PRESSURE DROP THROUGH RESTRICTIONS

Although the principal pressure losses in the well system occur in the reservoir, the tubing,
and the flow-line, the pressure loss in restrictions can be substantial in some wells. The main
types of restrictions are:
1. Sub surface safety valves (SSSV's)
2. Surface or bottom hole chokes
3. Valves and fittings
The losses occurring in SSSV's and pipe fittings cannot be avoided, but the pressure drop
across a surface choke can be eliminated to obtain the maximum producing capacity from a
well.
The flow through a restriction may be either critical (sonic) or subcritical (subsonic). If flow
is critical, a pressure disturbance downstream of the restriction will have no effect on either
the flow rate through the restriction or the upstream pressure. Since one of the major purposes
of a choke is to control flow rate, it will usually be sized so that critical flow will exist. A
rule-of-thumb for distinguishing between critical and subcritical flow states that if the ratio of
downstream pressure to upstream pressure is less than or equal to 0.5, then the flow will be
critical
This is a closer approximation for single-phase gas than for two-phase flow. Some engineers
use either 0.6 or 0.7 as the critical pressure ratio in two-phase flow, although research
performed at Tulsa University has shown that in some cases, the ratio must be as low as 0.3
before flow becomes critical.
The purpose of a SSSV is not to control the flowrate, but to shut the well in when wellhead
pressure becomes too low. Therefore, they are usually sized for minimum pressure drop and
will be operating in subcritical flow. Procedures for calculating the pressure losses in these
three types of restrictions will be presented.

Surface Chokes

Equations for estimating the relationship among pressure, flow rate and choke size for both
subcritical and critical flow through chokes will be presented for both gas flow and two-phase
flow.

1. Gas Flow
A general equation for flow through restrictions can be derived by combining the Bernoulli
equation with an equation of state. The irreversible losses are accounted for by use of a
discharge coefficient, which depends on the type of restriction. The following equation
applies for gas flow in both the critical and subcritical regimes.

p2
For critical flow, the pressure ratio y= is replaced by the critical pressure ratio yc
p1
C p ( p 1 ) ( d )2
√( )( y − y )
2 k+1
k k k
q sc =
√γ g (T g ) z1 k−1
(2)

( C s )( Cd )( T sc )
C n=
Psc (3)
Where

qsc = volumetric gas flow rate

Cn = coefficient based on system of units, discharge coefficient and standard conditions
d = I.D. of bore open to gas flow
γ g = gas specific gravity (air = l.0), dimensionless
k = ratio of specific heats =Cp/Cv, dimensionless
p1 = upstream pressure, absolute units
p2 = downstream pressure, absolute units
T1 = upstream temperature, absolute units
Z1 = compressibility factor at PI and T1 dimensionless
Cs = coefficient based on system of units
Cd = discharge coefficient (empirical) dimensionless

Tsc = standard absolute temperature base, absolute unit)

psc = standard absolute pressure base, absolute units
yc = critical pressure ratio, dimensionless

The pressure ratio at which flow becomes critical depends on the k value for the f1owing gas
and is given by:

( )
k
2
yc= k−1
k +1 (4)

The following equation can be used to estimate the relationship among flow rate, upstream
pressure and choke size for short restrictions with slightly rounded openings operating in
critical flow.
2
0.487C n d p1
q sc = 0.5 (5)
( T γg )

The value to be used for the discharge coefficient Cd depends on the shape of the opening to
the restriction and the length of the restriction as well as the Reynolds number. A value of Cd
= 0.82 is recommended if no information is available concerning this data.
Two-Phase Flow

The following equations may be used to determine the relationship among Pi, qL and d for
gas/liquid f1ow in the critical regime. These are empirical equations and the coefficient and
exponents may vary from field to field or well to well.
c
b qL R
p1 = a
(6)
d

Where

P1 = upstream pressure, psia

qL= liquid f1ow rate, STB/day
R = gas/liquid ratio, .cflSTB
d= choke diarneter in inches
Values of a, b, and c proposed by different investigators are given in Table 1

Choke Constants

Investigator a b c
Ros (72) 2.00 4.25 x 10-3 0.500
Gilbert (73) 1.89 3.86 x 10-3 0.546
Baxendell (74) 1.93 3.12x 10-3 0.546
Achong (75) 1.88 1.54 x 10-3 0.650

Example 1:

Using both the Ros and Gilbert equations, determine the choke size required to obtain a liquid
rate of 400 STB/day if wellhead pressure is 900 psia and R = 600 scf/STB.

Solution

Solving Equ. 6 for d

[ ]
1
b q L Rc a
d=
p1

Ros:

[ ]
−3 0.5 1
4.25 X 10 ( 400 ) ( 600 ) 2
d= =0.215∈.
900

Gilbert

[ ]
−3 0.546 1
3.86 X 1 0 ( 400 ) ( 600 ) 1.89
d= =0.218∈.
900

Determination of the boundary between critical And subcritical flow for the two-phase case is
more complicated than that for single-phase f1ow. The sonic velocity in a two-phase mixture
depends on both the gas and liquid properties. Sachdeva, et al. presented equations for
determining the critical ratio of down-steam to upstream pressure at the boundary, and
proposed a method for calculating the flow rate through a choke for various pressure
p2
conditions. The critical pressure ratio y c = is calculated iteratively from:
p1

( )
k
N
yc= ( k−1 )
(7)
D

Where
 k ( 1−X 1 ) ρg 1 ( 1− y )
N= + (8)
k −1 X 1 ρL

[ ]
2
k n n ( 1−X 1 ) ρ g 2 n ( 1−X 1 ) ρg 2 (9)
D= + + +
k −1 2 X1 ρL 2 X 1 ρL

where

X1 = mass fraction of gas at upstream conditions (quality),

ρ g 1= gas density at upstream conditions,
ρ g 2=gas density at downstream conditions
ρ L= Liquid density at upstream conditions,
Cp
k = ratio of specific heats for the gas,
Cv

X 1 ( C p−C v )
n=1+ (10)
X 1 C v + ( 1− X 1 ) C L

Where
CL = specific heat of the liquid

Equation 10 is dimensionless, and any consistent set of units may be used. It is solved by
assuming a value for y and then ca1culating yc. Each calculated value of yc is used for the
next estimated y until convergence is reached. A good first guess is y = 0.5. The quality is the
ratio of the gas mass flow rate to the total mass flow rate.

Using field units, it may be ca1culated from

0.0764 γ g ( R−f o R s )
X= (11)
0.0764 γ g ( R−f o R s) + 5.615 ( f o Bo ρo + f w B w ρw )

Where

γ g =¿gas specific gravity,

R = produciog GLR, scf/STBL,
fo= fraction of oil ftowing, qo/(qo + qw),
fw = fraction of water flowing, (1-fo)Bo at P1, T1,
Rs= solution gas-oil ratio at P1, TI (scf/STBO),
ρo = oil density at p1, T1 lbm/ft3,
ρw =water density at p1. T1 ,lbm/ft3,
Bo = oíl formation volume factor at p1. T1
Bw = water formation volume factor at p1. T1
Sachdeva, et al. also presented an equation ta calculate the flow rate through a choke which
can be used for both critical and subcritical flow.

For field units:

{ [ ]}
0.5

( ( ))
k−1

0.525 Cd d2 ( 1−X 1 ) ( 1− y ) X 1 k 1− y k
(12)
q L= p1 ρ2m 2 +
Cm 2 ρ L1 ρ g ( k−1 )

Where qL = liquid flow rate STBL/day

[ ]
−1
X1 ( 1− X 1 )
ρ w 2= 1
+ (13)
k
ρ L1
ρ gL y

−7 −5
C m 2=8.84 X 1 0 γ g ( R−f o R s ) +6.5 X 1 0 ( f o ρ o Bo + f o ρw B w ) (14)

Where

d = choke inside diametcr. inches

p2 = upstream prcssure, psia,
ρL= liquid density, Ibm/ft3,
ρg = gas density at p1, T1 (Ibm/ft3), aod
X1= quality at p1, T1 (Equation 3-125)

Thc fluid properties used to calculate Cm2 are evaluated at downstream conditions. If flow is
subcritical, that is y> yc, use the actual downstream pressure, p 2, If flow is critical, use y = yc
and p2 = ycp1. It was suggested that if an elbow is immediately upstream of the choke the
value of CD is 0.75. If no flow-perturbing effects are upstream, use CD =0.85

Example 2

A wellhead choke is installed in a well that is producing oil and gas. Upstream pressure is
1000 psia and downstream pressure is 600 psia. Estimate the oil/gas production rate through
the choke under these conditions.

Other data are:

GLR = GOR = 1165 scf/STBO

γ g = 0.70
γ o = 0.825 = 40o API
d = 24/64 = 0.38 in.
T1 = 100'F = 560oR
fw = 0
T2 = 90oF = 550oR
Cp = 0.537 Btu-lbm-oF
Cv = 0.414 Btu-lbm-oF
CL = 0.55 Btu-lbm-oF
k = 1.3

Upstream Conditions Downstream Conditions

Rs, Scf/STBO 250 140
Bo 1.14 1.08
ρo, Ibm/ft3 47.3 48.9
ρg, lbm/ft3 4.05 2.37
Z 0.834 0.891

Solution
Calculate the critical pressure ratio, yc
0.0764 ( 0.7 ) ( 1165−250 )
X1= =0.139
0.0704 ( 0.7 ) ( 1165−250 ) +5.615 ( 1.14 ) ( 47.3 )

0.139 ( 0.537−0.414 )
n=1+ =1.032
0.139 ( 0.414 ) +0.86 ( 0.55 )

1.3 0.81 ( 4.05 ) ( 1−0.5 )

N= + =4.599
1.3−1 0.139 ( 47.3 )

[ ]
2
1.3 1.032 1.032 ( 0.861 )( 2.37 ) 1.032 0.861 ( 2.37 )
D= + + + =5.219
0.3 2 0.139 ( 47.3 ) 2 0.139 ( 47.3 )

( )
1.3
4.599 1.3 −1
yc= =0.578
5.219

Estimated yc Calculated yc
0.5 0.578
0.578 0.556
0.556 0.562
0.562 0.560
0.560 0.560

p2 600
Since the value of y for the given condition is y c = = =0.6
p1 1000

Flow is critical y > yc

Calculate qL
 −7 −5
C m 2=8.84 X 1 0 ( 0.7 )( 1165−140 )+6.5 X 1 0 ( 48.9 )( 1.08 )=0.0041

[ ]
−1
0.139 0.81 3
ρ m 2= + =14.4 8❑ ibm /f t
1
47.3
4.05 ( 0.6 ) 1.3

q l=0.5250 ( 0.75 ) ¿ ¿

q L =q o=97 9❑ STB/day

An equation for calculating flow rates for subcritical flow through multiple orifice valve,
(MOV) or chokes was presented by Surbey, el al. Most of these valves consist of a stationary
disk with two holes and a movable disk with two holes. The size of the opening can be
changed by rotating the movable disk. The choke used in the Surbey el al. study was
manufactured by the Willis Company. The study resulted in a method to modify the
discharge coefficient for single-phase liquid flow so that it will apply for two-phase flow
through this particular type and size (2 in.) of choke. The equation is:

( )
2.5
p 1−p 2
q L =34.28 CVL
γL

qL = flow rate, STBL/day

p1 = Upstream pressure, psia
p2 = downstream pressure, psia
γ L= liquid specific gravity, and
C vtp
C vL=
2 Fc
A4

F c =[ sin ( A R ) ] θ p 1R
A A 2 3

Where

Cvtp = two phase discharge coefficient

R = gas-liquid ratio scf/stb
θ=¿ Angle of choke opening, degree
Ai = values are from Table

Table 3
Choke Constant

Constant Values
A1 91.9039
A2 -0.1458
A3 0.2419
A4 -0.20.26
In some cases, it may be necessary to estimate the pressure drop through a choke in which a
single-phase liquid is flowing. This will almost always be subcritical f1ow since the velocity
of sound in a liquid is very large.

The following equation may be used

( )
0.5
2 p 1−p 2
q L =1022.7 C d d
γL

where
qL = Iiquid flow rate, STB/day,

d= choke diameter, inches

p= pressure, psi
❑
γ L ¿❑ liqui d❑ specific ❑ g ravity

Unless Cd is known, the value of 0.85 may be used.

B. Subsurface Safety Valves (SSSV's)

As was stated earlier, the flow through a SSSV will be subcritical and the unknown is usually
the pressure drop caused by a SSSV of a particular size. The solution is usual1y iterative
because most of the equations require evaluation of the fluid properties, either at upstream
pressure or at average pressure.

1. Gas Flow
An equation published by the API can be used to calculate the pressure drop across a SSSV
operating in subcritical flow. The equation is:

1.048 X 1 0 γ g Z 1 T 1 q sc ( 1−β )
−6 2 4
p 1 − p2 = 4 2 2
p1 d C d γ

Where

P1= Upstream pressure, psia

P2 = downstream pressure, psia
γ g = gas gravity (air = 1)
Z= gas compressibility at p1. T1
T1= upstream temperature, °R
qsc = gas flow rate, Mscef/d
β = beta ratio = d/D
d = bean diameter, in.
D = pipe inside diameter, inches.
Cd = discharge coefficient (API suggests 0.9)
y = expansion factor, dimensionless
The expansion factor determination is iterative and may be calculated from Equation below.
its value ranges between 0.67 and l.0. For quick estimates, a default value of 0.85 is often
used.

y=1−[ 0.41+0.35 β
4
] ( p1− p2
k p1 )
Where k is the ratio of specific heats of the gas.

2. Two-Phase Flow
A research project was sponsored by the API in 1978 at the University of Tulsa that was
designed to improve the equations for sizing SSSV's operating in (two phase subcritical flow.
Several of the commercially available SSSV's were used in the experimental phase of the
research, and specific equations for the discharge coefficient for each valve tested were
presented. However it has been found that in practice a single equation for discharge
coefficient will give reasonable results for any type of SSSV Therefore. only this equation
will be presented here. For a more detailed treatment of the problem. Reference may be made
to a report published by Beggs, et al., in 1980.

For two phase flow:

ρn =ρL λ L + ρ g λ g

qL
λ L=
q L +q g

qg
λ g=1−λ L =
q L +q g

q L +q g
V m=
A

The equation for pressure drop is:

−4 2
1.078 X 1 0 ρ n V m
p1− p2=
CD

Where

ρn = no-slip density, Ibm/ft3

vm= mixture velocity through the choke, ft/sec,
P2 = downstream pressure, psia
CD = discharge coefficient
2
C D =C1 +C 2 N v +C 3 β+C 4 β

where
C1 = 0.233
C2 = 8.4 X l0-4
C3 = 6.672
C4 = -11.661
q g ( 1−λ L )
Nv= =
qL λL

qL
λ L=
( q L +q g )
d
β=
D
d = choke diameter
D = tubing inside diameter

In the previous equations, all the fluid properties necessary for calculating the density and
velocities are evaluated at upstream conditions of pressure and temperature.

Solving for p1 from a known p2 value is therefore, iterative

Example 3:
A well that is producing through 2 3/8 tubing is equipped with a 0.908 in I.D. SSSV. Pressure
and temperature upstream of the SSSV were found to be 615 psia and 140o F respectively.
Using the following data calculate the pressure downstream of the SSSv.

qo = 800 STB/day
qw = 0.168 ft3/s
R = 800 scf/STB
Oil gravily = 35°API
γ g = 0.65

SOLUTION

The following PVT properties were calculated at P = 615 psia anf T = 140 oF = 600 oR

Rs = 96 scf/stB
Z = 0.93
Bo = 1.093 bbl/STB
Bg = 0.0257 ft3/scf

q o ( R−R s ) B g 800 ( 500−96 )( 0.0257 )

,
q g= ¿ =0.168 f t 3 /sec❑
86400 86400

, −6 −6 3
q o=6.5 X 1 0 q o B o=6.5 X 1 0 ( 600 ) ( 1.093 )=0.057 f t / sec❑
 ,
qo 0.057
λ l= , ,
= =0.253
q +q
o w
0.057+0.168

350 ( 0.85 )+ 0.0764 ( 0.65 ) ( 96 )

ρo = =49.3 ibm/f t 3
(5.615 )( 1.093 )

2.7 γ g P ( 2.7 )( 0.65 )( 615 ) 3

ρ g= = =1.934 ibm/f t
ZT ( 0.93 )( 600 )
3
ρn =ρo λ L + ρ g ( 1−λ L ) =49.3 ( 0.253 )+ 1.934 ( 1−0.253 )=13.92ibm /f t

,
qg 0.168 0.908
Nv= = =2.947 β= =0.455
q
,
o
0.057 1.995

−4 2
C D =−0.233+8.4 X 10 ( 2.947 ) +6.672 ( 0.455 )−11.661 ( 0.455 ) =0.391

( )
2 2
πd 0.908 3 2
A= =0.7854 =4.497 X 10 f t
4 12

, ,
q o +q g 0.057+0.168
V m= = −3
=50 ft / sec ❑
A 4.497 X 1 0

−4 2 2
1.078 X 1 0 ρm v m 1.078 X 10−4 ( 13.92 ) ( 50 )
P2=P1− =615− =615−9.6=605.4 psia
CD 0.391

VALVES AND PIPE FITTINGS

The pressure losses occurring through various types of valves and fittings can be
approximated by the equivalent length concepts. This involves replacing each fitting by an
equivalent length of pipe that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting. This can
be expressed in equation form as:

2 2
fLρ v Kρ v fL
Α pf = = ¿ =K
d 2 g c 2 gc d
where

d = diameter of pipe
f = friction factor for pipe flow
L = length of pipe
K = resistance coefficient depending on the type of size of fitting.
Solving for length gives
kd
Le =
f

An equivalent length, Le can be calculated for each fitting by using the [friction factor
calculated for flow in the pipe. Le values can then be added to the actual pipe length [or the
pressure drop calculation. Values of the resistance coefficient have been 'determined for
single-phase flow and it has been found that these values also apply for two-phase flow. The
friction factor for two-phase flow is, of course, usually larger than for single-phase-flow. The
following average values for K can be used to obtain satisfactory results for two-phase f1ow,
although in many cases the relatively small pressure drop in the fittings will be ignored
Fitting Type K
Gate Valve 0.15
Elbows 0.2-0.3
Globe Valve 3.0-5.0
Cheek Valve 6.0-8.0

EROSIONAL VELOCITY

When fluid flows through a pipe at high velocities, it has been found that erosion of the pipe
can occur. This is especially true for high capacity gas flow in which the in-situ velocity may
exceed 60 to 70 ft/sec. Erosion is not as much of a problem in oil wells, although for high gas
liquid ratio wel1s may be subject to erosion. The velocity at which erosion begins to occur
cannot be determined exactly, and for some solid particles, such as sand, are in the fluid,
erosion may occur at relatively low velocities. The velocity at which erosion may occur has
been related to the density of the fluid by the following equation:

C
V e= 0.5
ρ

Vc = erosional velocity
ρ= fluid density (ibm/ft3)

¿ ρo λ L + ρg ( 1−λ L )

C ranges between 75 and 150

100
V e=

[ ]
0.5
29 p γ g
ZRT

Where p, T and Z are the conditions at which the velocity is to be determined. The equation
may be determined in terms of gas flow rate at standard conditions by

( )
0.5
5 p
q e =1.86 X 1 0 A
ZT γ g
,
Where

qe erosion flow rate ,Mscf/d

A = Area of the pipe, ft2
p = lowest pressure in the pipe, psia
ρ = fluid density
T = Temperature at point where p is determined, oR
Z = Gas compressibility factor at p, T
γ g = gas gravity

Example 4:
A gas well is producing through 2.441 in. tubing at a well-head pressure 800 psia. The well -
head temperature is 140"F and gas gravity is 0.65. Determine the maximum rate at which this
well can produce without exceeding the erosional velocity.

SOLUTION

( )
2 2
πd 2.441 2
A= =0.7854 =0.032 f t
A 12

At p = 800 psia, T = 140oF, the value of Z is 0.91

5 0.5
q e =1.86 X 1 0 ( 0.032 )( 800 ) / ( 0.91 )( 600 )( 0.65 ) =8.936 mscf =8.9 mmscf /d

This correspond to an in-situ velocity of 62.3 ft/sec.