Memory structures and functions.

Aristotle even thought of memory as similar to a wax tablet that can be molded, melted, and remolded over
time.Most ideas in common view memory as a “thing,” as a storage unit or structure where information is held.
However, memory can also be thought of as a collection of interdependent processes where memory is thought of
more as “remembering,” this idea is the cognitive perspective which dominated psychology‘s view of memory for
the past years

, they relate the mind to an information

processor, along the lines of a digital computer that takes items of information in; processes

them in steps or stages, and then produces an output and researchers who adhere to this view of memory focus more
on how and when remembering occurs, rather than memory as a storage structure or unit

The information-processing model originally suggested that in order for information to become firmly embedded in
memory, it must pass through three stages of mental processing: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-
term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968;

First, information must be put into memory, a step that requires encoding . Just

as incoming sensory information which are mental representations of physical stimuli, must be coded so
that it can be communicated to

the brain, information to be remembered must be put in a form that the memory

system can accept and use.

second basic memory process is storage, which refers to keeping informa

tion in memory over time—often over a very long time

and the third process,reterieval, its when you locate information stored in memory and bring it in to
consciousness.

Early versions of information-processing models presumed that encoding, storage, and retrieval
processes were all about equally important. In contrast, the levels-of-processing model suggests that the
most important determinant of memory is how extensively information is encoded or processed whenit
is first received

the history of cognitive psychology it has also been traditional to separate psychological theory from
neuro-psychological of memory Until recently where domains of psychology andneuroscience are
reinforcing each other that Neuroscience has become relevant and useful for elucidating the structure
and organization of cognition for instance visual sensory memories in individuals with mild cognitive
impairments (such as those shown by individuals with earlystage Alzheimer’s disease) decay faster than comparison
individuals without these impairments. These studies suggest that there may be a link between the experience of a
sensory memory and specific neural activity.

Here I consider recent work on learning and memory from a combined psychology-neuroscience point of
view where characteristics of various forms of memory, their relationship to each other, and how they
are organized and work in the brain

Sensory memory
It is the entry way to memory. the very short-term memory storage of unprocessed sensory
, which act as temporary storage bins. The major function of sensory memory is to hold information
long enough for it to be processed further . There is a separate

register for each of the five senses, and each register is capable of storing a nearly

complete representation of sensory stimuli.

Storage Capacity of Sensory memory

study showed that visual sensory memories last about one second, other researchers examined the duration of sensory
memory for nonvisual senses. For example, studies using the partial-report method that focused on auditory sensory
memory (also known as echoic memory) reported that these memories could last as long as four seconds where does
sensory memory end and short-term memory begin has been an issue Because of this , it has been unclear if the
longer estimates for auditory and tactile sensory memory reflect sensory or short-term memories.And the fact that
sensory memories quickly fade if they are not processed further is an adaptive characteristic of the memory system
because we simply could not deal with all of the sights, sounds, odors, tastes, and touch sensations that reach your
sense organs atany given moment(selective attention ).

Sensory memory helps us experience a constant flow of information, even if that flow is interrupted FOR
EXAMPLE when our head moves It may seem as though your eyes are moving smoothly, like a movie,
but that’s not what is happening. Instead, your eyes fixate at one point for about one-fourth of a second
and then rapidly jump to a new position. The sensation of smooth movement through the visual field
occurs because you hold each scene in your visual sensory register until your eyes fixate again.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

is the part of your memory system that stores limited amounts of

information for a limited amount of time , it is an intermediate memory storage that
begins processing of perceptual informa- tion transferred from sensory memory. Information that becomes the focus
of attention moves from sensory memory to STM, encoding of information in a more elaborative and varied than
that in the sensory registers

Storage Capacity of Short-Term Memory

the capacity of STM for most people: about five to nine items. This was famously shown by Miller (1956) in a study
titled “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two” which appears to be the capacity of short-term memory.n,
the “magic number” refers not only to discrete elements, such as words or digits, but also to meaningful groupings
of information, chunks(chunking-a process of organizing information that allows more items to be stored in memory).
Letters can be grouped as words and words can be grouped as sentences to hold more items in STM.(Hebert Simon
and William Chase)
Evidence from experiments suggested that unrehearsed information can be maintained in short-term memory for no
more than about eighteen seconds. However, if the information is rehearsed or processed further, it may be encoded
into long-term memory.

More recent research also suggests that STM span may be closer to three to five chunks in some cases, but the
capacity of STM can depend on factors like the type of information and our attentional limits, for example cases
when you are interrupted while repeating to yourself a new information like the phone number you were about to
call, and then couldn’t remember the number.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)(i.e., lifetime)

is part of the memory system whose encoding and storage capabilities can produce memories that last a lifetime. ,
LTM appears to be an unlimited store of information. where we can store information across our lifetimes in LTM,
the amount of information that can be stored does not appear to have a limit.Unlike sensory and short-term
memories.
Types of LTM Memories
Three main types of memories can be stored in and retrieved from LTM

Explicit or declarative memory is the deliberate recall of details, such as particular facts or
occasions, that may be spoken orally. Semantic and episodic memories are further differentiated.

Factual knowledge such as word and concept meanings and mathematical computations are stored in our
Semantic memory. Regardless of the specific situation, they are internal representations of the world.

Memories of incidents and circumstances from one's own life are called Episodic memory. They are
inward depictions of experiences that they have had firsthand.

Implicit or non-declarative memory encompasses a range of memory processes wherein past

experiences influence behavior without the individual being aware of them. Procedural memory is one
type of implicit memory that is highly significant. It is the comprehension of methods or abilities on "how to."