carbohydrates such as
starch and related substances.
The secondary stem system in Angiosperms
 Differences between anatomical structure of monocots and
dicots stems
Ground tissue Epidermis
sclerenchyma

Vascular bundles

Vascular bundles
Hypodermis
colenchyma

Vascular bundles

Pith Pith

Hypodermis
 Differences between anatomical structures of
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stems
Monocotyledonous stem Dicotyledonous stem
1. A limited number of vascular
1. A large number of vascular bundles.
bundles.
2. The vascular bundles are scattered in the 2. The vascular bundles are arranged in
ground tissue. a ring.
3. No cambium occurs between the xylem 3. Cambium occurs between the xylem
and phloem. and phloem.
4. There is no distinction between the cortex 4. The cortex and pith can be clearly
and pith. distinguish.
5. No Secondary thickening. 5. Secondary thickening can occur.
6. Annual rings are formed due to
6. No annual rings are formed.
secondary thickening.
Differences between anatomical structures of monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous vascular bundles

Vascular bundle of a dicot Vascular bundle of Monocot (Zea)

 Specialized stems
In a number of plants, the stems are
modified as to structure and function.
Many modifications are concerned with
vegetative (asexual) reproduction (no
fusion of gametes or production of seeds).
Although deferent from the typical stems,
these specialised stems could be
recognised if one looks for the nodes (their
buds and leaves) and for the development
of branches from the surface. There are
seven types of specialised stems:
 Specialized stems
• runners (e.g., strawberry,
Fragaria; bermuda grass,
Cynodon dactylon). Such type
of plants have:
– long and slender stem
– grows horizontally
– roots and leaves develop where
a node touches the ground
 Specialized stems
• rhizomes (e.g.,
irises and ferns).
Their characteristics
are:
– underground and
bulky (stored food)
– horizontal
– live through the
winter
– buds are located at
nodes
 Specialized stems
• tubers (e.g., Irish
potato, Solanum
tuberosum). The stem is
characterised:
– bulky underground stem
– has eyes (buds) at nodes
– internodes are
compressed
– storage stem (starch
grains in the cortical and
pith cells)
 Specialized stems
• bulbs (e.g., onion,
Allium cepa; lilies) This
type of stem consists of:
– very small stem tissue
– numerous fleshy leaves,
which are the storage
organs (sugars)
– present are terminal and
lateral buds
– contains aromatic oils
(odours and tear-
producing compounds)
 Specialized stems
• corms (e.g.,
gladiolus). It is :
– bulky
– short
– vertical
– small stem tissue
– fleshy leaves
 Specialized stems
• spines and thorns (e.g.,
thorns in roses, Rosa; spines
in cacti, Opuntia). These are:
– sturdy, sharp-pointed
structures, which have a
survival value from bruising
and damage (thorns)
– dense, white hairy covering,
which protect plants from sun
(spines)
• tendrils (e.g.,grapes, Vitis;
ivies). They are:
– long, coiling structures, which
attach the plants to a support
or
– flattened disks, which adhere
to surfaces and enable the
plants to climb vertical walls.
 Economic aspects of stems
• Medicine (quinine, an alkaloid extracted from Cinchona
bark is used to treat malaria)
• Food (potato tubers, sugar canes, spices such as
cinnamon from the bark)
• Lumber (buildings)
• Wood pulp (for paper)
• Fibers (for linen and ropes)
• The bark and cork (for stopper, insulation, life
preservers, and padding)
• Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis, a tropical tree)
• Tars and wood alcohols (from hard wood trees like oak
and hickory)
• Resins and turpentine (from soft wood like yellow pine)
• Cellulose (celluloid, cellophane, rayon, and lacquers
(ethyl cellulose))