Chapter 1 ;Standard Forms of Boolean Algebra
Chapter 1 ;Standard Forms of Boolean Algebra
Dr. E. Mujuni
Contents
1 Introduction
4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Contents
1 Introduction
4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Contents
1 Introduction
4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Contents
1 Introduction
4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Introduction
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z
Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals
Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.
Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z
Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals
Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.
Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z
Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals
Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.
Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z
Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals
Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.
Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z
Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals
Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.
Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Sum of Products
Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz
Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Sum of Products
Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz
Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Sum of Products
Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz
Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Sum of Products
Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz
Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Sum of Products
Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .
Sum of Products
Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .
Sum of Products
Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .
Sum of Products
Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .
Sum of Products
Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .
Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.
Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.
Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.
Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.
Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.
Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.
Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.
Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.
Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.
Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.
Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
SOP
Example
Convert f (x, y , w, z) = xy z + x y + xy z w into standard SOP.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Solution
1 xy z is missing w, so we put
xy z = xy z · 1
= xy z(w + w )
= xy zw + xy zw (1)
2 x · ·y is missing z and w. So we put:
xy = xy1
= x y (z + z )
= x y z +x y z
= x y z(w + w ) + x y z (w + w )
= x y zw + x y zw + x y z w + x y z w (2)
Solution
1 xy z is missing w, so we put
xy z = xy z · 1
= xy z(w + w )
= xy zw + xy zw (1)
2 x · ·y is missing z and w. So we put:
xy = xy1
= x y (z + z )
= x y z +x y z
= x y z(w + w ) + x y z (w + w )
= x y zw + x y zw + x y z w + x y z w (2)
x y z f (x, y, z) g(x, y , z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.5
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
x y z f (x, y, z) g(x, y , z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.5
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Product of Sum
Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)
Product of Sum
Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)
Product of Sum
Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)
Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the
Boolean sum y1 + y2 + . . . + yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i is called a
Fundamental Conjuction
Definition
The product of fundamental conjuctions is known as standard POS
POS
POS
POS
POS
Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.
Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.
Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.
Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.
Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Algorithm
1 List binary variables for which the output is zero (0)
Example
Determine the standard POS function f (x, yz) from the following truth
table.
x y z f (x, y , z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Table 1.6
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Solution
We have
x y z Correspond to
0 0 0 x +y +z
0 0 1 x +y +z
0 1 0 x +y +z
1 0 1 x +y +z
Therefore, after multiplying the sums, we obtain
Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
x +y =x y
xy = x + y
Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
x +y =x y
xy = x + y
Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
x +y =x y
xy = x + y
Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
x +y =x y
xy = x + y
Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.
NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1
NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.
NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1
NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.
NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1
NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.
NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1
NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.
NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1
NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Example
Show that {|} is complete.
Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.
x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)
Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Example
Show that {|} is complete.
Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.
x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)
Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness
Example
Show that {|} is complete.
Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.
x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)
Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.