NCERT Based KT’s PowerNotes NEET 2022

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Biotechnology Principle and Processes
What is Biotechnology? Action of Restriction nuclease
• Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or • Types
enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes  Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA
useful to humans  Endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA
• Biotechnology involve genetically modified organism • Restriction endonuclease
• Example of Biotechnology processes : Test tube baby,  Restriction endonuclease recognises a specific palindromic
developing vaccine, correcting defective gene nucleotide sequence in the DNA → sticky ends are formed that
• Making curd, bread or wine, though microbial product but these can be joined by DNA ligase
are not part of biotechnology process  EcoRl recognition sequence is 5' GAATTC 3'
 When cut by the same restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA
Principles of biotechnology fragments have the same kind of ‘sticky-ends’ and, these can
Techniques of biotechnology: be joined together (end-to-end) using DNA ligases
• Genetic engineering Separation and isolation of DNA fragments
 Alter the Genetic material (DNA and RNA) → microbe is Agarose Gel electrophoresis
modified → changes the phenotype of organism
Motive Fragments cut by restriction endonuclease are separated by Gel
• Bioprocess engineering
electrophoresis
 Growing modified microbes in ambience → vaccine, enzyme Charge DNA fragments are negatively charge, move towards anode
etc is produced Separation Fragments are separated based on size, smaller moves farther
Traditional hybridisation procedures used in plant and animal Gel Gel is obtained from sea weed (red algae)
breeding, very often lead to inclusion of undesirable genes this Elution The separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and
limitation is overcome by biotechnology which to allows only set extracted from the gel piece
of desirable genes into the target organism Visualize DNA Use ethidium bromide, followed by UV exposure --- orange colour
Sieving effect Provided by gel
Construction of First recombinant DNA Cloning vector
Cloning vectors produces multiple copies of desired gene
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer isolated antibiotic resistance Vectors: Plasmid or bacteriophage (have high copy number)
gene from Salmonella Typhi by molecular scissors’– restriction
enzymes → The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the Features of cloning vector
plasmid (Vector) DNA by DNA Ligase → recombinant DNA is
introduced into E coli which multiplied using DNA polymerase 1) Origin of replication (ori)
enzyme → multiply copies of antibiotic resistance gene formed in • This is a sequence from where replication starts
E Coli (cloning) • ori responsible for controlling the copy number of DNA
• Foreign DNA linked to ori also replicates when vector DNA
Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA) replicates
Component Digestive enzyme
2) Cloning sites
Bacteria Lysozyme
Plant cells Cellulase
• Vector preferably should have single recognition site for the
Fungus Chitinase
commonly used restriction enzymes
RNA Ribonuclease • Presence of more than one recognition sites within the vector
Proteins Protease will generate several fragments

3) pBR 322
• DNA is precipitate with chilled ethanol • Bollivar and Rodrigues synthesized pBR 322
• DNA that separates out can be removed by spooling • pBR322 is the plasmid and most used cloning vector of E. coli.
• Ampicillin (ampR) & tetracycline (tetR) are selectable markers.
Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations • It has ori and different cloning like BamHl in tetR ,
DNA is cut at specific location by restriction endonuclease Pvul and Pstl in ampR
Discovery of restriction endonuclease • rop codes for the proteins involved in the replication of plasmid.
• In 1963, Two enzymes were discovered from E Coli which
protect E Coli from bacterial infection (bacteriophage)
 Methylase : It adds methyl group to palindrome of E Coli
 Restriction endonuclease : Cut palindrome of virus
• First restriction endonuclease that was characterized – HIND II

Convention for naming restriction enzyme

EcoRI comes from Escherichia coli RY 13
1. First letter indicates genus E for E Coli
2. Second two letters come from the species of prokaryotic cell
from which enzyme is isolated (co of E coli)
3. R is strain of E Coli RY 13
4. Roman numbers following the names indicate the order in
which the enzyme was isolated from strain of bacteria

Biology BOMB
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• Retrovirus is disarmed and then used to deliver desirable genes
4) Selectable marker into animal cells.
• Selectable marker, helps in identifying transformants and non Competent Host
transformants • Host cell must be made competent to take up DNA
• Antibiotic resistance genes are considered useful selectable • DNA is a hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell
markers for E. coli membranes host (bacterial cell)
• Antibiotic resistance gene allow the growth of only • Transformation is a procedure through which a piece of DNA is
transformants in the media introduced in a host bacterium
a) Antibiotic resistance gene 1) To Pass DNA into host cell
 Treat bacterial cell with divalent cation (calcium) → this
creates pores in cell wall→ recombinant DNA enters the cell
 Animal cell → micro-injection technique : recombinant DNA
is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell
 Plant cell → biolistic or gene gun (micro-particles of gold or
tungsten is used) : plants, cells are bombarded with high
velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA
 Disarmed pathogen vectors like retrovirus having recombinant
DNA are used to infect the cell
2) To enable bacterial cell take up DNA
 Heat shock treatment enables bacteria to take up DNA
Antibiotic resistance gene are called as selection marker as it helps Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product
in selection of recombinants.
Heterologous expression refers to the expression of a gene in a
b) Beta galactosidase enzyme host organism which does not naturally have this gene
Beta galactosidase help differentiate recombinants from non- eg Insulin is not produce naturally by E Coli but if insulin gene is
recombinants on the basis of their ability to produce colour introduced into then E Coli starts producing Insulin so here E Coli
is called Heterologous host which produced recombinant protein
Bioreactor
Bioreactor is a vessel where large volumes (100-1000 litres) of
culture can be processed.
• A bioreactor provides the optimal conditions for desired product
• The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type
• Stirring type bioreactors are of two kinds:
Simple stirred tank bioreactor, Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor
Simple stirred tank bioreactor Sparged stirred-tank bioreacto
Has stirrer which helps in uniform mixing This has increased surface area for
c) Ampicillin resistance gene and availability of oxygen throughout the oxygen transfer than simple stirred-
if a recombinant DNA bearing gene for resistance to an antibiotic bioreactor. tank
(e.g., ampicillin) is transferred into E. coli cells, the host cells
Downstream Processing
become transformed into ampicillin-resistant cells. When
• Downstream processing includes Separation and purification
transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin,
• Add preservative, do clinical trial, do quality control testing
only transformants will grow, untransformed recipient cells will
PCR
die. The ampicillin resistance gene in this case is called
• PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction
a selectable marker.
• Multiple copies of the gene (or DNA) of interest is synthesized
5) Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals • in vitro procedure
• Steps of PCR :
Vector Host cell (to which vector delivers a gene)
pbr 322 Bacterium Denaturation Separation of DNA strands : 95 0C
Agrobacterium Plant cell Annealing Joining of DNA primer : 55 0C
Retrovirus animal cell Primer is small chemically synthesised oligonucleotides
that are complementary to the regions of DNA
Also note : Human genome project use : BAC (bacterial Extension / Occurs at : 72 0C
artificial chromosomes)YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes). elongation Taq polymerase isolated from Thermus aquaticus is
Agrobacterium tumefaciens /polymerization used in this process
• It is a pathogen of Dicot plants
• It transfers its T DNA into plant cell and transform normal plant • Amplification : above steps of PCR can be repeated to make
cells into a tumorous cells billion copies of DNA, such repeated amplification is achieved
• Modified Ti plasmid (tumor inducing plasmid) is used as vector by the use of a thermostable DNA polymerase which remain
to deliver gene of interest in plant cell active during the high temperature induced denaturation of
double stranded DNA
Retrovirus • After 30 cycles, what began as a single molecule of DNA has
• Retroviruses have the ability to transform normal animal cells been amplified into more than a billion copies
into cancerous cells • Uses of PCR : Forensic study (DNA fingerprinting) ,
Biotechnology, HIV testing, Gene Therapy

Biology BOMB
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Biotechnology and Its Applications
Applications of biotechnology include Biotechnological applications in medicine
• Therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for
agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, • Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of
and energy production slaughtered cattle and pigs  develops allergic reaction
• Bioremediation employs the use of living organisms, like • Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains: chain A and B
microbes, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants, and toxins Two chains are linked together by disulphide bridges
from soil, water • Insulin is synthesised as pro hormone which contains an extra
• Genetic modification has: stretch called the C peptide. This C peptide is not present in the
(i) made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought,) mature insulin and is removed during maturation into insulin.
(ii) Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops). • The main challenge for production of insulin using rDNA
(iii) Helped to reduce post-harvest losses. techniques was getting insulin assembled into a mature form.
(iv) Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants • Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences
(v) Enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., golden rice, i.e., corresponding to A and B, chains of human insulin and
Vitamin ‘A’ (carotene) enriched rice introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
Genetically Modified Plants • Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and
Bacillus thuringiensis combined by creating disulphide bonds to form human insulin.
• Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium produce Bt toxin
Gene Therapy
• Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been
Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and
expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the
tissues to treat diseases especially hereditary diseases
need for insecticides; in effect created a bio-pesticide Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
• Examples : Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato & soyabean
• Adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme is crucial for the immune
Bt Cotton system to function
• Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill insects • ADA deficiency is caused due to the deletion of the gene for
• Bt toxin is insect group specific adenosine deaminase
 lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), • Treatment
 Coleopterans (beetles)  Temporary Cure
 Dipterans (flies, mosquitoes)  Bone marrow transplantation
• Bt toxin exist as crystalline inactive form, gets activated in  Enzyme replacement therapy
alkaline pH – binds to midgut epithelial cell receptor in  Permanent cure (Gene Therapy)
bollworm (not pathogenic to cattle) create pores that cause cell  Infusion of Genetically engineered lymphocytes
swelling and lysis and eventually cause death of the insect - Blood lymphocytes are cultured outside body, functional
• Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis ADA cDNA* (using a retroviral vector) is then
and incorporated into the several crop with the help of vector introduced into these lymphocytes
Agrobacterium tumefaciens plants such as cotton - Problem: Patient requires periodic infusion of such
genetically engineered lymphocytes as lymphocytes are
Gene Plants gets protection from Plant not immortal
cry I Ac, cry II Ab Cotton bollworm Cotton - Solution : Infuse Genetically engineered lymphocytes at
cry I Ab Corn borer Corn / Maize early embryonic stages
* Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a DNA synthesized from a single-stranded
Tobacco Plant RNA template in a reaction catalysed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
• A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of
tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield. Molecular Diagnosis
• Nematode specific genes (DNA) were isolated from nematode Molecular diagnostic methods help early diagnosis of disease
and introduced into plant cell using vector Agrobacterium Probe Hybridization technique
• This Nematode’s DNA produces both sense and anti-sense RNA
in the host (Plant cell) cells. These two RNA’s being Probe Single stranded radioactive DNA or RNA
complementary to each other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) Hybridization Probe hybridise (binds) to its complementary DNA
• When nematode feeds on plant cell. Ds RNA enters into Detection Hybridized probe is detected using autoradiography
nematode binds to and prevents (interfere) translation of the Inference Probe cannot bind to Mutated gene  do not appear in auto radiography
mRNA (silencing). This mechanism is called as rna interference Probe can bind to normal gene  appear in autoradiography
• The consequence is that the parasite cannot survive in a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
transgenic host • PCR can detects very low concentration of pathogen even when
the symptoms of the disease are not yet visible
RNA interference • PCR detects low amount of DNA by amplication of DNA
• RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms • PCR is used to :
• It is a a method of cellular defence.  Detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients
• This method involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a  Detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients
complementary dsRNA molecule that binds to and prevents  Identify many other genetic disorders
translation of the mRNA (silencing).
• The source of this complementary RNA could be from an ELISA
infection by viruses having RNA genomes or mobile genetic • ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction
elements (transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate • It can detect antigen or antibodies: Detect HIV

Biology BOMB
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Transgenic animals
• Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and
express an extra (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals
• Over 95 % of all existing transgenic animals are mice

• To study normal physiology and development

 e.g., study of complex factors involved in growth such as
insulin-like growth factor
• Study of disease:
 To study diseases like cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid
arthritis and Alzheimer’s
• Transgenic animals produce biological products
 α-1-antitrypsin used to treat emphysema
 first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced alpha-lactalbumin-
enriched milk
• Transgenic animals are used to test vaccine safety

Ethical issues
• Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC
(Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which will make
decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of
introducing GM-organisms for public services.
• Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by
multinational companies and other organisations without proper
authorisation from the countries and people concerned without
compensatory payment
• The diversity of rice (2 lac varieties) in India is one of the richest
in the world.
• Unites status had bio pirated Indian origin basmati rice for its
aroma, turmeric neem etc

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Organism and Population

Ecology Response to abiotic factors
Biological Organisation: Regulators
Macromolecules → cells → tissues → organs, → individual • Organism ability to maintain constant internal environment
organism (e.g. Temperature, Osmolality) is called k/a Homeostasis
• Homeostasis can be achieved by:
Ecological organization ▪ i) Physiological means
Individual organism → population →communities, → E.g. profuse sweating in summer,
ecosystems → biomes Shivering in winter
▪ ii) Behavioral means
Ecology is a subject which studies the interactions among E.g. In winter lizard bask in Sun
organisms and between the organism and its physical • All birds and mammals, very few lower vertebrate are
(abiotic) environment. capable of such regulation (Thermoregulation and
Father of Ecology in India : Ramdeo Misra osmoregulation), these are called as regulators

Biomes Confirmers
• Majority (99 per cent) of animals and nearly all plants
Earth rotates around sun cannot maintain a constant internal environment as it is an
Earth tilt at axis energy consuming process.
• These animals resign themselves to surrounding, and k/a
Variation in temperature conformers
and light on Earth • Why very small animals are rarely found in Polar Regions?
: Small animals have large surface area to volume ratio →
Leads
Earth tilt to
at formation
axis • Tropical Forest • Desert loose heat to surrounding → can’t tolerate cold
of biomes • Temperate forest • Grassland

Ecological
Earth tilt atNiche
axis • Confirmers either migrate or suspend in surroundings
The condition an organism can tolerate (E.g., Temperature,
water salinity, Light etc.) and the resources (E.g., food,
Migrators
• The organism can move away temporarily from the
Space etc.) organism use is k/a Ecological Niche of that organism
stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return when
stressful period is over
Abiotic Factors
• Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan host
Temperature thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia
• Temperature affects kinetics of enzymes → affects
physiological function of organism Suspend
• A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of • In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, reduce their
temperatures k/a eurythermals e.g. Man metabolic activity and going into a state of ‘dormancy’
• Vast majority of animals are restricted to a narrow range of • Dormant stage in winter → Hibernation
temperatures k/a stenothermal • Dormant stage in summer → Aestivation
• Dormant stage in Zooplankton → Diapause
Water
Some organism tolerates wide range of salinity of water k/a Adaptation
Euryhaline organisms and those that are restricted to a Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological,
narrow range are k/a stenohaline organism physiological, behavioural) that enables the organism to
survive and reproduce in its habitat
Examples:
Light
• Light affect photosynthesis and photoperiodism in plant • Kangaroo rat in North American deserts → meets its water
• Light also affect animal’s foraging, reproductive and requirement by fat oxidation (Physiological adaptation)
migratory activities • Desert plant → CAM Pathway, Sunken stomata
• Opuntia, Desert Plant → leaves reduced to spine
Soil • Mammals from cool climates → shorter ears and limbs
Climate determines soil composition → soil determines (Allen’s rule)
vegetation → Vegetation determines the supported animals • Polar seal → have fat blubber, act as insulator
• Lizard bask in sun (behavioural adaptation)
• Deep sea animal can tolerate high pressure because of
biochemical adaptation

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Altitude sickness  Monarch butterfly → highly distasteful to its predator
 Acacia, Cactus → plant have thorn to avoid cattle
High altitude → low atm pressure → less oxygen →nausea,  Calotropis → poisonous cardiac glycosides to avoid cattle
fatigue and heart palpitations (Altitude sickness) → increase
in RBC, Shift of O2 disso Curve to right (Acclimatization) Competition
This is a physiological adaptation • Darwin said interspecific competition is a potent force in
organic evolution.
Population • But totally unrelated species could also compete for the
same resource e.g. flamingoes and resident fishes compete
for their common food, zooplankton
Interference competition
• The feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the
interference of the other species
• E.g. Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became
Growth Models extinct after goats were introduced on the island,
Exponential growth apparently due to the greater browsing efficiency of goats.
• Interference competition leads to exclusion of weaker
When resources in the habitat are unlimited, any species can species k/a Gauze’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’
grow exponentially
Competitive release
• Shown by Connell’s elegant field experiments
• When competitively superior barnacle Balanus were
removed, Chathamalus expanded its distributional range
MacArthur’s Resource partitioning
• Related species do not necessarily compete for resources
• MacArthur showed that five closely related species of
warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid
competition and co-exist
Parasitism
Logistic growth • Parasitic Adaptations :
• No population of any species in nature has unlimited ▪ loss of unnecessary sense organs,
resources to permit exponential growth. ▪ presence of adhesive organs or suckers
• In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a ▪ loss of digestive system
maximum possible number, beyond which no further ▪ high reproductive capacity
growth is possible • Ectoparasites: e.g., Cuscuta plant
• This limit as nature’s carrying capacity (K) for • Brood Parasitism
that species in that habitat
Commensalism
• One species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor
Asymptote benefited
✓ Orchid growing as an epiphyte on
Phase of deceleration a mango branches
Phase of acceleration ✓ Cattle egret and grazing cattle
✓ Sea anemone and the clown fish
Lag Phase
Amensalism
Population Interactions • One species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected
• E.g., Penicillium produces antibiotics that kills bacteria
Predation
• Predators keep population of prey under control Mutualism
E.g., Prickly pear cactus introduced into • This interaction benefits both the interacting species
Australia caused havoc by spreading rapidly later cactus ✓ Lichens : fungus and algae association
feeding moth was introduced into country to control cactus ✓ Mycorrhizae : fungi and roots of higher plants
• Predators maintain species diversity ✓ Fig tree and female wasp
Starfish Pisaster is an important predator, when all the ✓ Orchid Ophry: sexual deceit, pseudocopulates
starfish were removed experimentally; more than 10
species of invertebrates became extinct
• Adaptation to avoid Predation
Some species are cryptically-coloured (camouflaged)

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Biodiversity And Conservation

Biodiversity 3) There is more solar energy available in the tropics 
productivity is higher
• There are more than 20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of ✓ Tropical Amazonian rain forest has greatest biodiversity on earth
beetles, 28,000 species of fishes and 20,000 species of orchids.
Species-Area relationships
• Biodiversity (= Heterogenity) is the term popularised by Edward
Wilson • Alexander von Humboldt explained Species-Area relationships
• He observed that within a region species richness increased with
Levels of Biodiversity increasing explored area, but only up to a limit
• Relationship graph is rectangular hyperbola
Genetic diversity
• Rauwolfia vomitoria is a medicinal plant, it shows genetic
diversity in terms of potency and concentration of chemical
reserpine, other examples are rice (50k strains) , mango (1000
varieties) etc.
Species diversity
• Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
Z value
the Eastern Ghats
• Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2
Ecological diversity: • Independent of the taxonomic group or the region
• India has a greater ecosystem diversity e.g. deserts, rain forests, • For large continent,
mangroves, coral reefs etc. ▪ Z value lies in the range of 0.6 to 1.2
▪ Shows steeper curve
How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many in India? ▪ Eg for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and mammals in
• Species inventories are more complete in temperate than in the tropical forests of different continents, Z=1.15,
tropical countries steeper curve (matlab birds aur mammal ki jyada variety
• Robert May places the global species diversity at about 7 kam area me milti hai)
million.
• According to May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent of the The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem
total species have been recorded so far
• More than 70 % of all the species are animals, (Animals > • Communities with more species, generally, tend to be more
plants) stable than those with less species
• Insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, out of every • Features of stable community
10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects ▪ do not show too much variation in productivity from year to
year;
▪ resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances
▪ resistant to invasions by alien species
• David Tilman performed long-term ecosystem experiments
using outdoor plots , showed :
▪ Plots with more species showed less year-to-year variation
in total biomass
• Among vertebrates fishes show maximum diversity ▪ Increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
Fishes > Birds > Reptile > amphibian > mammal • Paul Ehrlich used rivet popper hypothesis; The hypothesis
• Among plants diversity is as follows suggests the importance of species richness in the
Fungi > Angiosperm > Algae > Pteridophytes maintenance of the ecosystem.
Airplane  ecosystem I Rivets  Species,
• Biologist are not sure about diversity amongst prokaryotes ,
because
Loss of Biodiversity
 Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for
• IUCN (International Union for conservation of nature) red
identifying microbial species
list documents recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius),
 many species are simply not culturable under laboratory
Quagga (Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow
conditions
(Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
Patterns of Biodiversity • Mainly Amphibians and Gymnosperms are facing the threat of
extinction
Latitudinal gradients • we are currently witnessing ‘Sixth Mass Extinction’ current
Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator species extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times
towards the poles, reasons: faster than earlier extinctions
1) Tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for • Loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in plant
millions → evolution → species diversification production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental
2) Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less perturbations such as drought and (c) increased variability in
seasonal, more constant and predictable ecosystem processes

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Causes of biodiversity losses: 2) Biosphere reserves
Four major causes (‘ The Evil Quartet’) • Large area, not limited by state legislation
• Tourism not permissible, Scientific research are carried out
Habitat loss and fragmentation: 3) National parks
• Amazon rain forest (‘lungs of the planet”) • Offers protection to entire plants , animals, landscape of region
▪ cleared for cultivating soya beans and for raising beef cattle • Highly restricted area, permission requires for entry
▪ used to cover more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land 4) Wildlife sanctuaries.
surface, now cover no more than 6 per cent • Mainly offers protection to wildlife
• Mammals (e.g., elephants) and birds are badly affected by • Less restriction, opens to public, activities like cattle grazing
fragmentation allowed
5) Sacred grove
Over-exploitation Regions that emphasised protection of nature as per religious and
cultural tradition.
Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon overexploited
by humans  now extinct Ex situ (off site) conservation

Alien species invasions • In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out
• Introduction of Nile perch into Lake Victoria  led to extinction from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where
of more than 200 species of cichlid fish they can be protected and given special care.
• Invasive weed species carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and • Ex situ conservation is done in:
water hyacinth (Eicchornia)  threat to environmental damage
• Catfishh Clarias gariepinus  threat to indigenous catfishes 1) Zoological parks,
2) Botanical gardens and
3) Wildlife safari parks
Co-extinctions 4) Cryopreservation
When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species 5)
associated with it in an obligatory way also become extinct. Also note :
When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth
of parasites also meets the same fate. Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called upon all nations to
take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and
Biodiversity conservation sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
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Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?

Narrowly utilitarian arguments

• Humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature
through firewood, fibre, construction material, medicine etc.
• Bioprospecting is exploring molecular, genetic and species-
level diversity for products of economic importance

Broadly utilitarian argument

Amazon forest produces 20 % of the total oxygen in the earth’s
Ecosystem provides pollination, pleasures of walking through
thick woods, watching spring flowers or a bulbul’s song etc

Ethical argument
A moral duty to care for well-being of other species

How do we conserve Biodiversity?

in situ (on site) conservation

1) Hot spots
• it is unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve
biological wealth  Biodiversity “Hot Spots” regions have been
identified
• Biodiversity Hot spots are regions with very high levels of
species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species
confined to that region and not found anywhere else)
• Total number of biodiversity hotspots in world: 34.
• Hot spots covering Indian regions : Western Ghats and Sri
Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya
• Hot spots covers less than 2% of earth’s land but can reduce the
ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.

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ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem : Structure Humus contain lignin, resin etc , hence highly resistant to
An ecosystem is a self-sustainable functional unit of nature, microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an
where living organisms interact among themselves and also extremely slow rate
with the surrounding physical environment
5) Mineralization
Stratification Release of inorganic nutrients from humus by some
Vertical distribution of different species microbes is called Mineralisation
occupying different levels is called
stratification. Factors affecting decomposition:
Components of Ecosystem • Detritus rich in lignin and chitin : decomposition rate 
1) Productivity 2) Decomposition • Detritus rich in sugar and nitrogen : decomposition rate 
3) Energy Flow 4) Nutrient cycling • Warm and moist environment : decomposition rate 
• low temperature and anaerobiosis : decomposition rate 
Productivity
Energy flow
Primary production
• It is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
produced per unit area by plants during photosynthesis • It is the light available for photosynthesis (400 to 700 nm)
• It is expressed as weight (g / m2 ) or energy (kcal / m2 ) • Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 % is PAR
• Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR
Productivity
• The rate of biomass production is called productivity. Grazing food chain (GFC)
• It is expressed as (g / m2 /year) or energy (kcal / m2/yr )
Gross primary productivity
GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic Detritus food chain (DFC)
matter during photosynthesis. • Begins with dead organic matter
Net primary productivity (NPP) • It is made up of decomposers (fungi and bacteria)
A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants in • Decomposers are also known as saprotrophs
respiration GPP – R = NPP
• In Aquatic ecosystem, GFC is major conduit for energy flow.
Secondary productivity • In terrestrial ecosystem, DFC is major conduit for energy flow.
It is rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers
Decomposition Standing crop
• Break down complex organic matter into inorganic Biomass at a particular trophic level is k/a Standing Crop
substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients is
called decomposition 10 per cent law
• Raw material for decomposition : Detritus Only 10 per cent of the energy is
• Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead transferred to each trophic level
remains of animals, fecal matter, constitute detritus from the lower trophic level
Laws followed by Ecosystem
1) Fragmentation
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into 1) First law of thermodynamics
smaller particles k/a fragmentation • One form of energy is converted to another
• Plants convert light energy to chemical energy
2) Leaching
Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil 2) Second Law of thermodynamics
horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts • In food chain energy is lost in respiration, to counter
this, continuous input of energy from sun takes place
3) Catabolism
Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler Ecological pyramids
inorganic substances k/a catabolism
• In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy
4) Humification and biomass are upright, except
Accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance; ✓ Pyramid of number in forest ecosystem is inverted
humus is called Humification ✓ Pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem is inverted

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Nutrient cycling
• The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, calcium, etc., present in the soil at any given
time, is referred to as the standing state.
• The movement of nutrient elements through the various
components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling /
biogeochemical cycles
• Nutrient cycles are of two types:
Pyramid of energy in all ecosystem is (a) Gaseous cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle)
always upright (b) Sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus cycle)

Limitations of ecological pyramids: Phosphorous cycle

• It does not take into account the same species belonging to
two or more trophic level
• It assumes a simple food chain, no place for food web
• Saprophytes are not given any place

Ecological succession Carbon cycle

• The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species

composition of a given area is called ecological succession
• These changes lead finally to a community that is in near
equilibrium with the environment and that is called a
climax community
• Very first species that invade a bare area are k/a pioneer
species
• The entire sequence of communities that successively
change in a given area are called sere(s).
• The individual transitional communities are termed seral
stages or seral communities

Primary succession Secondary succession

Succession in areas Succession in areas which lost
where no living all the living organisms that
organisms ever existed, existed there e.g. due forest 71 per cent carbon is found dissolved in oceans
say bare rock is called fire is called secondary This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of carbon
primary succession succession dioxide in the atmosphere
begins in newly cooled begins in abandoned farm
lava, bare rock, newly lands, burned or cut forests, Difference between Carbon and Phosphorous cycle
created pond etc. lands that have been flooded
Slower process faster than primary succession • Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are
much smaller than carbon inputs
• Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and
Xerarch succession Hydrarch succession environment are negligible.
takes place in dry areas takes place in wet area
Pioneer species - Pioneer species - Ecosystem services
Lichen Phytoplankton • Ecosystem services include cycle nutrients, generation of
Lichen secreted acid to Phytoplankton - rooted- fertile soils, providing wildlife habitat etc.
dissolve rock - soil submerged plants - free- • Robert Constanza put price tags on ecosystem services
formation – bryophytes floating plants, - reed swamp - • He put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year
- grass—forest (mesic marsh-meadow, scrub and • Soil formation accounts for about 50 per cent of the cost
condition) forest (mesic condition)
-------------------------------END-----------------------------------
All succession whether taking place in water or on land,
proceeds to a similar climax community – the mesic.

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Microbes In Human welfare

Microbes Chemicals, Enzymes and other Bioactive Molecules
• Microbes are diverse–protozoa, bacteria, fungi and microscopic Fungal products
plant viruses, viroids and also prions. Aspergillus Niger Citric acid
• Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive Trichoderma polysporum immunosuppressive agent in organ-transplant patients
media to form colonies, that can be seen with the naked eyes Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ethyl alcohol
Monascus purpures Produce statin → lowers blood cholesterol
Microbes in household products
Bacterial Products
Curd Acetobacter aceti Acetic acid
• Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as lactobacillus grow in milk Clostridium butylicum Butyric acid
and convert it to curd Lactobacillus Lactic acid
• LAB produce acids that coagulate and digest the milk proteins Streptococcus Streptokinase useful in myocardial infarction
• LAB increases vitamin B12
• LAB also checks growth of disease causing microbes in GIT Other microbial products
• Lipase : Used in detergents → remove oily stains
Idli, Dosa
• Dough, used for making dosa and idli is fermented by bacteria • Pectinases and proteases → Clear bottled juice
• The puffed-up appearance of dough is due to the production of
CO2 gas (anaerobic respiration) Microbes in sewage treatment
• Two metabolic pathways takes place here Municipal waste-water is also called sewage → major component
 Alcoholic pathway: Pyruvate → alcohol and CO2 (by yeast) is human excreta → have large organic matter and microbes
 Lactic acid fermentation : Pyruvate is converted to lactic acid Sewage treatment plants (STPs)

Bread Primary treatment

• Dough, which is used for making bread, is fermented using • In this Large and small physical particle are removed
baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)  Floating debris is removed by → sequential filtration
 Grit (soil and small pebbles) are removed by →sedimentation
Cheese • Solid that settles down is called Primary sludge
• Sweese Cheese, hv large holes (d/t CO2) → Propionibacterium • Supernatant that floats out is called effluent
sharmanii
• Roquefort cheese → ripened by fungi Secondary treatment or biological treatment
Aeriation tank
Toddy • Effluent is passed into large aeration tanks → air is pumped →
• Toddy, is a drink, can be obtained by fermenting sap from palm growth of aerobic microbes k/a flocs forms (mass of fungus+
• Other fermented product: fermented fish, soyabean, bamboo bacteria) → these microbes digest organic matter
shoots Sedimentation tank
Microbes in industrial products • Effluent is passed into sedimentation tank → flocs settled down
• Microbes are used in industry to produce alcohol and antibiotics k/a activated sludge
• Production on an industrial scale, requires growing microbes in Anaerobic sludge digestor
very large vessels called fermenters • Here anaerobic bacteria digest bacteria and fungi in the flocs →
methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide (Biogas) forms
Fermented Beverages
Microbes used Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer’s yeast)
Substrate used Malted cereals and fruit juices
Metabolic reaction Alcoholic fermentation
Product Ethyl alcohol
Beverage Without distillation Wine and beer
Distilled beverage whisky, brandy and rum

Antibiotics
• Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are produced by
some microbes and can kills other (disease-causing) microbes The Ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated Ganga
• First antibiotic discovered is Penicilin, Discovered by : Fleming Action Plan and Yamuna Action Plan → proposed to build a
• Penicillin is produced by fungus Penicillium notatum → kills large number of sewage treatment plants
Staphylococci bacteria
• Penicillin full potential established by Ernest Chain and Florey BOD (biochemical oxygen demand)
• Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize in • BOD refers to amount of the oxygen that would be consumed if
1945, for this discovery. all organic matter in one liter of water were oxidized by bacteria
• Antibiotics are useful in bacterial diseases such as plague, • BOD is a measure of the organic matter present in the water
whooping cough (kali khansi), diphtheria (gal ghotu) and leprosy • Greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
(kusht rog) • The sewage water is treated till the BOD is reduced
Note : Relationship between antibiotic producing fungus and
bacteria is Amensalism

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Microbes in production of biogas Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• Rhizobium forms association with roots of leguminous plant and
Methanogens (e.g., Methanobacterium) fix nitrogen
• Methane producing bacteria • Azospirillum and Azotobacter can fix atmospheric nitrogen
• Found in : while free-living in the soil
 Found in the anaerobic sludge during sewage treatment.
 Also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle Fungus
• Metabolic pathway: Anaerobic digestion • Genus Glomus form association with roots of plants called
• Substrate used: cellulosic material mycorrhiza.
• Gas produced: Methane, CO2, H2 • Fungus provide phosphorous to plant
• Nutritional activity :These bacteria help in the breakdown of • Plant provide nutrition to fungus
cellulose present in rumen of cattle Note : Humans cannot digest
cellulose Nitrogen fixing Cyanobacteria
• Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes many of which can fix
Biogas plant atmospheric nitrogen, e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria
• Cyanobacteria (e.g., Azolla) fix Nitrogen in leaves of fern and
• Excreta (dung /gobar) of cattle, rich in methanogens, can be used paddy field
for generation of biogas (gobar gas) • Cyanobacteria shows association with coralloid root of cycas
• Biogas plant consists of a concrete tank, • Blue green algae also add organic matter to the soil
floating cover
• Spent slurry can be used as fertilizer ----------------------------------END----------------------------------------
• Developed by Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and
Village Industries Commission (KVIC).

Microbes as biocontrol agents

• Bio control refers to the use of biological methods for

controlling plant diseases and pests.
• Advantages of Bio control methods over insecticides
 insecticides and pesticides chemicals are toxic, to human
beings, animals, and pollute our environment
 chemical methods kill both useful and harmful life forms
indiscriminately
 Bio control methods do not eradicate pest completely, rather
keep it at manageable levels → maintains biodiversity, food
chain
Bio control agent Targets
Ladybird Aphids
Dragonflies mosquitoes
Trichoderma (fungus) Kills root born pathogen
Baculoviruses • attack insects
(Nucleopolyhedrovirus) • species-specific, narrow spectrum
• no negative impacts on plants, mammals, birds,
fish or even on non-target insects
• excellent bio control agent
• useful in integrated pest management programme
Bacillus thuringiensis butterfly caterpillars

Bacillus thuringiensis
• Control butterfly caterpillars
• Bacillus thuringiensis → available in sachets as dried spores
which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants
such as brassicas and fruit trees → these are eaten by the insect
larvae → toxin is released, caterpillar larvae get killed

Microbes as biofertilisers
• Organic farming emphasised the use of biofertilisers to avoid
problems associated with overuse of chemical fertilisers
• Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of
soil by adding nitrogen , phosphorous etc to soil
• Source of biofertilisers : bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria

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