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Mindset Theory

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Daniel A. Hammond
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Daniel A. Hammond

The Implicit Theory of Intelligence (Dweck & Legget, 1988), otherwise known
as Mindset Theory (MT), basically states that people hold one of two mindsets about
intelligence: a) an entity or fixed mindset, or b) an incremental or growth mindset. Entity
theorists view intelligence as a fixed trait that is predetermined by nature. On the other hand,
incremental theorists perceive intelligence as a malleable and expandable trait that can be
developed (Dweck, 1988; Dweck, 2020; Dweck & Legget, 1988). According to mindset
theorists, beliefs about intelligence influence motivation, attitude, and behavior; implicit
beliefs about intelligence can have a profound influence on motivation to
learn (Dweck, 2006). Shenk (2010) argues that, regardless of the facts about the nature of
intelligence, beliefs about intelligence can have an enormous impact on performance. Success is
a product of an underlying mindset; when students believe that intelligence can be developed (a
growth mindset), they tend to value effort, commitment, and motivation to learn (Aronson,
Fried & Good, 2002). The central idea of MT as posited by Dweck (1998) and
Sternberg and Horvath (1998) is that intelligence can be enhanced and developed through effort.
The theory is generally considered a social-cognitive learning theory (Bandura, 1977;
Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 1989).

Previous Studies

Some studies have tested the effects of MT on the motivation and academic achievement of
students. For example, one longitudinal set of studies conducted an
intervention that investigated how high school students’ beliefs about intelligence affected their
performance in mathematics (Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck 2007). Two studies were
conducted to test the effects of mindsets on academic
achievement. In Study One, MT was tested on 373 7th grade students with a growth
mindset. The elements of the growth mindset were defined to include learning goals, positive
beliefs about effort, and causal attribution strategies. In Study Two, an intervention was
tested on 48 seventh graders and compared to a control group of 43 seventh graders. The
results of the study indicated that students with a fixed mindset experienced a flat curve in
their academic achievement, while those with a growth mindset experienced an upward
movement of the performance curve, indicating an improvement in their grades over the same
period. These studies indicate that student’s beliefs about
intelligence can impact performance regardless of differences in natural ability or potential.

In another study, Burnette et al. (2018) explored the effects of a growth mindset intervention on
academic performance by conducting an experiment with 222 10th grade adolescent
girls from a rural low-income high school in the southeastern United States. The results indicated
that, relative to the control group, students who received the mindset intervention
reported a stronger growth mindset four months after the program. The effect of the experiment

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on the grades of the students was not significant. However, student motivation and self-efficacy
improved due to shifts to a growth mindset.

Further, Aronson, Fried, and Good (2001) conducted an experiment to reduce the impact of the
stereotype threat on the academic and psychological engagement of students by reinforcing to
the students the notion of a growth mindset. Stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson,
1995) suggests that negative stereotypes have an undesirable impact on the achievement of
Black students. This phenomenon is believed to undermine the academic and psychological
engagement of Black students. Consequently, the results of the
study indicated that the students who were exposed to interventions that emphasized that
intelligence is malleable recorded improvement in grades. The findings also revealed
that the students were academically engaged and enjoyed the teaching and learning process.

Finally, Uttal (1997) studied the attitudes and beliefs of Asian and American mothers
and their children about mathematical ability by assessing the importance of four aspects of a
school child’s performance. The elements were effort, natural ability, difficulty of school
work, and luck or chance. The results show that American mothers rated natural ability as more
significant to the academic achievement of their children (a fixed mindset). In contrast, Asian
mothers rated performance as more important (a growth mindset). Uttal argues that
the perception of Asian and American mothers accounts for the differences in performance
between Americans and Asians on international mathematics assessments.

Model of Mindset Theory

Figure 1 illustrates the key concepts, construct, and proposition of MT.

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Concepts and Construct

The concepts of MT include fixed and growth mindsets. Individuals who view intelligence
as fixed may avoid challenges or easily give up when they are confronted with obstacles.
Furthermore, the individual will perceive effort as unimportant and may also ignore negative
feedback. In contrast, students with growth mindsets desire to learn and improve; they embrace
challenges, persist in the face of setbacks, learn from criticism and negative
feedback, and regard effort as part of the growth. Differences in student motivation and
desire to learn are explained by the construct of determinants of performance, which includes
concepts such as attitudes, challenges, obstacles, effort, and success. The attitude of
students toward academic tasks that are difficult and challenging could be traced to the belief
held by the student about the nature of intelligence.

Proposition

Implicit theories about intelligence propose that self-theories about intelligence affect academic
and behavioral outcomes. Attitude, motivation, behavior, and academic achievement are shaped
by underlying assumptions and beliefs about intelligence.

Uses of Mindset Theory in Research

MT may be applied in research in physical domains such as sports. For example, one
may investigate how mindset may affect the performance of individuals in sporting activities
such as golf and basketball. In educational research, it could be used as a theoretical framework
in research studies that seek to investigate the psychological factors that make some students
excel even when they are confronted with challenges, while other students with
similar abilities fail. The theory could also be utilized for predicting the attitude of students with
either mindset toward academic support services. It could also be used to investigate the effects
of social conditioning, positive reinforcement, and other social-psychological factors on
academic achievement and performance. Also, it might be interesting to investigate whether
mindsets can be changed. In the area of literacy education, implicit beliefs of pre-service teachers
about how children learn to read could be used to investigate teaching practices.

Conclusion

This chapter discusses the impact of Mindset Theory on academic achievement and behavioral
outcomes. Implicit theories can be explored for investigating the effects of motivation, self-
awareness, and self-efficacy in other domains such as sport. The question of whether mindsets
can be changed is not fully settled in the current literature, nevertheless, it is known that self -
theories and beliefs require a lot of reflection and determination on the part of individuals to
modify behavior. In summary, the concepts, construct, and proposition of this social-cultural
theory offer tools for investigating, evaluating, and explaining the impact of interventions and
programs in education and other domains.

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References

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on
African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 38(2), 113–125.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.

Bandura A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-
Hall.

Bandura A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-
1184.

Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence
predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an
intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263.

Burnette, J. L., Russell, M. V., Hoyt, C. L., Orvidas, K., & Widman, L. (2018). An online growth
mindset intervention in a sample of rural adolescent girls. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 88(3), 428–445.

Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41,

Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and

Shenk, D. (2010). The genius in all of us: New insights into genetics, talent, and IQ. Knopf
Doubleday Publishing Group.

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of
African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 797–811.

Sternberg, R. J., & Horvath, J. A. (1998). Cognitive conceptions of expertise and their relations
to giftedness. In R. C. Friedman & K. B. Rogers (Eds.), Talent in context: Historical and social
perspectives on giftedness, (pp. 177 –191). American Psychological Association.

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 Citation

Hammond, D.A. (2021). Mindset theory. In J. Egbert & M.F. Roe (eds.), Theoretical models for
teaching and research (Chapter 11). Available from WSU
Open(https://opentext.wsu.edu/theoreticalmodelsforteachingandresearch/chapter/mindset-
theory/). CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

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