Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Forms of Boolean Functions and

Completeness

Dr. E. Mujuni

April 16, 2025

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Sum of Products (SOP)

3 Product of Sum (POS)

4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Sum of Products (SOP)

3 Product of Sum (POS)

4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Sum of Products (SOP)

3 Product of Sum (POS)

4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Sum of Products (SOP)

3 Product of Sum (POS)

4 Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Introduction
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

All Boolean functions regardless of their form, can be converted into

either of the two standard forms

1 Sum of Products (SOP)

2 Product of Sum (POS)

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products (SOP)

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z

Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals

Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.

Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z

Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals

Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.

Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z

Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals

Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.

Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z

Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals

Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.

Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A literal is a
Boolean variable xi or its complement x i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example
Given f (x, y , z), the literals are x, x , y , y , z and z

Definition
A Product term is the product of the literals

Example
xy, xyz and x y z are product terms.

Definition
When product terms are summed up by Boolean addition (+) the
resulting expression is a Sum of Product (SOP)
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz

Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz

Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz

Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Example
The following expressions are SOP
1 xy + xy z + xz + y z
2 y + z + xz

Note
1 A SOP can contain a single variable, eg., x + xyz
2 in SOP a single overbar can not extend over more than one
literal, but more than one literals can have overbars. eg,
xyz Not allowed
x + y z is allowed.
Any function can be converted into SOP by using Boolean
techniques. For example:
1 x(y + wz) = xy + xwz
2 x + y z = x + y z = (x + y)z = xz + y z
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .

Hence, a minterm is a product of n variables, with one literal for each

variable.
Example
If we are dealing with a function on the variables x, y and z xyz and
x y z are minterm, while xy is not minterm, because a literal that
corresponds to z is missing.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .

Hence, a minterm is a product of n variables, with one literal for each

variable.
Example
If we are dealing with a function on the variables x, y and z xyz and
x y z are minterm, while xy is not minterm, because a literal that
corresponds to z is missing.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .

Hence, a minterm is a product of n variables, with one literal for each

variable.
Example
If we are dealing with a function on the variables x, y and z xyz and
x y z are minterm, while xy is not minterm, because a literal that
corresponds to z is missing.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .

Hence, a minterm is a product of n variables, with one literal for each

variable.
Example
If we are dealing with a function on the variables x, y and z xyz and
x y z are minterm, while xy is not minterm, because a literal that
corresponds to z is missing.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Sum of Products

Definition
The domain of a general Boolean function is the set of literals
contained in the function either complemented or incomplemented
form.
This implies that the domain of f (x, y , z) = {x, y , z, x , y , z }

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . A minterm is
a Boolean product y1 y2 . . . yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i .

Hence, a minterm is a product of n variables, with one literal for each

variable.
Example
If we are dealing with a function on the variables x, y and z xyz and
x y z are minterm, while xy is not minterm, because a literal that
corresponds to z is missing.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Sum of Products(SOP)

Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.

Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.

Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Sum of Products(SOP)

Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.

Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.

Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Sum of Products(SOP)

Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.

Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.

Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Sum of Products(SOP)

Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.

Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.

Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Standard Sum of Products(SOP)

Definition
Representation of a function as a sum of minterm is known as
standard sum of products. That is, in standard SOP, all variable in
the domain appear in each product.

Given a function which is not in standard SOP form, we use the facts
x + x = 1 and x1 = x.

Algorithm
In converting a function into standard SOP we we use the following
steps
1 Multiply each non-standard term by the sum of the missing
variable with its complement.
2 Repeat step(a) until all resulting products terms are in minterm.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

SOP

Example
Convert f (x, y , w, z) = xy z + x y + xy z w into standard SOP.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Solution
1 xy z is missing w, so we put

xy z = xy z · 1
= xy z(w + w )
= xy zw + xy zw (1)
2 x · ·y is missing z and w. So we put:

xy = xy1
= x y (z + z )
= x y z +x y z
= x y z(w + w ) + x y z (w + w )
= x y zw + x y zw + x y z w + x y z w (2)

Therefore, by subsituting equation 1 and 2 in f (x, y , z, w) we obtain

f (x, y, z, w) = xy zw+xy zw +x y zw+x y zw +x y z w+x y z w +xy z w

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Solution
1 xy z is missing w, so we put

xy z = xy z · 1
= xy z(w + w )
= xy zw + xy zw (1)
2 x · ·y is missing z and w. So we put:

xy = xy1
= x y (z + z )
= x y z +x y z
= x y z(w + w ) + x y z (w + w )
= x y zw + x y zw + x y z w + x y z w (2)

Therefore, by subsituting equation 1 and 2 in f (x, y , z, w) we obtain

f (x, y, z, w) = xy zw+xy zw +x y zw+x y zw +x y z w+x y z w +xy z w

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Up to this point we have constructed a truth table from Boolean
function. Now consider the reverse process: given a table of value,
find a Boolean function for which it is the correct table.
Example
Find Boolean expression that represent the function f (x, y , z) and
g(x, y , z) which are given in Table 1.5

x y z f (x, y, z) g(x, y , z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.5
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Up to this point we have constructed a truth table from Boolean
function. Now consider the reverse process: given a table of value,
find a Boolean function for which it is the correct table.
Example
Find Boolean expression that represent the function f (x, y , z) and
g(x, y , z) which are given in Table 1.5

x y z f (x, y, z) g(x, y , z)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0
Table 1.5
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Solution
An expression that has the value when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and
the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent f (x, y, z) Such an
expression can be formed by taking the Boolean product of x, y
and z.
This function has the value 1 iff and only if x = y z = 1, which
holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent g(x, y , z), we need an expression that equals 1
when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or when x = z = 0 and y = 1.
We can form an expression with these values by taking the
Boolean sum of two different Boolean products. The Boolean
product xy z has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0.
Similarly, the product x y z has the value 1 if and only if
x = z = 0 and y = 1.
The Boolean sum of these two products xy z + x y z represents
g(x, y, z), since it has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and
z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Solution
An expression that has the value when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and
the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent f (x, y, z) Such an
expression can be formed by taking the Boolean product of x, y
and z.
This function has the value 1 iff and only if x = y z = 1, which
holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent g(x, y , z), we need an expression that equals 1
when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or when x = z = 0 and y = 1.
We can form an expression with these values by taking the
Boolean sum of two different Boolean products. The Boolean
product xy z has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0.
Similarly, the product x y z has the value 1 if and only if
x = z = 0 and y = 1.
The Boolean sum of these two products xy z + x y z represents
g(x, y, z), since it has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and
z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Solution
An expression that has the value when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and
the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent f (x, y, z) Such an
expression can be formed by taking the Boolean product of x, y
and z.
This function has the value 1 iff and only if x = y z = 1, which
holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent g(x, y , z), we need an expression that equals 1
when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or when x = z = 0 and y = 1.
We can form an expression with these values by taking the
Boolean sum of two different Boolean products. The Boolean
product xy z has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0.
Similarly, the product x y z has the value 1 if and only if
x = z = 0 and y = 1.
The Boolean sum of these two products xy z + x y z represents
g(x, y, z), since it has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and
z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Solution
An expression that has the value when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and
the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent f (x, y, z) Such an
expression can be formed by taking the Boolean product of x, y
and z.
This function has the value 1 iff and only if x = y z = 1, which
holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent g(x, y , z), we need an expression that equals 1
when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or when x = z = 0 and y = 1.
We can form an expression with these values by taking the
Boolean sum of two different Boolean products. The Boolean
product xy z has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0.
Similarly, the product x y z has the value 1 if and only if
x = z = 0 and y = 1.
The Boolean sum of these two products xy z + x y z represents
g(x, y, z), since it has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and
z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Obtaining SOP from Truth Table

Solution
An expression that has the value when x = z = 1 and y = 0, and
the value 0 otherwise, is needed to represent f (x, y, z) Such an
expression can be formed by taking the Boolean product of x, y
and z.
This function has the value 1 iff and only if x = y z = 1, which
holds if and only if x = z = 1 and y = 0.
To represent g(x, y , z), we need an expression that equals 1
when x = y = 1 and z = 0, or when x = z = 0 and y = 1.
We can form an expression with these values by taking the
Boolean sum of two different Boolean products. The Boolean
product xy z has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and z = 0.
Similarly, the product x y z has the value 1 if and only if
x = z = 0 and y = 1.
The Boolean sum of these two products xy z + x y z represents
g(x, y, z), since it has the value 1 if and only if x = y = 1 and
z = 0, or x = z = 0 and y = 1.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Product of Sum (POS)

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Product of Sum

Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)

The following are examples of POS

i. (x + y)(x + y + z)
ii. (x + y + z)(x y + z )(x + z )
Note
1 A POS expression can have a single variable term, as in
x(x + y + z )(x + z)
2 In POS a single overbar can not extend over more than one
variable, although more than one variable in turn can have an
overbar. For example, (x + y + z ) is valid, but x + y + z is not
valid.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Product of Sum

Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)

The following are examples of POS

i. (x + y)(x + y + z)
ii. (x + y + z)(x y + z )(x + z )
Note
1 A POS expression can have a single variable term, as in
x(x + y + z )(x + z)
2 In POS a single overbar can not extend over more than one
variable, although more than one variable in turn can have an
overbar. For example, (x + y + z ) is valid, but x + y + z is not
valid.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Product of Sum

Definition
The sum term is a Boolean term consisting of the sum (Boolean
addition) of literals. When two or more sums are multiplied, the
resulting expression is Product of Sums (POS)

The following are examples of POS

i. (x + y)(x + y + z)
ii. (x + y + z)(x y + z )(x + z )
Note
1 A POS expression can have a single variable term, as in
x(x + y + z )(x + z)
2 In POS a single overbar can not extend over more than one
variable, although more than one variable in turn can have an
overbar. For example, (x + y + z ) is valid, but x + y + z is not
valid.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Definition
Let f be a function on n Boolean variable x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the
Boolean sum y1 + y2 + . . . + yn , where yi = xi or yi = x i is called a
Fundamental Conjuction

Definition
The product of fundamental conjuctions is known as standard POS

The function f (x, y, z, w) = (x + y + z + w)(x + y + z + w ) is in

standard POS.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

POS

In converting a sum term into standard POS we use the following

properties:
(a) x + 0 = 0; xx = 0( Trivial)
(b) (x + y + zz ) = (x + y + z)(x + y + z ) (Non-trivial)
Proof of (b)
x + y + zz = (x + y ) + (zz )
= [(x + y ) + z][(x + y ) + z ) Distributive
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z )
Likewise, (x + y + z + ww ) = (x + y + z + w)(x + y + z + w )
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

POS

In converting a sum term into standard POS we use the following

properties:
(a) x + 0 = 0; xx = 0( Trivial)
(b) (x + y + zz ) = (x + y + z)(x + y + z ) (Non-trivial)
Proof of (b)
x + y + zz = (x + y ) + (zz )
= [(x + y ) + z][(x + y ) + z ) Distributive
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z )
Likewise, (x + y + z + ww ) = (x + y + z + w)(x + y + z + w )
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

POS

In converting a sum term into standard POS we use the following

properties:
(a) x + 0 = 0; xx = 0( Trivial)
(b) (x + y + zz ) = (x + y + z)(x + y + z ) (Non-trivial)
Proof of (b)
x + y + zz = (x + y ) + (zz )
= [(x + y ) + z][(x + y ) + z ) Distributive
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z )
Likewise, (x + y + z + ww ) = (x + y + z + w)(x + y + z + w )
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

POS

In converting a sum term into standard POS we use the following

properties:
(a) x + 0 = 0; xx = 0( Trivial)
(b) (x + y + zz ) = (x + y + z)(x + y + z ) (Non-trivial)
Proof of (b)
x + y + zz = (x + y ) + (zz )
= [(x + y ) + z][(x + y ) + z ) Distributive
= (x + y + z)(x + y + z )
Likewise, (x + y + z + ww ) = (x + y + z + w)(x + y + z + w )
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.

Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.

Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.

Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Thus, any sum term can be converted into standard POS form by
adding a product of missing term and its complement. Step of
converting are:
1 Add each non-standard the product of missing variable and its
complement.
2 Repeat Step 1 until its resulting sum terms contains all variables
in the domain.

Example
Convert f (x, y , z, w) = (x + y + z)(x + y + w) into standard POS
form.
Solution: Left as an exercise to the reader.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Determing Standard POS From Truth Table

Algorithm
1 List binary variables for which the output is zero (0)

2 Convert each binary value to the sum of term by replacing each

one(1) replaced by the corresponding variable complement, and
each zero (0) replaced by the variable.

3 Take find a product of the resulting sum terms.

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Example
Determine the standard POS function f (x, yz) from the following truth
table.
x y z f (x, y , z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Table 1.6
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Solution

We have
x y z Correspond to
0 0 0 x +y +z
0 0 1 x +y +z
0 1 0 x +y +z
1 0 1 x +y +z
Therefore, after multiplying the sums, we obtain

f (x, y , z) = (x + y + z)(x + y + z )(x + y + z)(x + y + z ).

Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Functional Completeness
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Every Boolean function can be expressed as a Boolean sum of

minterms.

This shows that every Boolean function can be represented

using the Boolean operators · , +, and .

Because every Boolean function can be represented using these

operators we say that the set {·, +, } is functionally complete.

Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Every Boolean function can be expressed as a Boolean sum of

minterms.

This shows that every Boolean function can be represented

using the Boolean operators · , +, and .

Because every Boolean function can be represented using these

operators we say that the set {·, +, } is functionally complete.

Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Every Boolean function can be expressed as a Boolean sum of

minterms.

This shows that every Boolean function can be represented

using the Boolean operators · , +, and .

Because every Boolean function can be represented using these

operators we say that the set {·, +, } is functionally complete.

Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Every Boolean function can be expressed as a Boolean sum of

minterms.

This shows that every Boolean function can be represented

using the Boolean operators · , +, and .

Because every Boolean function can be represented using these

operators we say that the set {·, +, } is functionally complete.

Challenge
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators?
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

We can do so if one of the three operators of this set can be

expressed in terms of the other two.

This can be done using one of De Morgan’s laws. We can eliminate

all Boolean sums using the identity:

x +y =x y

Similarly, we could eliminate all Boolean products using the identity:

xy = x + y

Consequently, {+, } is functionally complete.

Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

We can do so if one of the three operators of this set can be

expressed in terms of the other two.

This can be done using one of De Morgan’s laws. We can eliminate

all Boolean sums using the identity:

x +y =x y

Similarly, we could eliminate all Boolean products using the identity:

xy = x + y

Consequently, {+, } is functionally complete.

Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

We can do so if one of the three operators of this set can be

expressed in terms of the other two.

This can be done using one of De Morgan’s laws. We can eliminate

all Boolean sums using the identity:

x +y =x y

Similarly, we could eliminate all Boolean products using the identity:

xy = x + y

Consequently, {+, } is functionally complete.

Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

We can do so if one of the three operators of this set can be

expressed in terms of the other two.

This can be done using one of De Morgan’s laws. We can eliminate

all Boolean sums using the identity:

x +y =x y

Similarly, we could eliminate all Boolean products using the identity:

xy = x + y

Consequently, {+, } is functionally complete.

Exercise
Determine whether {+, ·} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

NAND and NOR Operators

We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.

NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1

NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

NAND and NOR Operators

We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.

NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1

NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

NAND and NOR Operators

We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.

NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1

NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

NAND and NOR Operators

We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.

NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1

NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

NAND and NOR Operators

We now know that we can find sets with two operators that are
functionally complete.
Can we find a smaller set of functionally complete operators,
namely, a set containing just one operator?
Such sets exist.
Define two operators, the | or NAND operator and the ↓ or NOR
operator.

NAND operator |
1|1 = 0, 0|1 = 1, 1|0 = 1, 0|0 = 1

NOR operator ↓
1 ↓ 1 = 1, 0 ↓ 1 = 0, 1 ↓ 0 = 0, 0 ↓ 0 = 1
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Example
Show that {|} is complete.

Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.

x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)

Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Example
Show that {|} is complete.

Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.

x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)

Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.
Introduction Sum of Products (SOP) Product of Sum (POS) Functional Completeness

Example
Show that {|} is complete.

Solution
Since {·, } is complete, all that we have to do is show that both the
operator · and can be expressed using the | operator.

x = x|x
x ·y = (x|y )|(x|y)

Exercise
Show that {↓} is complete.