Development of Meta-Heuristic Optimization Based

Control of Redesigned VW Crafter Hybrid Vehicle

2024 IEEE 21st International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (PEMC) | 979-8-3503-8523-6/24/$31.00 ©2024 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/PEMC61721.2024.10726405

Aminu Babangida Péter Korondi

Department of Mechatronics Engineering Department of Mechatronics Engineering
University of Debrecen University of Debrecen
Debrecen, Hungary Debrecen, Hungary
[email protected] [email protected]

Szabolcs Sándor Diós Péter Tamás Szemes

Department of Mechatronics Engineering Department of Mechatronics Engineering
University of Debrecen University of Debrecen
Debrecen, Hungary Debrecen, Hungary
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—This paper uses the MATLAB/Simulink/Simscape these controllers are not promising candidates for the nonlinear
environment to evaluate the performance of a conventional systems’ parameter uncertainty and complexity.
Volkswagen (VW) Crafter, equipped with a 6-speed manual However, the more incredible applications of HEVs and
gearbox and a 2.0 Turbocharged Direct Injection Common
Rail Diesel (TDI CR) engine, which is converted into a hybrid their popularity in the vehicle market have led to the devel-
vehicle. A parallel hybrid vehicle powered by a Permanent opment and adopting of more advanced control techniques
Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is compared to the con- to enhance their efficiency for optimized performance as
ventional version. A genetic algorithm (GA) is applied to tune suggested in [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]. Modeling and analysis
the classical PID controller to optimize energy consumption. A of the parallel and conventional hybrid powertrains were
novel methodology is also introduced based on the hardware-
in-the-loop (HIL) method, leveraging an online data acquisition addressed in [14]. The hybrid powertrain demonstrated an
(DAQ) system integrated into the vehicle’s Controller Area improvement in fuel economy by 32.8 %. A time-space
Network (CAN Bus) system. The acquired CAN bus data is integration model predictive control (TSI-MPC) based on the
analyzed using LabVIEW and Net CAN plus 110 hardware. The principles of kinetic energy was proposed in [15] to achieve
simulated vehicle demonstrates better performance than the real further improvement in the fuel economy by 9.45 %. One
vehicle based on the comparison between the simulation and
experimental results. The transformed hybrid vehicle achieves of the drawbacks of the MPC is that poor prediction makes
75.11% reduction in fuel consumption and an energy efficiency the system’s performance worse and does not handle input
of 84.62%. disturbance properly. In [16], a sliding mode controller (SMC)
Index Terms—Energy Management, Diesel Engines, LabVIEW, was proposed to enhance the efficiency of HEV for optimized
Manual Gearbox, MATLAB/Simulink performance, and enhanced fuel consumption in [17]. In [18],
deep reinforcement learning (DRL) was proposed to reduce
I. I NTRODUCTION the fuel consumption in HEV. The simulation results show
the effectiveness of the proposed approach in reaching the
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been adopted to stay required fuel economy. The fuzzy logic and adaptive neuro-
ahead of emerging environmental problems. The HEVs have fuzzy-based GA optimization methods were applied in [19] to
been evolved to reduce air pollution levels and improve effi- reduce fuel consumption in parallel HEV. The fuel economy
ciency and drivability compared to traditional vehicles [1], [2]. increased by 1.26 % and 0.8 % compared to ruled-based and
The aforementioned positive trends make the HEVs popular in fuzzy-PI methods.
the vehicle market. Therefore, several researches in the context Inspired by the existing literature, this research aims to
of scientific manuscripts are ongoing to enhance its popularity. design a diesel-powered VW Crafter, integrated with a 6-speed
From the research perspective and early development of manual gearbox, which is redesigned into a hybrid. A com-
HEVs, linear controllers such as proportional integral and parative study is conducted between the conventional version
derivative (PID) and linear quadratic regulator (LQR) [3], and a parallel hybridized drivetrain architecture propelled by
[4], [5], [6] were adopted. However, the PID and LQR-based PMSM to compute an optimal fuel consumption. The main
classical control theory could not yield a realistic performance contributions of this paper are as follows:
[7], [8]. The former requires a precise mathematical model of • For the first time, this paper presents the transformation
the system to be established, while the latter depends heavily of conventional VW Crafter to hybrid.
on accurately tuning of the weighting matrices. Therefore, • An enhanced PID controller on the basis of a genetic

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 Where ΨA , ΨB , ΨC are the flux linkages and Rs is the phase
resistance. However, using the dq reference frame, the model
of the PMSM can be represented in dq rotating reference
frame:
(
d
Vq = Rs Iq + ωr λd + dt λq
d
(3)
Vd = Rs Id − ωr λq + dt λd
Where (
λq = Lq Iq
(4)
λd = Ld Id + λr

Fig. 1. Vehicle Dynamics adapted from [20]

Therefore, equation (3) becomes:
(
d
Vq = Rs Iq + ωr (Ld Id + λr ) + dt Lq Iq
d
(5)
algorithm is developed to compute the optimal fuel con- Vd = Rs Id − ωr Lq Iq + dt (Ld Id + λr )
sumption of the hybrid vehicle. Therefore, the electromagnetic torque in this type of electric
• Unlike the existing literature, this paper proposed a novel motor is expressed as follows:
data acquisition (DAQ) in the framework of the HIL
method approach for online CAN bus analysis for the 3P
Te = (ψr Iq + (Ld − Lq ) Id Iq ) (6)
proposed vehicle. 22
• The designed vehicle has gained better efficiency in terms Where P in equation (6) is the number of pole and for the
of fuel consumption than the existing literature for e.g., PMSM, the d-axis inductance is equal to the q-axis inductance.
[19], [14], [15]. Therefore, equation (6) becomes:

A. Vehicle Dynamics 3P
Te = (ψr Iq ) (7)
22
In this paper, a longitudinal dynamic of the vehicle is
modeled in a MATLAB/SIMSCAPE/Simulink environment. C. ICE Modeling
The tire dynamics are modeled based on the magic formula. The ICE model is parameterized on the basis of a third-order
Considering Fig. 1, the tractive force acting on the vehicle polynomial as expressed in [22] as follows:
body can be described as in [21] as follows: 
ω
 ωN (ω) ≡ ωP P


Ftr = Fw + Frr + Fgrade + FA P (ω(ωN )) = PP pN (ωN ) (8)
Fw = 0.5ρCd AF V 2
  2 3
pN (ωN ) = s1 ωN + s2 ωN + s3 ωN

 


Frr = wCrr cos θ


Where ωN (ω), ω, and ωP P , are the normalized ICE speed,

Fgrade = w sin θ (1) current ICE speed, and ICE speed at the peak power. More-

F A = mi a; where, mi = 1.04 · m over, P (ω(ωN )), PP , and pN are the current ICE power, peak




ICE power, and normalized ICE power. Finally, s1 , s2 , and s3

P = F V


are the constant coefficients of the polynomial. For wide open


E = Pt
throttle condition, the ICE torque is expressed as follows:
Where Ftr is the tractive force, Fw is the wind resistance, Frr 
2
is the rolling resistance, Fgrade is the grade resistance force, T (ω(ωN )) = p1 + p2 ωN + p3 ωN

s P

FA is the acceleration resistance force, Cd is the coefficient of p1 ≡ ω1P Pp



drag, AF is the frontal area, V is the vehicle speed, Crr is the s P
p2 ≡ ω2P Pp (9)
coefficient of rolling resistance, θ is the angle of inclination,  s3 Pp
p3 ≡ ωP P


mi is the inertial mass, a is the vehicle acceleration, P is 


ω
the tractive power, E is the tractive energy, and t is the time N P P = ωN (ωN P P ) = 1
period. Where ωN P P is the normalized engine speed aligned with
B. PMSM Modeling peak power. For the partially opened throttle condition, the
following equation can be described:
The three-phase supply voltages and currents are related as (
expressed in [1] as follows: Π = max(Πi , Πc )
0.5(1−tanh(4 ω−ω r
ωt ))−Πc
(10)
 dΠc
dx =
d
VA = dt ΨA + IA Rs
 τ
d
VB = dt ΨB + I B R s (2) where Π is the throttle, Πi is the input throttle, Πc is the
d


VC = dt ΨC + IC Rs controller throttle, ω is the engine speed, ωr is the partial or

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 TABLE I TABLE IV
T HE VW C RAFTER T ECHNICAL S PECIFICATIONS T HE ICE T ECHNICAL S PECIFICATIONS

S/ Technical Specifications S/ Technical Specifications

N Parameters Value Unit N Parameters Value Unit
1 Length 5.986 - 7.319 m 1 Number of Cylinder 4 -
2 Width 2.040 m 2 Fuel Type Diesel -
3 Height 2.355 - 2.798 m 3 Fuel System Common Rail (CR) -
4 Curb Weight 2159 - 2196 kg 4 Fuel Density 820 - 845 g/L
5 Gross Weight 3500 kg 5 Engine Displacement 1968 cm3
6 Tract, Front 1 m 6 Bore x Stroke 0.081 x 0.0955 m
7 Tract, Rear 1.346 - 1.901 m 7 Number of Valves 16 -
8 Tire Radius 0.357 m 8 Compression Ratio 16.2:1 -
9 Centre of Gravity 0.785 m 9 Engine Maximum Power 103 kW
10 Frontal Area 4.05 m2 10 Engine Maximum Torque 340 Nm
11 Rolling Resistance Coefficient 0.013 - 11 Rolling Resistance Coefficient 0.013 -
12 Drag Coefficient 0.3 - 12 Gearbox 6-Speed, Manual -
13 Air Density 1.225 kg/m3 13 After Treatment Systems DPF -
14 Acceleration due to Gravity 9.81 m/s2 14 Engine Time Constant 0.01 s

idle speed reference, ωt is the controller speed threshold, and electrical losses of the three-phase model were used to sim-
τ is the controller time constant [22]. ulate the electric car at the system level, which captures the
Table I presents the technical specifications of the VW behavior of the complex model. Table IV presents the technical
Crafter. The vehicle mass was reduced to 2758 kg after specifications used for the 2.0 TDI diesel Engine. It should be
transforming from the van to the pick-up style. In each case, noted that the MATLAB simulation in our previous research,
the maximum value was not considered, assuming there was such as [2] and [1], was based on the maximum values for
no cargo on the vehicle during the experiment. Table II the motor and engine’s power and torque as presented in
this research. After the transformation of the Crafter from the
TABLE II
T HE PMSM T ECHNICAL S PECIFICATIONS [2] TABLE V
T HE C LUTCH S CHEDULE T ECHNICAL S PECIFICATIONS
S/ Technical Specifications
N Parameters Value Unit S/ Technical Specifications
1 Motor Maximum Power 82.3 kW N Gear Shift Gear Ratio Clutch Schedule
2 Motor Maximum Torque 173 Nm 1 1st gear 5.06 100000
3 Motor Maximum Speed 8000 rpm 2 2nd gear 2.61 010000
4 Time Constant 0.02 s 3 3rd gear 1.52 001000
5 Series Resistance 0 ohm 4 4th gear 1.00 000100
6 Rotor Inertia 0.00039 kg · m2 5 5th gear 0.79 000010
7 Rotor Damping 0.00001 N m · s/rad 6 6th gear 0.68 000001
7 Final Drive 3.92 111111

presents the parameters used for the electric motor as adopted

conventional to hybrid one, a new gearbox was designed for
from our research paper [2]. Table III shows the four-quadrant
the electric mode. Table V presents the clutch schedule for the
manual gearbox and Table VI presents the initial parameters of
TABLE III
T HE PMSM Q UADRANT O PERATIONS the gearbox and how it was used to obtain the new gear ratio
of the e-motor mode such as 1.54, 3.4, and 2.33. A Single-
Quad Quadrant Operations speed gearbox was designed for the simulated hybrid model
rant Operation Speed Torque
1 Forward Acceleration Positive Positive when considering a constant reference speed.
2 Forward Braking Positive Negative
3 Reverse Accelerating Negative Negative TABLE VI
4 Reverse Braking Negative Positive G EAR I NITIAL T ECHNICAL S PECIFICATIONS [23]

S/ Technical Specifications
operation of the PMSM. This operation is used when the EV N Diameters [mm] Axial Module [mm] Number of Teeth
is accelerating or decelerating. When the vehicle accelerates, 1 d1 2.25 26
2 d2 2.25 40
the motor operates in the first quadrant, and its speed and 3 d3 2.5 20
torque are both positive. In this way, the motor converts 4 d4 2.5 68
electrical energy into mechanical rotational motion, supporting 5 d5 3 18
6 d6 3 42
the vehicle’s movement. When the car decelerates, the motor
acts as a generator and converts the mechanical energy into
electrical energy, thus opposing the vehicle’s motion. The The hybrid model simulated is driven by the diesel engine

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 Fig. 2. Transformed Hybrid Vehicle with Experimental Set up

and the permanent magnet synchronous motor based on the

Nissan Leaf traction battery.
II. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ONLINE DAQ
SYSTEM FOR THE VEHICLE CAN BUS ANALYSIS
A. Hardware Implementation
The following hardware already implemented on the car
were interconnected used in facilitating the data collection:
• Phoenix Contact Industrial Box PC
• Phoenix Contact Quint Power Supply Unit
• Phoenix Contact WLAN 5100
• Vision Systems GMBH Net CAN Plus 110 (x4)
• Phoenix Contact Wireless Module – FL Timeserver NTP
The Lenovo PC is connected to the Phoenix Contact Industrial Fig. 3. GA Flowchart [25]
Box PC remotely via a Local Area Network using an ethernet
cable. The LabVIEW software runs on this Lenovo PC to read
the Can Messages from the Electric Vehicle through the four Where kp , ki , and kd are the controller gains. The aim of the
(4) Net CAN Plus 110 devices. Fig. 2 shows the experimental control in this research it to search an optimal gains of the
set up on the Crafter HEV. controller using GA on the basis of integral error objective
functions.
B. Software Implementation  RT
The application is run on the LabVIEW platform; it receives IAE = R 0 |e(t)|dt

ISE = T |e(t)|2 dt

inputs of the IP Address, the Port number of the Net CAN plus 0R (12)
110 devices, and the BUS Speed of 500 Kbps. However, the IT AE = 0T t|e(t)|dt

 RT
IT SE = 0 t|e(t)|2 dt

user clicks on the Open button, and the CAN Channel opens
to connect to the Net CAN plus 110 devices to READ the
CAN data from the car. Where IAE is the integral absolute error, ISE is the integral
square error, IT AE is the integral time absolute error, and
III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE META-HEURISTIC IT SE is the integral time square error respectively. How-
OPTIMIZATION OF THE PID CONTROLLER ever, one of the objectives of this research is to apply an
PID controller has been used widely for commercial and optimization technique to minimize the values of these errors
industrial mechatronics products due to its simplicity and intu- by computing an optimal gains of the PID controller. The
ition for practical implementation. However, the performance GA is utilized to find the best fit for the desired performance
of the classical PID on nonlinear systems is not satisfactory. requirements.Therefore, in this research, the algorithm is re-
This research proposed an optimized PID on the basis of peatedly used to refine a population parameter setting using
the GA technique for optimal fuel consumption. The general selection, crossover, and mutation operations until it converges
structure of the PID is expressed in [24] as follows: on a solution that represents minimum values of the objective
ki functions.
C(s) = kp + + kd s (11) Figure 3 shows the flowchart used in implementing the GA
s

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 Fig. 5. Vehicle Speed due to WLTP Test

Fig. 4. GA-PID Block Diagram [25]

and Fig. 4 shows the basic block of the GA-PID controller

implemented on the system. Table VII presents the parameters
of the optimized PID obtained through the GA technique and
the classical PID parameters obtained through trial and error
method.

TABLE VII
C LASSICAL PID AND GA-PID PARAMETERS

S/ PID Parameters Fig. 6. Motor and Battery Energy Consumed

N Gains Classical PID GA-PID
1 kp 0.6 107.33
2 ki 0 0.010467
3 kd 0 172.7 fuel consumption for the conventional was 10.76 L/100 km,
while for the hybrid was 2.678 L/100 km on the basis of the
GA-PID control algorithm. This shows a 75.11 % reduction in
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION fuel consumption for the transformed hybrid vehicle. However,
the average experimental fuel consumption of the conventional
A. Experimental and Simulation Results VW crafter is 10.1 L/100 km, and consumption per mile per
This paper presents the transformation of a conventional gallon is 28 MPG. The experimental results of the VW crafter
VW Crafter to a hybrid. The research aims to evaluate the manufactured in 2018 had a fuel consumption of 10.8 L/100
optimal fuel economy and analyze the CAN bus data collected km and 26 MPG.
from the VW Crafter vehicle with the help of the CAN
bus DBC file. Fig. 5 shows the car successfully tracked the TABLE VIII
WLTP drive cycle from the MATLAB simulation based on C ONVENTIONAL AND H YBRID V EHICLES F UEL E CONOMY
the enhanced GA-PID control algorithm. Fig. 6 shows the S/ Fuel Consumption
battery and motor energy consumption. The battery energy N Nomenclature Conventional Vehicle Hybrid Vehicle
consumed per km was 0.13 kWh (13 kWh/100 km), while 1 Liters/100 kilometers 10.76 2.678
2 kilometers/Liter 9.291 37.34
the motor energy consumed was 0.11 kWh (11 kWh/100 3 Mile Per Gallon 21.85 87.82
km) respectively. Therefore, the energy efficiency is 84.62 4 Total Fuel Used 0.09824 0.02457
% for the GA-PID, while the conventional PID energy effi-
ciency is 78 %. When the vehicle was tested at a constant
speed of 13 km/h during the field test, the measured and
V. CONCLUSION
simulated Nissan Leaf battery pack voltages were 388 V
capacity and 361 V, respectively, as shown in Fig. 7. The According to current international trends, research institu-
measured and simulated battery capacities were 53.5 Ah and tions and automotive industry are steadily supporting research
54.7 Ah, respectively, as shown in Fig. 8. This shows a on HEVs and renewable fuels to reduce dependence on fossil
significant difference between the simulated and experimental fuels and dangerous air pollutants. In effect, nations worldwide
results. Therefore, this proves the need for the optimization must strive to develop cleaner environments and decrease
of the vehicle controller for efficient fuel consumption and the demand for fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions.
better performance. Table VIII presents the simulated fuel Therefore, this research transforms the ICE-powered vehicle
consumption for the conventional and hybrid VW Crafter. The into a hybrid to minimize fuel consumption while optimizing

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