BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources consulted during the preparation of this project are listed below:

1. NCERT Textbooks
Science Textbook for Class 10 – Chapter: Light – Reflection and Refraction
Physics Textbook for Class 12 – Chapters on Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Published by National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT),
New Delhi.

2. Wikipedia
Referred for conceptual understanding on topics like Optical Instruments,
Human Eye, Microscope, Telescope, and Lenses.

3. Teachoo.com
Used for clear explanations and ray diagrams related to convex and concave
lenses.

4. Google Search
Used for general web-based research and supporting information.
 CONCLUSION
Optical instruments apply the
principles of light and lenses to
enhance vision and observation.
From understanding the human eye
and its defects to exploring
microscopes and telescopes, we see
how image formation and magnifying
power play crucial roles. Ray
diagrams and lens behavior help us
visualize how these instruments
work. Overall, this topic highlights
the practical importance of optics in
science, technology, and everyday
life.
RAY DIAGRAMS
 LENSES
A lens is a transparent optical device made of glass or plastic, which refracts light rays to form
images. Lenses are used in many optical instruments like microscopes, telescopes, and
cameras.

Types of Lenses
1. Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
o Thicker at the center than at the edges.
o Causes parallel rays of light to converge (meet) at a point called the focus.
o Used in magnifying glasses, cameras, and the objective lens of microscopes and
telescopes.
2. Concave Lens (Diverging Lens)
o Thinner at the center than at the edges.
o Causes parallel rays of light to diverge (spread out).
o Used in spectacles for nearsightedness and in some optical instruments.

Important Terms
 Principal Axis: A straight line passing through the center of the lens.
 Focus (F): The point where parallel rays meet (convex) or appear to diverge from
(concave).
 Focal Length (f): The distance between the lens center and the focus.

Uses of Lenses
 Forming images in cameras, microscopes, and telescopes.
 Correcting vision defects like myopia (nearsightedness) and hypermetropia
(farsightedness).
 In magnifying glasses for enlarging small objects.
 MAGNIFYING POWER OF A TELESCOPE AND A
MICROSCOPE

The magnifying power of an optical instrument tells us how much larger an object appears when viewed through that instrument
compared to viewing it with the naked eye at the closest comfortable distance (called the near point, usually 25 cm).

Microscope

A microscope helps us see very small objects clearly by making their images appear larger. It uses two lenses: the objective
lens, which is close to the object, and the eyepiece lens, which is close to our eye.

The objective lens forms a magnified image of the object, and then the eyepiece lens further enlarges this image so that we can
see fine details. The total magnification depends on how these two lenses work together.

The magnifying power of a microscope depends on:

 The distance between the two lenses (objective and eyepiece),

 The focal lengths of these lenses, and

 The closest distance at which our eye can see clearly.
When the focal length of the lenses is shorter, the microscope can magnify more. This is why microscope lenses are made to
have very short focal lengths.

Telescope
A telescope is used to see distant objects, like stars and planets, much more clearly than with the naked eye. It also uses two
lenses: a large objective lens and a smaller eyepiece lens.
The objective lens gathers light from a faraway object and creates a small but real image. The eyepiece lens then magnifies this
image so that it appears larger to our eyes.
The magnifying power of a telescope depends on the focal lengths of its lenses. A large focal length of the objective and a small
focal length of the eyepiece produce higher magnification, helping us see distant objects more clearly.

Summary

In simple terms:

 A microscope magnifies very small nearby objects, helping us see tiny details.
 A telescope magnifies faraway objects, helping us see things in space.

Both instruments use lenses to bend light and enlarge the image, but the way they do it depends on the type of object they are
meant to view and the arrangement of lenses inside them.
 TELESCOPE
A telescope is an optical instrument used to observe distant objects by
collecting and focusing light. It increases the angular size of far-off
objects, making them appear closer and clearer.

Astronomical (Refracting) Telescope

 Uses two convex lenses:
– Objective lens (large focal length)
– Eyepiece lens (small focal length)
 The objective forms a real, inverted image of a distant object.
 The eyepiece acts like a magnifier, producing a final virtual, inverted,
and magnified image.
 The final image is at infinity for relaxed viewing.

Main Parts
 Objective Lens – Collects light and forms the first image.
 Eyepiece – Magnifies the image formed by the objective.
 Tube – Holds the lenses in alignment.
 Adjusting Screws – Help in focusing.

Uses
 Observing stars, planets, and celestial bodies.
 Commonly used in astronomy.
PARTS OF A TELESCOPE
 MICROSCOPES
Microscopes are devices that magnify very small objects, making them visible and
clear. They work using lenses and are important tools in science and medicine.

Types of Microscopes
1. Simple Microscope
o Uses one convex lens.
o Forms a virtual, erect, and magnified image.
o Used for viewing small objects like insects or plant parts.
2. Compound Microscope
o Uses two convex lenses: objective and eyepiece.
o Produces a virtual, inverted, and highly magnified image.
o Used in laboratories for studying cells and microorganisms.

Main Parts of a Compound Microscope

 Objective Lens – Forms the initial image.
 Eyepiece – Magnifies the image from the objective.
 Stage – Holds the specimen.
 Light Source/Mirror – Illuminates the object.

Uses
 In biology labs to study cells and tissues.
 In medicine for diagnosis and research.
 In forensics and material analysis.
 DEFECTS OF VISION
The human eye may suffer from defects that prevent clear vision. These defects arise
due to changes in the shape of the eyeball or the eye lens. The main defects covered in
NCERT are:

🔹 1. Myopia (Short sightedness)

 What happens?
A person can see nearby objects clearly but distant objects appear blurred.

 Cause:
The eyeball is elongated, or the eye lens is too curved, causing the image to form
in front of the retina.

 Correction:
Using a concave lens, which diverges light rays before they enter the eye so the
image forms on the retina.

🔹 2. Hypermetropia (Farsightedness)
 What happens?
A person can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurred.
 Cause:
The eyeball is too short, or the lens is too flat, forming the image behind the
retina.

 Correction:
Using a convex lens, which converges the rays to allow proper focusing on the
retina.

🔹 3. Presbyopia (Old Age Vision)

 What happens?
A person finds it difficult to focus on both near and distant objects.
 Cause:
With age, the eye lens loses flexibility and the ciliary muscles weaken.
 Correction:
Using bifocal lenses, which have both convex and concave sections for distant
and near vision.
 THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is a natural optical instrument that allows us to see objects by detecting and
processing light. It works on the principle of refraction, where light rays bend as they pass
through different parts of the eye to form a clear image on the retina.
Structure and Working :- The human eye consists of several important parts:

 Cornea – The transparent, curved outer layer that helps focus incoming light.
 Iris – The colored part of the eye that controls the amount of light entering by adjusting
the pupil size.
 Lens – A flexible, convex lens that further focuses light onto the retina. Its shape is
adjusted by ciliary muscles to allow near and distant vision.
 Retina – The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye where the image is formed. It
contains rods and cones, which detect brightness and color.
 Optic Nerve – Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain for interpretation.
Power of Accommodation :- The ability of the eye to adjust the focal length of its lens to focus on
objects at different distances is called power of accommodation. The ciliary muscles play a key
role in this process by changing the curvature of the lens.
Common Defects of Vision :- The human eye can experience refractive errors, leading to vision
problems:
 Myopia (Near-sightedness) – Distant objects appear blurry due to excessive curvature of
the lens. Corrected using concave lenses.
 Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness) – Nearby objects appear blurry due to insufficient lens
curvature. Corrected using convex lenses.
 Presbyopia – Age-related loss of accommodation, requiring bifocal lenses.
 Astigmatism – Uneven curvature of the cornea or lens, corrected using cylindrical lenses
 INTRODUCTION
Optical instruments are devices that enhance vision or
capture images by controlling the behavior of light rays
through reflection and refraction. They use lenses and
mirrors to modify light paths for magnification, image
formation, or improved visibility.
Common examples include the human eye, which forms
real, inverted images on the retina, microscopes, which
magnify tiny objects using convex lenses, and telescopes,
which enhance angular magnification for celestial
observation. Cameras focus light onto sensors for image
capture, while binoculars and periscopes use prisms and
mirrors to produce upright images.
The study of optical instruments is essential in fields like
astronomy, biology, photography, and communication
technologies. This project explores their principles,
working mechanisms, and applications.
 INDEX
S NO. TITLE REMARK

1 INTRODUCTION

2 HUMAN EYE

3 DEFECTS OF VISION

4 MICROSCOPE

5 TELESCOPE
MAGNIFYING POWER OF TELESCOPE AND
6 MICROSCOPE

7 LENSES

8 RAY DIAGRAMS

9 CONCLUSION

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Acknowledgment
I sincerely thank Mr. V.K. Mishra, my Physics
teacher, for his valuable guidance and
encouragement throughout this project on
Optical Instruments. His insights have been
instrumental in enriching my understanding of
the subject.
I also appreciate the support and resources that
helped me gather relevant information. This
project has been a great learning experience,
deepening my knowledge of optical principles
and their applications.

SIGNATURE
 MONTFORT INTER COLLEGE , LUCKNOW

SESSION – 2025 - 2026

PHYSICS FILE PROJECT

NAME – RAM SHANKHDHAR

CLASS – XII
SECTION – D
ROLL-NO. – 34
SUBJECT – PHYSICS
TOPIC – OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
TEACHER – MR. V.K MISHRA