Physics 1

Topic Page
THERMODYNAMICS 2
CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 3
TEMPERATURE 3
HEAT 5
UNITS OF HEAT 8
SENSIBLE HEAT
LATENT HEAT
ENTROPY 10
INTERNAL ENERGY
ENTHALPY
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 11
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 12
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
CALORIMETRY EXPERIMENT
GAS LAWS 15
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES 17
GENERAL EQUATION FOR THERMODYNAMIC CURVES 19
CARNOT CYCLE 21
REFRIGERATION 23

1
THERMODYNAMICS
The term thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme
(heat) and the dynamo (power), which in most descriptive of the
early efforts to convert heat into power.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats various
phenomena of energy and the related properties of matter, especially
of the laws of transformation of heat into other forms of energy and
vice-versa.
Thermodynamic system or simply a system refers to the quantity of
matter or certain volume in space chosen for study.
Surroundings is the mass or region outside
the system
Boundary is the real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings, the boundary of a system
can either be fixed or movable.

SYSTEMS
Closed system (also known as control mass) is a system in which
there is no transfer of matter across the boundary. Energy can be
transferred but no mass can either enter or leave a closed system.
Open system (also known as control volume) is a system in which
there is a flow of matter through the boundary. It usually encloses
the device that involves mass flow, such as: compressor turbine, or
nozzle. Both mass and energy are transferred.
Isolated system is system in which neither mass nor energy cross the
boundaries and it is not influenced by the surroundings.

2
CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Intensive properties are properties which are size independent such
as temperature, pressure and density
Extensive properties are properties which depend on the size or
extent of the system. Mass, volume and total energy are examples of
extensive properties.
State “Static” properties refer to the physical condition of the
working substance such as temperature pressure, density, specific
volume, specific gravity or relative density.
Transport properties "movement" refers to the measurement of
diffusion of the working medium resulting from molecular activity,
like, viscosities, thermal conductivities, etc.

TEMPERATURE "HOTNESS OR COLDNESS"

Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and
therefore a measure of intensity of heat. It is the measure of the
average kinetic energy of the molecules.
The temperature scales:
Celsius or centigrade (Anders Celsius)
Fahrenheit (Gabriel Fahrenheit)
Kelvin (Lord Kelvin / William Thomson)
Rankine (William Rankine)

Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute

zero.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the molecules are believed
to stop moving
Relation between temperature scales
9
𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32
5
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273
𝑅 = 𝐹 + 460 = 1.8𝐾
Where;
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒; 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ)
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒; 𝑆𝐼)

3
Temperature Interval is the difference between two temperature
readings from the same scale, and the change in temperature
through which the body is heated
The temperature interval/change;
5
∆𝑇𝑐 = ∆𝑇𝐹
9
∆𝑇𝑐 = ∆𝑇𝐾
∆𝑇𝑅 = ∆𝑇𝐹

Note: 1 C° = 9/5F° and degree is to be written after the scale to

indicate that it is temperature change

Review Problems

1. The temperature of a solution is 31°C. What is the temperature in

"R?
a. 547.8 °R Solution:
9 9
c. 457.8 °R 𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32 = (31) + 32 = 87.8𝐹
b. 574.6 °R 5 5
𝑅 = 87.8 + 460 = 547.8 °𝑅
d. 475.8 °R

2. Two thermometers, one Celsius and the Fahrenheit, are both at

the same temperature, but the reading on the Fahrenheit
thermometer is exactly twice that on the Celsius thermometer,
What is the temperature? Solution:
a. 120°C 𝐹 = 2𝐶
c. 160°C 9
b. 110°C 2𝐶 = 𝐶 + 32
5
d. 135°C 𝑐 = 160𝐶

4
HEAT "FORM OF ENERGY"
Heat is a form of energy associated with the kinetic random motion
of large number of molecules
𝑄
Power: 𝑃 = units: (J/s)
𝑡
• Transmission of Heat
Conduction - takes place from molecule to molecule through a
body or through bodies in contact
FOURIER'S LAW OF CONDUCTION
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝑥
Where;
Q = heat transferred
k = thermal conductivity of the barrier
A = area
t = time
∆𝑇 = difference in temperature
x = thickness of barrier

Convection - due to the motion of molecules of the medium

NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING (circulation)
𝑄
= ℎ𝐴∆𝑇
𝑡
Where;
Q = heat transferred
t = time
h = heat transfer coefficient
A = area
∆𝑇 = difference in temperature of object and fluid

5
 Radiation - takes place without any intervening medium
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW OF RADIATION
𝑄
= 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑅4 − 𝑇𝑆4 )
𝑡
Where;
𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛′𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝑇 31)
𝜀 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
(𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 1, 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 0.7, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 0)
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐾)
𝑇𝑆 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐾)

Review Problems
3. A 22 foot uninsulated steam line crosses a room. The outer
diameter of the steam line is 18in. and the outer surface
temperature is 280°F. The convective heat transfer coefficient for
the air is 18 BTU/hr-ft2 -F. Calculate the heat transfer rate from
the pipe into the room if the room temperature is 72°F.
a. 2.88x105 BTU/hr
b. 4.88x105 BTU/hr
c. 1.88x105 BTU/hr
d. 3.88x105 BTU/hr
Solution:
𝐷
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝐿 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿
2
𝑄
= ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = ℎ𝜋𝐷𝐿∆𝑇
𝑡
𝑄 1𝑓𝑡
= (18𝑖𝑛. )(𝜋) (18 𝑖𝑛 × ) (22𝑓𝑡)(280 − 72𝐹)
𝑡 12𝑖𝑛
𝑄
= 3.88𝑥105 𝐵𝑇𝑈/ℎ𝑟
𝑡

6
4. Calculate the heat transfer per hour through a solid brick wall 6
m long, 2.9 m high, and 225 mm when the outer space is at 5°C
and the inner surface 17°C, the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of the brick being 0.6 W/m-K.
a. 2,004.48 kJ
b. 2,400.48 kJ
c. 3,004.48 kJ
d. 3,400.48 kJ
Solution:
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
= →𝑄= (𝑡)
𝑡 𝑥 𝑥
(0.6 W/m − K)(6𝑚 × 2.9𝑚)(17 − 5𝐶)
𝑄= (3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
225𝑥 ×
𝑄 = 2,004.48 𝑘𝐽

5. How many watts will be radiated from a spherical black body

15cm in diameter at a temperature of 800°C?
a. 5.31 kW
b. 4.31 kW
c. 6.31 kW
d. 3.31 kW
Solution:
𝐷 2
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋 ( )
2
𝑄
= 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑅4 − 𝑇𝑆4 ) = 𝜎𝜀𝐴𝑇 4
𝑡
𝑄 0.15𝑚 2
= (𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝑇 31)(1) (4𝜋 ( ) ) (800 + 273𝐾)4 = 5.31 𝑘𝑊
𝑡 2

7
UNITS OF HEAT
Calorie - amount of energy transfer necessary
Mechanical
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
Equivalent of Heat
1 degree Celsius 1 BTU = 1055 J
British Thermal Unit (BTU) - amount of 1 cal = 4.186 J
energy transfer necessary to raise the 1 BTU = 252 cal
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree
Fahrenheit

SENSIBLE HEAT
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Sensible heat is the heat needed to change the temperature of the
body without changing its phase.
Where; 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.0
𝑔. 𝐶°
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑇 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.0
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑏. 𝐹°
𝐽
𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.186
𝑔. 𝐾
𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.5𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.48𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

LATENT HEAT
𝑄𝐿 = ±𝑚𝐿
Latent heat is the heat needed by the body to change its phase
without changing its temperature.
QL = heat needed, m = mass, L = specific latent heat
Latent heat of Fusion - solid to liquid
Latent heat of Vaporization - liquid to gas
(+L) = heat entering → fusion & vaporization
(-L) = heat leaving → solidification & condensation
Note:
Fusion/solidification of ice (𝐿𝑓)
𝐿𝑓 = 144 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑙𝑏 = 334 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 = 80 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
Vaporization/condensation of boiling water (𝐿𝑣)
𝐿𝑣 = 970 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑙𝑏 = 2257 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 = 540 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
8
Review Problems
6. Calculate the quantity of heat to be transferred to 2.25kg of iron
to raise its temperature from 20°C to 240°C taking the specific
heat of the iron as 0.46 kJ/kg-K.
a. 722.7 kJ
Solution:
c. 227.7 kJ
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
b. 894.2 kJ
kJ
d. 632.4 kJ = (2.25kg) (0.46 ) (240 − 20𝐶) = 227.7 𝑘𝐽
kg − K

7. Determine the heat extracted from 2000 kg of water from 25°C to

ice 10°C.
a. 621,150 kJ
b. 962, 150 kJ
c. 721,220 kJ
d. 920, 920 kJ
Solution:
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝑄𝐿 = ±𝑚𝐿
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝑆1 + 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑆2
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑇 = (2𝑘 𝑘𝑔) (4.186 ) (0 − 25𝐶) − ⋯
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
−(2𝑘 𝑘𝑔) ( 334 ) + (2𝑘 𝑘𝑔) (4.186 ) (−10 − 0)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑄𝑇 = 919,160 𝑘𝐽 = 920, 920 𝑘𝐽

9
ENTROPY "DISORDER"
Absolute entropy is a measure of the energy that is no longer
available to perform useful work within the current environment. It
is the measure of randomness or disorder of the system
𝑄
𝑆=
𝑇𝐾

Where;
S = entropy (J/K)
Q = heat (J)
𝑇𝐾 = temperature (K)

INTERNAL ENERGY
Internal Energy (U) is the energy stored within the body. It is the
sum of the kinetic energies of all its constituent particles plus the
sum of all the potential energies of interaction among these particles.
It is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant volume
process.

ENTHALPY "USEFUL ENERGY"

Enthalpy (H) is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a
constant pressure process. It represents the total useful energy of a
substance.
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

Where;
H = enthalpy
U = internal energy,
P = absolute pressure
V = volume

10
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
transformed from one form to another.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐻1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸₂ + 𝐻₂ + 𝑊

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Clausius Statement (Heat Pump)
Heat energy flows spontaneously from hot body to cold body
Kelvin-Planck Statement (Heat Engine)
No heat engine that cycle continuously can change all its input
energy to useful work
Law of Conservation of Increased Entropy
If system undergoes spontaneous change, its entropy will increase or
at best, remain constant

11
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Law of Absolute Entropy or Nernst Law
The total entropy of pure substances approaches zero as the absolute
thermodynamic temperature approaches zero.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body,
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Note: the third body is usually a thermometer

CALORIMETRY EXPERIMENT
Calorimetry is an experimental technique used to measure the
specific heat of a substance. Calorimetry measurements are made
using a device called a calorimeter.
−𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄𝐺

Where;
−𝑄𝐿 = (−)𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑄𝐺 = (+) 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

12
Review Problems
8. A steam turbine receives, 1630 kg of steam per hour at 340 m/s
velocity and 3550 kJ/kg enthalpy. The steam leaves at 259 m/s
and 3020 kJ/kg. Which of the following most nearly equals the
power output?
A. 152 kW C. 561 kW
B. 251 kW D. 982 kW
Solution:
𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐻1 + 𝑄 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸₂ + 𝐻₂ + 𝑊
0 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝐻1 + 0 = 0 + 𝐾𝐸₂ + 𝐻₂ + 𝑊
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐻1 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐻2 + 𝑊
2 2
1 𝑚 2 kJ
(1630 𝑘𝑔) (340 ) + (3550 × 1630 𝑘𝑔) = ⋯
2 𝑠 kg
1 𝑚 2 kJ
= (1630 𝑘𝑔) (259 ) + (3020 × 1630 𝑘𝑔)
2 𝑠 kg
+𝑊
𝑊
𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑊 𝑆𝑇𝑂 𝐴 → 𝑃 = = 251 𝑘𝑊
3600𝑠
Note: 3600secs = per hr.
9. If 80 g of iron shot at 100C is dropped into 200 g of water at 20C
contained in an iron vessel of mass 50 g, find
the resulting temperature. (specific heat of
iron = 0.16 cal/gC)
a. 26.4 C
b. 24.6 C
c. 42.6 C
d. 46.2 C
Solution: resulting temp. = final temp (equilibrium)
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡: 80𝑔: 100𝐶; 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟: 200𝑔: 20𝐶; 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙: 50𝑔: 20𝐶; 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
0 = 𝑚𝑐𝐹𝐸 ∆𝑇 + 𝑚𝑐𝐻2𝑂 ∆𝑇+ 𝑚𝑐𝐹𝐸 ∆𝑇
cal cal
0 = (80𝑔) (0.16 ) (𝑇𝑓 − 100𝐶) + (200𝑔) (1 ) (𝑇𝑓 − 20𝐶)
gC gC
cal
+ (50𝑔) (0.16 ) (𝑇𝑓 − 20𝐶) → 𝑇𝑓 = 24.6 𝐶
gC
13
Cp, Cv, k and R
Relationship
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 Where:
𝐶𝑝 Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
𝑘= Cv = specific heat at constant volume
𝐶𝑣 R = gas constant
𝑅 k = specific gas ratio
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑘−1 monatomic = 1.67
𝑘𝑅 diatomic = 1.40 (ex; air)
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑘−1
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy OF AN IDEAL GEAS
𝑇2
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇 = ∫ 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 Where:
𝑇1 ∆U = Energy the change in Internal
𝑇2 ΔΗ = the change in Enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇 = ∫ 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 ∆S = the change in Entropy
𝑇1
𝑇2 m = the mass
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶 ln ( ) C = the specific heat,
𝑇1
∆T = the change in temperature

Review Problems
10. Determine the average Cp value in kJ/kg -K of a gas if 522 kJ of
heat is necessary to raise the temperature from 300 K to 800 K
making the pressure constant.
a. 1.044
Solution:
b. 2.401
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇
c. 1.322
522 𝑘𝐽 = (1𝑘𝑔)𝐶𝑃 (800 − 300)
d. 0.421 kJ
𝐶𝑃 = 1.044
kg. K

14
GAS LAWS
Boyles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the
volume is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

Charles Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held
𝑉1 𝑉2
(constant the volume is directly proportional to =
the absolute temperature. 𝑇1 𝑇2

Gay-Lussac Law
In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant,
𝑃1 𝑃2
the absolute pressure is directly proportional to =
the absolute temperature. 𝑇1 𝑇2

General Gas Law (combined Charles and Boyles Laws)

Each one of these law states how one quantity varies with another if
the third quantity remains unchanged, but if the three quantities
change simultaneously, it is necessary to
combine these laws in order to determine 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
the final conditions of the gas. =
Note: Pressure and temperature must be
𝑇1 𝑇2
absolute

Ideal Gas Law

𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 =
𝑀𝑀
Avogadro's Law
At equal volume, at the same temperature and pressure conditions,
the gases contain the same number of molecules.
𝑚1 𝑀𝑀1
= Where:
𝑚2 𝑀𝑀2 m1& m2 = are masses
MM1& MM2 = are molecular weights
𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽 𝐿−𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝑇 27 = 8.314 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾 = 0.0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾

15
Review Problems
11. What mass of nitrogen is contained in a 57m^3 tank if the
pressure and temperature are 1 atm and 21°C respectively?
A. 42.32 kg
Solution: nitrogen → 𝑁2
B. 32.23 kg
𝑚𝑅𝑇
C. 66.16 kg 𝑃𝑉 =
𝑀𝑀
D. 89.23 kg 101325 𝑃𝑎 𝑚[27](21 + 273)
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × ) (57𝑚3 ) =
1𝑎𝑡𝑚 2(14)𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 = 66.16 𝑘𝑔

12. A 0.71 m^3 tank contains 4.5 kg of an ideal gas. The gas has
molecular weight of 44 and is at 21°C, what is the pressure of the
gas?
Solution:
a. 235.1 kPa
𝑚𝑅𝑇
b. 352.1 kPa 𝑃𝑉 =
c. 832.2 kPa 𝑀𝑀
(4.5 𝑘𝑔)[27](21 + 273)𝑘
d. 764.2 kPa 𝑃(0.71 𝑚3 ) =
0.044 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃 = 352.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎

13. A volume of 450 cm^3 of air is measured at a pressure of 740

mmHg absolute and a temperature of 20°C. What is the volume in
cm^3 at 760 mmHg absolute and 0°C?
a. 408.3 cc
b. 242.2 cc Solution:
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
c. 982.2 cc =
d. 521.3 cc 𝑇1 𝑇2
(760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔)(450 𝑐𝑚^3) (760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔)𝑉2
=
20 + 273 0 + 273
𝑉2 = 408.3 𝑐𝑐

16
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
A process is any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another.
A path refers to the series of states through which a system passes
during a process.

Nonflow process is a process that takes place 2

in a closed system. Example: Compressor 𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
Nonflow work (by default) is the work in a 1
non flow process
Steady flow process is a process that takes place in an open system in
which the quantity of matter within the
2
system is constant. Example: turbine.
Steady flow work is the work in a steady
𝑊𝑆 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃
1
flow process.
Where: P = pressure and V = volume

Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process

Isometric process is an internally reversible constant volume
process of a working substance.
Isobaric Process or Isopiestic Process
Isobaric process is an internally reversible constant pressure
process of a working substance
Isothermal Process
isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant
temperature process of a working substance.
Polytropic Process general process
Polytropic process is an internally reversible process during
which 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶, where: n is a constant
Adiabatic Process (no heat transfer)
Adiabatic Process is one in which no heat or other energy is
transferred to or from the system.
Isentropic Process is an adiabatic process in which there is
no change in the system entropy.
Throttling Process is an adiabatic process in which there is
no change in the system enthalpy but for which there is a
significant pressure drop.

17
18
GENERAL EQUATION FOR THERMODYNAMIC CURVES
The general equation of any process is: 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶
n = 0 (isobaric process)
n = 1 (isothermal process)
n = k (isentropic process)
n = ∞ (isometric process)

Review Problems
14. A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150 degree C. As a result
of heat transfer to the surroundings, the temperature and
pressure inside the tank drop to 65 deg C and 400 kPa
respectively. Determine the boundary work done during the
process.
a. 242
b. 400
c. 0
d. 510

15. There are 1.36 kg of gas for which R = 377 J/kg-K and k=1.25
that undergo a non-flow constant volume process from 551.6 kPa
and 60°C to 1655 kPa. During the process the gas is internally
stirred and there are also added 105.5 kJ of heat. Determine the
change of entropy.
a. 2.25 kJ/K c. 5.22 kJ/K
b. 1.25 kJ/K d. 5.12 kJ/K
Solution:
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶 ln ( )
𝑇1
𝐶𝑝
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 → 𝑘 = → 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑘𝐶𝑣
𝐶𝑣
𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑘𝐶𝑣 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣(𝑘 − 1) → 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑘−1
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑃2
= → =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑃1
377 1655kPa
∆𝑆 = (1.36 𝑘𝑔) ( ) ln ( ) = 2.25 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
1.25 − 1 551.6 kPa

19
16. Gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a weighted piston as top
boundary. The gas is heated and expands from a volume of 0.04
m3 to 0.10 m3 at a constant pressure of 200 kPa. Calculate the
work done by the system.
a. 21 kJ b. 32 kJ c. 43 kJ d. 12 kJ
Solution: Isobaric
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = (200 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.10 𝑚3 − 0.04 𝑚3 ) = 12𝑘𝐽
17. A piston cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m^3 of air at 100
kPa and 80°C, the air now compressed to 0.1 m^3 in such a way
that the temperature inside the cylinder (remains constant.
Determine the work done during the process.
a. -55.45 kJ b.-12.24 kJ c. -22. 42 kJ d. -62.21 kJ
Solution: Isothermal
𝑉2 3)
0.1 𝑚3
𝑊𝑁 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln( ) = (100 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.4 𝑚 ln( ) = −55.45 𝑘𝐽
𝑉1 0.4 𝑚3
18. How much work is necessary to compress air in an insulated
cylinder from 0.20 m3 to 0.01 m3. Use T1=20°C and P1=100kPa.
a. -115.7 kJ b. -715.1 kJ c. -151.7 kJ d. -117.5 kJ
Solution: Isentropic
𝑎𝑖𝑟: 𝑘 = 1.49 → 𝑃1𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑃2𝑉2𝑘
(100𝑘𝑃𝑎)( 0.20)1.40 = (𝑃2 )(0.01)1.40 → 𝑃2 𝑆𝑇𝑂 𝐴
𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃1𝑉1 𝐴(0.01) − (100𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.20)
𝑊𝑁 = = = −115.7 𝑘𝐽
1−𝑘 1 − 1.40
19. During the polytropic process of an ideal gas, the state changes
from 138 kPa and 5°C to 827 kPa and 171°C. Find the value of n.
a. 1.24 b. 1.35 c. 1.52 d. 1.67
Solution: Combined Gas law
𝑉1 & 𝑉2 = 𝑥
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑃2
= → =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑇2
𝑃1𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2𝑉2𝑛
𝑛
𝑉1 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃2 (827)(5 + 273) 827
( ) = →( ) = →( ) =
𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑃1 (138)(171 + 273) 138

20
CARNOT CYCLE (TSTS)
Carnot Cycle is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle.
It consists of two isothermal and two isentropic processes.
Process 1-2: Process 3-4:
isothermal expansion isothermal compression
Process 2-3: Process 4-1:
isentropic expansion isentropic compression

HEAT ENGINES
𝑊 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅
Cyclic devices that take in energy by heat and
expels a fraction of this energy by work
Example:
steam engine used by trains
Change in internal energy is equal to
zero

IDEAL HEAT ENGINES

The perfect heat engine takes in energy from a
hot reservoir and does an equivalent amount of
work.
100% efficient
It is impossible to create a perfect heat engine.

21
CARNOT CYCLE
Analysis of Carnot Cycle (e):
Net work or work done
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅

Cycle Efficiency
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑒= =
𝑄𝐴 𝑇𝐻

Where: TH = higher temperature, TL = lower temperature

Remember Carnot Cycle efficiency can be increased by increasing
higher temperature and lowering the lower temperature.

HEAT PUMP REFRIGERATOR

↳ Reversed Carnot
Transfers energy from the cold reservoir (colder body) to the hot
reservoir (hotter body)
There must be input work to the device to accomplish the transfer of
energy in this direction

IDEAL HEAT PUMP

Takes in energy from a cold reservoir and expels and equivalent
amount of energy to a hot reservoir without the input of additional
work. 100% efficient

22
REFRIGERATION
REVERSED CARNOT
Refrigeration is the process of transferring heat from a low-
temperature area to a high-temperature area. Since heat flows
spontaneously only from high to low temperature areas according to
the second law of thermodynamics, refrigeration needs an external
energy source to force the heat transfer to occur. This energy source
is a pump or compressor that does work in compressing the
refrigerant. It is necessary to perform this work on the refrigerant in
order to get it to discharge energy to the high- temperature area.

Coefficient of Performance (Refrigerator)

𝑄𝐴 𝑇𝐿 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = = = −1
𝑄𝑅 − 𝑄𝐴 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑒
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑅 − 𝑄𝐴
𝑄𝑅 > 𝑄𝐴

Coefficient of Performance (Heat Pump)

𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑃𝑈𝑀𝑃 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓 + 1
𝑇𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑃𝑈𝑀𝑃 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿

23
Review Problems
20. Carnot cycle operates between 30°C and 350°C. Find the cycle
efficiency.
a. 51.36% b. 49.24% c. 24.12% d. 75.16%
Solution:
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 350 − 30𝐶
𝑒= = = 51.36%
𝑇𝐻 350 + 273𝐾

21. A Carnot cycle has a sink temperature of 100°F and cycle

efficiency of 70%. Find the temperature of the heat source.
a. 1686.67°R b. 2166.67°R c. 1866.67 R d. 2816.67°R
Solution:
𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 → ℎ𝑜𝑡 (𝑇𝐻 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 → 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑇𝐿 )
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 − 100𝐹
𝑒= → 70% = → 𝑇𝐻 = 1406.67
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻 + 460
𝑇𝐻 = 1406.67 + 460 = 1866.67 𝑅

22. A Carnot cycle operates between -8°C and 15°C. Find the
coefficient of performance. reversed Carnot (Ref)
a. 11.52 b. 14.56 c. 18.34 d. 6.34
Solution:
𝑇𝐿 −8𝐶 + 273
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = = = 11.52
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 15 − (−8𝐶)

RESONATE TO THE TOP, ENGINEERS!

SEER

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