AN SCI 105: Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals -

Finals
LESSON 1: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 4. Myelin Sheath
- Created by glial cell.
Nervous System - Layer of fatty material that covers the axons or neurons.
- Governing body movement action. - Purpose to insulate one nerve cell from another and to prevent
- Vital organ system in farm animals that controls and impulses from one neuron from interfering with the impulse
coordinates body functions, responses to external stimuli and from another.
internal regulation. 2nd Function:
- Survival by integrating sensory input and motor output. - Speed of conduction of nerve impulses along the axon.
- Understanding Nervous System is essential - Myelination significantly increases the speed of nerve impulse
- First organ system to begin to form in the embryo (brain, spinal transmission, a process known as saltatory conduction, where
cord, and nerves). signals "jump" between gaps in the myelin sheath called nodes
- Organisms control center. of Ranvier.
- Initiate or regulate movement. - Neuroglial cells, specifically oligodendrocytes in the central
- Regulate secretions from glands. nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells in the peripheral
- Gathers information about internal and external environment nervous system (PNS), produce the myelin sheath, a fatty,
of the animals. insulating layer that wraps around axons, accelerating nerve
- Maintain an appropriate state of consciousness. impulse transmission.
- Stimulates thirst, hunger, fear, rage, and sexual behaviors 5. Axon Terminals
appropriate for survival. - Located at the end of the neuron
- Terminal button
NEURONS: The Functional Unit of the Nervous System
- Responsible for transmitting signals to other neurons.
- Fundamental units of brain and nervous system responsible in - End of terminal button is synapse.
transmitting information through electrical and chemical signal. - Blood vessel that contains neurotransmitter.

2 Basic Types of Nerve Cell: Neurons and Glial Cells Classification of Neurons According to the Direction of Impulse
Conduction
Features Neurons Glial Cells
Function Sends and Receives Support and protect 1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent)
Signals neurons - Responsible for transmitting sensory information such as
Excitability Conduct electrical Do not conduct touch, sound, and light to the Central Nervous System
responses impulses (CNS).
Structure Have soma, Smaller, no axon, and 2. Motor Neurons (Efferent)
dendrites, and axon various shape - Carries signals from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to
Types Sensory, Motor, and Astrocytes, Schwann muscles and glands to initiate actions.
Interneurons cells, Microglia and 3. Interneuron (Relay)
etc. - Allows sensory and motor neurons to communicate with
Regeneration Limited Can regenerate and each other.
(Neurogenesis) multiply - Connects various neurons within the brain and spinal
Myelin Role Do not produce Some types create cord.
Myelin myelin (schwann,
oligodendrocytes) DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Number Fewer in numbers More abundant than
neurons 1. Central Nervous System (Center)
2. Peripheral Nervous System
STRUCTURE OF NEURONS
Central Nervous System – Main processing unit of the body. It contains
1. Soma (Cell Body) encephalon (brain) and spinal cord.
- Core of neurons.
- Contains the nucleus and is responsible for maintaining the THE BRAIN
cell’s health.
• The major part of the brain lies protected within the sturdy box
- Contains a cell nucleus that produces genetic information and
of skull called cranium.
directs the synthesis of protein.
• Brain tissue is extremely active and moves involuntary.
2. Dendrites
- Tree-like structures that receives signals from other neurons 3 Major Regions of Brain
and transmit them toward the cell body.
- Covered in synapses, which allows them to receive signals from 1. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
other neurons. - Target and most complex part of the brain.
3. Axon (Nerve Fiber) - Responsible for thinking, learning and sensory perception, and
- Tail-like structure of the neuron that joins the cell body in a voluntary movements.
junction called axon hillock. Includes:
- Conducts electrical impulses.  Cerebrum - Largest part and controlling voluntary
movement, intelligence, and sensory processes.
 Thalamus - Relays sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
 Hypothalamus - Regulate hormones, hunger, thirst, and
body temperature.
 Limbic System - Involved in emotions, motivation, and
memory.
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2. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
- Small central part that connects forebrain and hindbrain. 3.2. Midbrain / Mesencephalon - Eye and auditory reflexes.
- Controls vision, hearing, motor control, sleep or wake cycle and 3.3. Pons - Chewing, tasting, and saliva production.
reflexes. 3.4 Medulla Oblongata - Connects brain to spiral cord. Lowest part of
Includes: Brainstem.
 Brainstem: The midbrain and hindbrain together form Function: Heart and Blood vessel, digestion, respiration,
the brainstem, which is responsible for basic life functions swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and regulates blood pressure.
like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
THE SPINAL CORD
3. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) • Sink between the brain and nerves of the rest of the body.
- Responsible for coordination, balance, involuntary actions, and • Cable of nerve tissue that passes down the channel in
autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration. verterbrae.
Includes:
 Cerebellum - Coordinates movement, balance, and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
posture.
 Pons - Relays signals from the cerebellum to the Peripheral Nervous System - Twelve pairs of cranial nerves that come
cerebrum, and is involved in breathing and other from the brain.
functions.
 Medulla Oblongata - Controls vital functions like 1. Olfactory Nerves (smell) - Carry impulses from the olfactory organ of
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, and connects the nose to the brain.
the brain to the spinal cord. 2. Optic Nerves (sight) - Carry impulses from the retina of the eye to
the brain.
The Gross Subdivision of Adult Brain 3. Auditory (acoustic) Nerves - Hearing carry impulses from the
cochlear of the inner ear to the brain.
1. Cerebrum 4. The Vagus Nerve - Controls the muscles of that brings about
- Largest and most complex part of the brain. swallowing muscle of stomach, heart, and etc.
- Dominant structure of the brain. 5. Spiral Nerves - Connect spiral cord to sense organs, muscles and
- Voluntary movement, sensory perception, learning and gland in the body.
memory. - Pairs of spinal nerves leave the spinal cord and emerge between
2 Hemisphere: Left and Right Hemisphere - connected by bundle of each adjacent nerve.
nerve fibers called corpus callosum. 6. Sciatic Nerve - Is the largest spinal nerve in the body. It leaves the
4 Lobes: spinal cord as several nerves that join to form a flat band of nervous
 Frontal - Reasoning, thought and contralateral control. system.
 Parietal - Integrate sensory information.
 Temporal - Process auditory information from ears. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Occipital - Process visual information from the eyes.
Autonomic Nervous System - Supplies and receives fibers to and form
2. Cerebellum smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
- Center of coordination and balance.
- Responsible for muscle coordination, balance, and posture. 2 Subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous System
Includes:
1. Parasympathetic
 Coordination of Movements - enables fluid precise
- Relax body “housekeeping function”
movement preventing jerky or uncoordinated motions.
- Digestion of food
 Balance and Posture Control - helps animal maintain
- General maintenance
posture and flexibility especially in moving environment.
- Expulsion of waste
 Motor Skill Learning - Farm animals can refine
2. Sympathetic
movements over time.
- Fight, fright, flight, face departure
- Raising heart rate
3. Brainstem (Diencephalon)
- Blood vessels constrict
- Lifeline of Nervous System
- Glucose release
- Connect the brain to the spinal cord and controls essential life
functions such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion. FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Includes:
 Regulation of Vital Functions - Controls involuntary 1. Sensory Perception - Farm animals rely on sensory organs (eyes,
processes like heartbeat, respiration, and digestion. ears, nose, skin) to detect environmental stimuli.
 Reflex Actions - Controls vital functions like breathing, 2. Motor Control and Coordination - The nervous system controls the
heart rate, and blood pressure, and connects the brain to voluntary and involuntary muscles. Locomotion, Feeding, and
the spinal cord. Reproductive Behavior.
Division of the Brainstem 3. Homeostasis Regulation - The Nervous System maintains internal
A. Thalamus - A relay station for sensory and motor signals to the balance (temperature, water, balance, and pH).
cerebral cortex, playing a role in consciousness, sleep, and alertness. 4. Reflex Actions - Are autonomic responses to stimuli that protect
B. Epithalamus - Includes the pineal gland, which is endocrine organ in animals from harm.
mammals. Its primary secretion, melatonin, appears to be important 5. Learning and Memory - Exhibit learning behavior, which helps in
in circadian (daily) rhythms sleep cycles. training and conditioning.
C. Hypothalamus - Controls and regulates Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS).
Functions: Controls and regulates temperature, appetite, water
balance, sleep, and blood vessels constriction and dilation.
Emotions: Anger, fear, pleasure, pain, and affection.
 AN SCI 105: Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals -
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COMMON NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMALS HORMONES SECRETED BY THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Releasing Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
1. Neurological Disease Growth- Release of growth Growth Inhibits growth
a) Rabies - A viral disease affecting the brain, causing aggression Hormone RH hormone (GH) from Inhibiting hormone
(GH) anterior pituitary Hormone
and paralysis.
Corticotropin- Release of
b) Tetanus - Caused by clostridium tetani bacteria, leading to RH (CRH) adrenocorticotropic
muscle stiffness and spasms. hormone (ACTH) from
c) Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - A fatal brain anterior pituitary
disorder affecting cattle. Known as “Mad Cow Disease”. Thyroid-RH Release of thyroid-
(TRH) stimulating hormone
(TSH) from anterior
2. Nutritional Deficiencies
pituitary
a) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Deficiency - Causes Prolactin-RH Stimulates mammary Prolactin-IH Inhibits prolactin
polioencephalomalacia (PEM) in ruminants, leading to (PRH) gland to make milk (PIH)
neurological issues. Gonadotropin- Release of follicle-
b) Calcium Deficiency (Hypocalcemia) - Leads to milk fever in RH (GnRH) stimulating hormone
and luteinizing
dairy cows, affecting nerve function. hormone from anterior
pituitary
3. Nervous System Trauma
a) Injuries to the spinal cord and brain due to accidents , improper The hypothalamus controls secretion of hormones which in their turn
handling, or aggressive behavior. control the secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland, the adrenal
cortex and gonads: in this way the brain controls these endocrine glands.
LESSON 2: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HORMONES SECRETED BY THE PITUITARY GLAND
The Endocrine System
- System of ductless glands and organs. Pituitary Gland - Often called the “Master Gland” as many of its hormones
- Uses chemical messengers called hormones to regulate a range trigger other glands to release theirs. The pituitary gland receives signals
of bodily functions through the release of hormones. from the hypothalamus.

What does Endocrine System do? 2 Parts of Pituitary Gland:

1. Appetite 1. Posterior (Neurohypophysis)
2. Blood Pressure  Oxytocin - induces uterine contractions and milk release from
3. Body Temperature mammary glands.
4. Growth and Development Target Organ: Mammary Gland and Uterus
5. Metabolism  Antidiuretic Hormone (Vasopressin) - promotes reabsorption
6. Heart Rate of water by kidneys.
7. Sexual Function and Reproduction Target Organ: Kidney
8. Sleeping and Waking Cycles
2. Anterior (Adenohypophysis)
Gland is an organ where hormones are produced, stored, and released.  Growth Hormone (Somatotropin/Somatotropic Hormone)
Each gland produces one or more hormones, which go on to target (STH)
specific organs and tissues in the body. Target Organ: Bone and Muscles
Functions:
2 Types of Glands
 Promotes growth of the long bones
1. Endocrine Glands - releases hormones directly into the
 Stimulates body growth through protein synthesis
bloodstream.
 Stimulates lipolysis
2. Exocrine Glands - like lymph nodes and sweat glands which are
 Inhibits the action of insulin on carbohydrates, and
not part of the endocrine system.
 Lipid metabolism
Hormones are the chemicals that endocrine system uses to send messages Over secretion of STH in man:
to organs and tissues throughout the body. Once released into the • Gigantism - before adulthood
bloodstream, hormones travel to their target organ or tissue, which has • Acromegaly - after adulthood
receptors that recognize and react to the hormone. Deficiency: Dwarfism

Hormone Producing Glands  Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates cortisol

1. Hypothalamus secretion in adrenal cortex.
2. Pituitary Gland Target Organ: Adrenal gland
3. Thyroid Gland Functions:
4. Adrenal Gland  Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
5. Pancreas Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) and Glucocorticoids such
6. Gonads as Cortisol, Cortisone, and Cotricosterone.
 Testicles (Male)
 Ovaries (Female)  Thyroid-stimulating Hormone - Stimulates thyroid gland to
secrete thyroid hormones.
Hormone Receptor Target Organ: Thyroid Gland
- Only certain specific populations of cells respond to an
individual hormone.  Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH) - Stimulates mammary
- The term target organ is used to identify the tissue whose cells gland growth and milk production.
will be affected by a given hormone. Target Organ: Mammary Gland
- Some hormones have multiple target organs , for they affect
cells in several sites.  Melanin (STH) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) - Skin
pigmentation.
Target Organ: Skin (Melanocyte)
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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine - Augments sympathetic response to
 Gonadotropic Hormone stress by actions on several organs. hormones behind the “fight-or-flight”
response (also called the fight, flight, or freeze response).
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
FEMALE MALE HORMONES SECRETED BY PANCREAS
Function Target Organ Function Target Organ
It is necessary for Ovarian Follicle Acts on the Sertoli Cells of 1. Insulin
the maturation sertoli cells to Seminiferous - Decreases blood glucose levels by promoting uptake of glucose
of ovarian stimulate Tubules
by liver and muscle cells and conversion to glycogen.
follicle spermatogenesis
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) Excess Insulin: Hypoglycemia
FEMALE MALE Lack of Insulin: Diabetes Mellitus
Function Target Organ Function Target Organ
Stimulates Stimulates Leydig Cells 2. Glucagon
ovulation, and testosterone - Stimulates glycogenolysis and glyconeogenesis in the liver .
the development synthesis in
of corpus luteum Leydig cells
Excess Glucagon: Diabetes
Lack of Glucagon: Hypoglycemia
HORMONES SECRETED BY THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLAND
HOROMONES SECRETED BY GONADS
• The Thyroid Gland secretes 2 hormones: Triiodothyronine (T3) and
Thyroxine (T4). 1. Estrogen (Ovaries)
• These hormones play a vital role in metabolism, growth, - It is involved in growth and development of the mammary
reproduction, and thermoregulation in farm animals. tissue through puberty.
- It is involved in the growth, maturation and release of oocytes
Triiodothyronine (T3)
(eggs)
- More biologically active than T₄.
- It prepares the lower reproductive tract for breeding, by
- Directly controlling energy use, growth, and body temperature
thickening and lubricating the lining of the vagina.
in animals.
- It assists with preparation of the reproductive tract for delivery
- Environmental stress (cold, heat, and poor nutrition) affects
of the fully developed fetus.
thyroid and parathyroid function, impacting productivity.

Thyroxine (T4) 2. Progesterone (Ovaries-Corpus Luteum)

- Regulates basal metabolic rate (BMR). - It prepares the endometrium to receive the fertilized egg.
- Enhances oxygen consumption and energy metabolism. - Progesterone helps the fertilized egg be implanted in the
- Supports growth, muscle development, and milk production uterus to establish a pregnancy and help maintain a healthy
- Helps in thermoregulation (maintaining body temperature). pregnancy.

PARATHYROID HORMONE CALCITONIN 3. Testosterone (Testes)

Increases blood calcium levels Lowers blood calcium levels by - The development of male genitalia, secondary sex
by stimulating calcium release inhibiting bone resorption characteristics.
from bones. - Regulates development and maintenance of sperm production.
Enhances calcium absorption Helps maintain calcium homeostasis
from the intestines along parathyroid hormone
Reduces calcium excretion by Prevents excessive calcium loss,
the kidneys supporting bone health
Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated by PTH and calcitonin,
preventing metabolic disorders like milk fever and rickets.

HORMONES SECRETED BY THE ADRENAL GLAND

1. Mineralocorticoids - Increases reabsorption of sodium by kidneys to

regulate water balance. Aldosterone being most important.

2. Glucocorticoids - Promotes gluconeogenesis, protein and fat

breakdown. Serves as anti-inflammatory. Cortisol being most
important.
 AN SCI 105: Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals -
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c) Interstitial (Leydig) cells – secrete testosterone under LH
stimulation.

LESSON 3: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Major Functions of MRS

1. Production, storage, and deposition of sperm cells 4. Seminiferous Tubules
2. Production of male sex hormones - tubular structures that coil throughout the testes and are the
3. Serve as passageway for expelling urine from the urinary bladder. site of spermatogenesis.
- Spermatozoa (sperm cells) – haploid gametes of the male that
3 Major Parts of MRS are motile and tadpole-like.
1. Testicles - Once matured, the sperm cells proceed to the epididymis
2. Duct System where they are stored until ejaculation or absorbed by the
3. Accessory Glands body.

Boar Reproductive Tract MALE MICROSTRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. Bladder
2. Seminal Vesicles Testosterone – the male sex hormone that is responsible for the
3. Prostate development of secondary male characteristics and sex behavior (libido).
4. Urethralis Muscle
5. Bulbourethral Glands - produced by Leydig Cells
6. Retractor Penis Muscle
Secondary male characteristics include coarse hair, horns that are long
7. Sigmoid Flexure
and large at the base, a deep voice, and pronounced muscularity.
8. Glans Penis
ABNORMALITIES ASSOCIATED TO TESTES
TESTES AND RELATED STRUCTURES
1. Cryptorchidism - testicles may be retained in the abdomen or in the
1. Scrotum
inguinal canal.
- The scrotum is a cutaneous sac that conforms in size and shape
a. Unilateral Cryptorchid
to the testes it contains.
b. Bilateral Cryptorchid
- The scrotal skin is thin, pliable, and relatively hairless (except
in some breeds of sheep, in which fleece covers the scrotum).
2. Scrotal Hernia
- Function: The scrotum's primary function is thermoregulation.
Sperm production requires a temperature slightly lower than DUCT SYSTEM
the normal body temperature (approximately 2-6 degrees
Celsius). 1. Epididymis – a coiled tube connected to each testis that is
responsible for the maturation, storage, and transport of sperm cells.
Thermoregulatory Muscles of Testes A. Caput epididymis (head)
A. Dartos muscle: A layer of smooth muscle within the scrotal wall that B. Corpus epididymis (body)
contracts in cold temperatures. It contracts or relaxes to control the C. Cauda epididymis (tail)
degree of wrinkle formation in the scrotum.
B. Cremaster muscles: This is a thin muscle that surrounds the 2. Vas Deferens (Deferent Duct) – part of the spermatic cord, it is the
spermatic cord and testes. It is responsible for elevating or lowering passageway for sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
the testes in response to temperature changes. 3. Ampullae – an enlargement of the deferent duct that opens into the
urethra and may serve as a temporary storage depot for sperm.
2. Spermatic Cord 4. Urethra – it is where spermatozoa and accessory fluids are mixed.
- The spermatic cord is a bundle of structures that suspends the Has a loop called sigmoid flexure (Bull, Boar, Ram and Buck)
testis in the scrotum and connects it to the body. It passes
through the inguinal canal. PENIS AND RELATED STRUCTURES

Houses: • The penis is the copulatory organ in male animals.

a) Ductus Deferens/Vas Deferens - carries sperm from the epididymis • It delivers semen into the female reproductive tract during mating.
to the urethra. • It also serves as the exit for urine through the urethra.
b) Testicular Artery - supplies oxygenated blood to the testis
c) Pampiniform Plexus - drains blood from the testes and regulates Main Parts of the Penis
temperature.  Root – attached to the pelvis
Composed of a testicular artery and veins that cool the blood before  Body (shaft) – main length; contains erectile tissue
circulating throughout the scrotum (4–6°C lower).  Glans penis – tip of the penis; highly sensitive; species-specific
shape
3. Testes - Male Gonad  Urethra – runs through the penis; carries semen and urine
- Descend testes from sublumbar region (abdominal cavity) to
scrotum. 2 TYPES OF MAMMALIAN PENIS
1. Fibroelastic Penis - uses the sigmoid flexure and retractor muscle to
Key Functions: become erect. erects by straightening and lengthening. (e.g. Bull, Boar,
• Spermatogenesis – production of spermatozoa. Buck and Ram)
• Steroidogenesis – testosterone production. ◦ Retractor Muscle - Helps with erection
◦ Sigmoid Flexure - ‘S curve’ that holds penis within the body when not
Key Structures: erected or helps extend the penis when erected.
a) Tunica albuginea – tough outer layer; gives structure.
b) Seminiferous tubules – site of sperm production. Species Differences:
◦ Sertoli cells: support and nourish germ cells. Ram: Filiform Appendage: Sprays sperm within the vagina for better
◦ Germ cells: differentiate into sperm. chance of fertilization.
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Boar: Corkscrew shaped penis: Matches the sows corkscrew shaped cervix

Penis and Related Structures:

A. Retractor penis muscle – muscle that contracts to retract the penis and
form the sigmoid flexure and relaxes to extend the penis upon sexual
excitement.
B. Sheath – external portion of the male reproductive tract that serves to
protect the penis from injury and infection.
2. Musculocavernous Penis
- NOT found in common farm animals, but seen in stallions and dogs
- Contains more erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa)
- Erection occurs through blood engorgement, making it larger and
longer during arousal.
- No sigmoid flexure.

Age of the animals when sperm is produced:

1. Boar – 117 days
2. Bull – 224 days
3. Buck – 110 days
4. Ram – 147 days

ACCESSORY GLANDS
- The accessory glands are responsible for the production of
secretions that contribute to the the liquid non-cellular portion of
semen known as seminal plasma.
- Semen and ejaculate are terms given to the sperm plus the added
accessory fluids.
- Provide 95-98% of total ejaculate volume.

1. Vesicular glands (seminal vesicles) – paired accessory glands that

secrete seminal fluid that nourishes the sperm and provides
protection and transportation medium for sperm upon ejaculation. It
is elongated highly lobulated. Similar but smaller than of the bull.
2. Prostate gland – secretes thick, milky fluid that mixes with seminal
fluid to provide nutrition and substance to the semen. Body appear
as elongate transverse ridge on the dorsal surface of the pelvic
urethra at the neck or UB. Has no body.
3. Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands) – secretes fluid that
cleanses and neutralizes the urine residue that can kill sperm cells in
the urethra. It is ovoid in shape about 2-3cm in diameter. Relatively
large (0.5-1cm).

SEMEN - consists of the sperm cells plus the secretions from the accessory
glands.

The most important parameters in a semen analysis are:

1. Concentration (often called "count") - how many sperm are in
each ml of semen?
2. Motility - what percent of them are swimming forward? AVIAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
3. Morphology - what percent of them are normally shaped?
• The avian male reproductive system is all inside the bird, unlike the
males of mammalian species which have their reproductive systems
outside of the body. This is one of the really remarkable things about
birds; the sperm remain viable at body temperature.
• The male poultry anatomy consists of two testes (each with an
epididymis and vas deferens) that lead to papillae and a rudimentary
copulatory organ.
• The two testicles in bird are located inside the abdominal cavity,
along the backbone and near the front end of the kidneys.
• In birds, production and maturation of large numbers of
spermatozoa occur rapidly within seminiferous tubules.
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Functions of the uterus includes:
1. Epididymis – provides limited storage of sperm cell. • Passageway for sperm during copulation,
2. Vas Deferens – main storage of sperm cell • Site of implantation of the fertilized egg,
Lack of accessory glands in the bird. • Incubation and nourishment of the embryo during pregnancy,
3. Papillae – copulatory organ of birds. Becomes engorged with and
lymph during mating, which allows semen to be deposited onto • Expulsion of the fetus during parturition by contractions.
the female’s everted cloacus; the phallus is more developed in
ducks and geese.

Uterine Wall Consists of 3 Layers:

Layer Name Description
Endometrium Innermost layer; glandular tissue that secretes
nutrients to support embryo development. It’s also
where the placenta attaches during pregnancy.
Myometrium Middle layer; thick, muscular layer responsible for
uterine contractions (important for sperm transport,
parturition, and expelling lochia after birth).
Perimetrium Outermost layer; a thin, protective serous membrane
that covers the uterus.

The uterus varies in shape between livestock species from long uterine
horns of the sow to relatively short uterine horns in the mare.
PIONEERS IN ANIMAL BREEDING • Bicornuate – long, folded, convoluted horns with short and not
prominent body (Sow)
Robert Bakewell (1725–1795) "Father of Animal Breeding"; introduced • Bipartite – Prominent body and a septum that separates the two
systematic selective breeding, record-keeping, inbreeding, and progeny uterine horns (Cattle, Sheep, Goat and Horses)
testing; developed breeds like the New Leicester sheep and improved
Longhorn cattle. 1. Monotocous Animals - Animals that normally give birth to one offspring
per gestation.
Jay Laurence Lush (1896–1982) "Father of Modern Animal Breeding"; Traits: Produce one dominant follicle per estrous cycle. Uterine structure
pioneered the use of quantitative genetics and statistical methods in supports single embryo development.
animal selection; authored the influential book "Animal Breeding Plans
(1937) - a foundational text for genetic selection in livestock. 2. Polytocous Animals - Animals that typically give birth to multiple
Contributions: Emphasized the use of: ◦ Statistical analysis ◦ Performance offspring (litters) per gestation.
testing ◦ Pedigree evaluation. Traits: Develop multiple follicles and ovulations per cycle. Uterus adapted
to support multiple embryos.
Bienvenido Maria Sioco Gonzalez (1893-1953) Pioneer of Philippine
Animal Breeding Development of tropical breeds: Berkjala pig, Philamin
cattle, Cantonese chicken. First Filipino animal breeder to establish locally
adapted breeds. Focused on tropical adaptability, disease resistance, and
productivity. Promoted crossbreeding programs suited for smallholder
farming in the Philippines.

LESSON 4: THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The functions of the female reproductive system are:

• Produces egg cells (ova),
• Provides 1/2 of the chromosomes of the young
• Serves as receptacle for the penis during copulation, and
• House and nourish the fetus until parturition
5. Cervix – “Neck of the uterus”, “Mouth of the Womb”.
Os uteri – closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the
FEMALE MACROSTRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
uterine contents
- serves as sperm receptacle for some animals
1. Ovaries – Primary sex organs of the female.
- facilitates the transport of sperm to the uterus
- Production of egg cells/ova
Shape is species specific:
- Production of female sex hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone
 Annular rings in cow and ewe
 Corkscrew in pigs
2. Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) – Paired tubes that transport the eggs
 Mucosal folds in mares
from the ovaries to the uterus and serve as the site where sperm and
ova meet and fertilization occurs.
6. Vagina – serves as the receptacle for the penis during copulation. -
Primary organ of copulation
3. Infundibulum – Two funnel-like openings of the oviducts that pick up
- the birth canal at parturition
the eggs at ovulation and direct them to the body of the oviducts.
- sperm depository area in many animals
Made up of several segments:
- it also serves as a passageway for urine, as the urethra joins
 Fimbria: finger-like projections that surrounds the ovary to
the
"catch" the oocyte when released during ovulation.
bladder to the vagina prior to the opening of the vulva.
 Uterotubal Junction: connection site of the oviduct and uterus.
Length (Vagina + Vestibule)
**Microscopic cilia: minute finger-like projection in the fimbria.
 Cow 35-42 cm
Transports the egg to the uterine horn
 Ewe 12-17 cm
 Sow 16-23 cm
4. Uterus – a major reproductive organ which consists of uterine body
 Mare 30-47 cm
and two uterine horns.
Semen deposit
It is composed of 3 major parts: Fundus, Body and Cervix.
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Bulls and bucks semen are deposited here, while in stallion and boars
semen are deposited in cervix.

7. Vulva – common passageway of reproductive materials and urine

- the external portion of the female reproductive tract that
serves as the protection of the internal system from infection upon
initial reception of the penis at copulation.
-Homologous to the cloaca of birds and scrotum of male
animals

8. Clitoris – a sensory erectile organ just inside the vulva.

- Homologous to the glans penis of males
FEMALE MICROSTRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
1. Hypothalamus
Oogenesis is the process of producing ova (eggs) in the follicles of the • Located in the brain.
ovaries. • Produces and secretes GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone).
• GnRH is released in a pulsatile manner, which is crucial for normal
Follicle – a blister-like mass on the surface of the ovary that contains a reproductive function.
developing ovum and produces and stores estrogen. • The GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland.
The follicle secretes estrogen as a signal to the rest of the reproductive
tract to prepare for ovulation (release of the ovum from a mature follicle). 2. Pituitary Gland (Anterior Pituitary)
 Corpus hemorrhagicum – a small hemorrhage or blood-clotted • Responds to GnRH by releasing two important hormones:
area that develops at the site of a ruptured follicle and lasts 2 –  FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone):
3 days. - Stimulates follicular growth and development in the ovaries.
 Corpus luteum – a yellow body of cells that develops in place of  LH (Luteinizing Hormone):
the corpus hemorrhagicum and produces progesterone. - Triggers ovulation and luteinization (formation of corpus
Corpus Luteum Development luteum).

3. Gonads (Ovaries)
• Respond to FSH and LH:
 Follicles grow (under FSH).
 Ovulation occurs (triggered by LH surge).
 Corpus luteum forms and produces progesterone.
• Hormone production:
 Estrogen (from growing follicles) – stimulates estrus behavior
and primes the reproductive tract.
 Progesterone (from corpus luteum) – maintains pregnancy or
prepares uterus for embryo.

4. Feedback Mechanisms
Progesterone – the female sex hormone that functions to prepare the
• Negative Feedback: High progesterone inhibits GnRH, FSH, and LH
female reproductive system for pregnancy; it is produced by the corpus
secretion → prevents new ovulations during pregnancy.
luteum and lasts about twelve days, unless the ovum is fertilized.
• Positive Feedback: High estrogen (from mature follicles) causes a
surge of GnRH → surge of LH → ovulation.
CL Lifespan (if
Animal Notes
no pregnancy)
Prostaglandin F2α (PGF₂α) is mainly produced by the uterus (specifically
Swine ~14–16 days CL regresses if no pregnancy around day
the endometrium).
14–16.
Its role is not directly inside the HPG axis, but it is essential for regulating
Sheep ~13–15 days CL regresses if not pregnant around day
the cycle by affecting the ovaries:
13–15.
Goat ~15–17 days Slightly longer than in sheep.  If no pregnancy is detected, the uterus releases PGF₂α into the
Cattle ~16–18 days CL stays functional up to day 16–18 if no bloodstream.
conception.  PGF₂α causes luteolysis → breakdown of the corpus luteum (CL).
Chicke No true CL Birds do not form a true corpus luteum  When the CL regresses, progesterone drops.
n because they ovulate differently; follicles  Low progesterone removes the negative feedback on the
regress after ovulation. hypothalamus → GnRH pulses increase again → a new cycle begins
Duck No true CL Like chickens, ducks do not form a true (FSH, LH rise → new follicle grows).
CL; their reproductive cycle is follicle-
based. Average Ages or Times of Reproductive Parameters for Selected Species
Animal Pubert 1st Service Estrous Estrus Gestation
• The number of ova produced per cycle varies with each species. y
• A cow or mare normally produces one ovum per cycle. Mare 18 mos 2-3 yrs 21 days 6 days 336 days
• An ewe produces two ova per cycle. Cow 1-2 yrs 1-2 yrs 21 days 15 hrs 282 days
• A sow produces eight to fifteen ova per cycle. Ewe 8 mos 1-1.5 yrs 17 days 1-2 days 150 days
Sow 7 mos 8-10 mos 21 days 2 days 114 days
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) Axis
The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in female farm animals AVIAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
regulates reproduction by controlling the ovarian cycle and preparing Mature female poultry have only one functional ovary; the right ovary and
follicles for ovulation. oviduct degenerate and cease functioning before the bird reaches sexual
- controls the estrous cycle of farm animals like cows, goats, sheep, pigs, maturity. The ovary appears as a cluster of tiny, gray balls (oocytes).
and horses. Proper function of this axis is essential for fertility, estrus
synchronization programs, and successful breeding. 1. Ovary
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• The ovary contains many follicles at different stages of
development.
• Each follicle has a developing yolk.
• When a follicle is fully mature, it is released from the ovary—a
process called ovulation.
Notes:
 For mammals, ovulation is linked to the estrous cycle.
 In poultry, ovulation is tightly tied to the laying cycle and not to
estrus since they do not have estrous cycles.
 Accurate timing of ovulation is crucial for artificial insemination and
breeding management.
 At maturity, the ovary contains up to 4,000 tiny oocytes from which
ovum may develop over time.
 An ovum develops by collecting lipid particles from the blood to form
the yolk.
 The yolk contains fat for energy and some protein and other
nutrients needed by the developing embryo, as well as, a small white
dot called the germinal disc that contains the genetic information
supplied by the female

2. Oviduct
• The oviduct is a long, coiled tube (~70 cm in a mature hen)
divided into five regions, each with a specific role:
A. Infundibulum
- Funnel-shaped part that captures the released yolk.
- Site of fertilization if sperm is present.
- Time: Yolk remains here for about 15 minutes.
B. Magnum
- Longest part of the oviduct.
- Secretes the albumen (egg white) around the yolk.
- Time: Yolk stays for about 3 hours.
C. Isthmus
- Adds the shell membranes around the albumen and yolk.
- Time: Yolk-albumen combination remains here for about
1 hour.
D. Shell Gland
- Where the shell is formed.
- Egg Shell is comprised of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) but
the very thin outer layer called cuticle is largely protein.
- Pigments (such as brown color) are added if present.
- Time: Egg remains here for about 20 hours.
C. Vagina
- Egg passes through the vagina before being laid.
- Helps position the egg correctly for laying.
- Egg is usually laid large end first.
- stimulated by oxytocin, causes uterine contraction,
depositing the egg externally from the bird.

 In addition to producing ova, the ovary produces the female sex

hormone, estrogen, and the hormone androgen.
 The androgen hormone stimulates comb growth and works with
other hormones in egg production.

Functions of Estrogen in Poultry

a) stimulates the growth of the oviduct,
b) increase the size of the cloaca during egg laying,
c) modify feather shape and pigmentation of the female, and
d) increase the level of fat, phosphorus, and calcium in the blood.