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About this document ...
These notes are derived from a school on low frequency radio astronomy that was held
at NCRA, Pune from June 21 to July 17 1999.
The "Low Frequency Radio Astronomy" is also published in a book form by NCRA-TIFR.
The translation was initiated by Nirupam Roy in Nov. 2005 and the document was
generated using the LaTeX2HTML translator Version 2002-2-1 (1.70)
Copyright © 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, Nikos Drakos, Computer Based Learning Unit,
University of Leeds. Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, Ross Moore, Mathematics
Department, Macquarie University, Sydney.
Next: General Theory Up: LFRA Previous: Preface
Contents
Preface
General Theory
1. Signals in Radio Astronomy
1. Introduction
2. Properties of the Gaussian
3. The Wiener-Khinchin Theorem
4. The Sampling Theorem
5. The Central Limit and Pairing Theorems
6. Quasimonochromatic and Complex Signals
7. Cross Correlations
8. Mathematical details
2. Interferometry and Aperture Synthesis
1. Introduction
2. The Radio Sky
3. Signals in Radio Astronomy
4. Interferometry
1. The Need for Interferometry
2. The Van Cittert Zernike Theorem
3. Aperture Synthesis
5. The Fourier Transform
3. Single Dish Radio Telescopes
1. Introduction
2. EM Wave Basics
3. Signals and Noise in Radio Astronomy
1. Signals
2. Noise
3. Signal to Noise Ratio
4. Antenna Patterns
5. Computing Antenna Patterns
4. Two Element Interferometers
1. Introduction
2. A Two Element Interferometer
3. Response to Quasi-Monochromatic Radiation
4. Two Element Interferometers in Practice
5. Sensitivity and Calibration for Interferometers
1. Sensitivity
2. Calibration
3. Further Reading
6. Phased Arrays
1. Introduction
2. Array Theory
1. The 2 Element Array
2. Linear Arrays of n Elements of Equal Amplitude and Spacing :
3. The Fourier Transform Approach to Array Patterns
3. Techniques for Phasing an Array
4. Coherently vs Incoherently Phased Array
5. Comparison of Phased Array with a Multi-Element Interferometer
6. Further Reading
7. Imaging With Dipolar Arrays
1. Early History of Dipole Arrays
2. Image Formation
3. Digital Beam Forming
4. Radio Telescopes with Digital Beam Forming Networks
1. The Clark Lake TEE-PEE-TEE Telescope
2. GEETEE: The Gauribidanur Array
3. MOST: The Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope
4. Summary
5. Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Concept
6. Adaptive Beam Forming
7. Further Reading
8. Correlator I. Basics
1. Introduction
2. Digitization
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Dynamic Range
3. Discrete Fourier Transform
1. Filtering and Windowing
4. Digital Delay
5. Discrete Correlation and the Power Spectral Density
6. Further Reading
9. Correlator - II: Implementation
1. Delay Tracking and Fringe Stopping
2. Spectral Correlator
1. FX Correlator
2. XF Correlator
3. Further Reading
10. Mapping I
1. Coordinate Systems
1. Angular Co-ordinates
2. Astronomical Co-ordinate System
3. Physical Coordinate System
4. Coordinate Transformation
2. 2D Relation Between Sky and Aperture Planes
3. Further Reading
11. Mapping II
1. Introduction
2. Weighting, Tapering and Beam Shaping
3. Gridding and Interpolation
4. Bandwidth Smearing
5. Time Average Smearing
6. Zero-spacing Problem
7. Further Reading
12. Deconvolution in sythesis imaging-an introduction
1. Preliminaries
2. The Deconvolution Problem
1. Interferometric Measurements
2. Dirty Map and Dirty Beam
3. The Need for Deconvolution
3. CLEAN
1. The Högbom Algorithm
2. The Behaviour of CLEAN
3. Beyond CLEAN
4. Maximum Entropy
1. Bayesian Statistical Inference
2. MEM Images
3. Noise and Residuals
5. Further Reading
13. Spectral Line Observations
1. Spectral Lines
2. Rest Frequency and Observing Frequency
3. Setting the Observing Frequency and the Bandwidth
4. Calibration
1. Gain Calibration
2. Bandshape Calibration
5. Smoothing
6. Continuum Subtraction
7. Line Profiles
8. Further Reading
14. Wide Field Imaging
1. Introduction
2. Mapping with Non Co-planar Arrays
1. Image Volume
2. Interpretation of the -term
3. Inversion Of Visibilities
3. Mosaicing
1. Scanning Interferometer
4. Further Reading
15. Polarimetry
1. Introduction
2. Polarization in Radio Astronomy
3. The Measurement Equation
4. Polarization Calibration
5. Further Reading
16. Ionospheric effects in Radio Astronomy
1. Introduction
2. Propagation Through a Homogeneous Plasma
3. Propagation Through a Smooth Ionosphere
4. Propagation Through an Inhomogeneous Ionosphere
5. Angular Broadening
6. Scintillation
7. Further Reading
17. Pulsar Observations
1. Introduction
2. Requirements for Pulsar Observations
1. Phased Array Requirements
2. Spectral Resolution Requirements
3. Requirements for Time Resolution and Accurate Time Keeping
4. Requirements for Polarimetry
5. Flux Calibration Requirements
3. Basic Block Diagram of a Pulsar Receiver
4. Dispersion and Techniques for its Correction
5. Pulse Studies
6. Interstellar Scintillation Studies
7. Pulsar Timing Studies
8. Pulsar Search
9. Further Reading
The GMRT
1. An Overview of the GMRT
1. Introduction
2. Array Configuration
3. Receiver System
4. Digital Backends
2. GMRT Antennas and Feeds
1. Introduction
2. Types of Antennas
3. Characterizing Reflector Antennas
4. Computing Reflector Antenna Radiation Patterns
1. Aperture Efficiency
5. Design Specifications for the GMRT Antennas
1. Secondary Patterns
6. GMRT Feeds
1. Feed Placement
2. 150 MHz Feed
3. 327 MHz Feed
4. Dual-Frequency Coaxial Waveguide Feed
7. 1000-1450 MHz Feed
8. GMRT Antenna Efficiencies
9. Further Reading
3. The GMRT Servo System
1. Introduction
2. Objectives of the GMRT Servo System
3. The GMRT Servo System Specifications
4. Control System Description
1. Closed Loop Control Systems
2. Principles of Position Control
3. Position Loop Amplifier
4. Rate Loop Amplifier
5. Current Loop Amplifier
5. Servo Amplifiers
6. Servo Motors
7. Gear Reducers
8. Position Sensors
9. Dual Drive
10. Digital Controller
11. Servo Operational Commands
4. GMRT Receivers
1. Introduction
2. Overview of the GMRT Receiver Chain
3. Receiver Design Considerations
4. The Multi Frequency Front Ends
5. The Antenna Base Receiver
6. The Fiber-Optic Link
5. The GMRT Optical Fiber System
1. Introduction
2. The Laser Transmitter
1. Laser Specifications
3. The Optical Fiber
4. The Optical Receiver
5. Link Performance
6. Local Oscillator and Base-band Systems
1. Requirement for a Local Oscillator System at the GMRT
2. The Frequency Translation Scheme used at the GMRT
3. Generation of Phase-Coherent Local Oscillator Signals
4. Noise Calibration and Walsh Switching
5. The Base-band System
6. A Summary of Important Specifications
1. Array Frequency Reference
2. First LO Synthesiser
3. Second and Third LO Sources and Offset Frequency Sources
4. Fourth LO Synthesiser
5. Base-band System
7. A Control and Monitor System for the GMRT
1. Introduction
2. Overview
1. ONLINE
2. PCROUTER
3. COMH
4. ANTCOM or ABC
5. Servo Control Computer
6. Monitor and Control Modules
3. Signal Flow in the GMRT Control & Monitor System
1. Error Detection
4. Signal Modulation
1. Frequency Shift Keying
5. System specifications of the Control & Monitor system
1. Overview
2. Bit rates available for various services
3. Details of the various communication links
8. The GMRT Correlator
1. Introduction
2. An overview of the GMRT Correlator
1. ADC
2. Delay-DPC
3. FFT
4. MAC
3. Modes of operation of the GMRT correlator
1. Non-Polar Mode
2. Indian-Polar Mode
3. Polar Mode
4. Further Reading
9. The Data Acquisition System for the GMRT
1. Data Acquisition
2. Correlator Control
3. Monitoring the health of the correlator
4. Online processing of the data
1. The network of acquisition and processing
2. The software layout
3. Time stamping of data and it's accuracy
5. Further desirable features
Rajaram Nityananda
1.1 Introduction
The record of the electric field E(t), received at a point on earth from a source of radio
waves can be called a “signal”, so long as we do not take this to imply intelligence at
the transmitting end. Emanating as it does from a large object with many independently
radiating parts, at different distances from our point, and containing many frequencies,
this signal is naturally random in character. In fact, this randomness is of an extreme
form. All measured statistical properties are consistent with a model in which different
frequencies have completely unrelated phases, and each of these phases can vary ran-
domly from 0 to 2π. A sketch of such a signal is given in Fig. 1.1. The strength (squared
amplitude or power) of the different frequencies ω has a systematic variation which we
call the “power spectrum” S(ω). This chapter covers the basic properties of such sig-
nals, which go by the name of “time-stationary gaussian noise”. Both the signal from
the source of interest, as well as the noise added to this cosmic signal by the radio tele-
scope recievers can be described as time-stationary gaussian noise. The word noise of
course refers to the random character. “Noise” also evokes unwanted disturbance, but
this of course does not apply to the signal from the source (but does apply to what our
receivers unavoidably add to it). The whole goal of radio astronomy is to receive, process,
and interpret these cosmic signals, (which were, ironically enough, first discovered as
a “noise” which affected trans-atlantic radio communication). “Time–Stationary” means
that the signal in one time interval is statistically indistinguishable from that in another
equal duration but time shifted interval. Like all probabilistic statements, this can never
be precisely checked but its validity can be made more probable (circularity intended!)
by repeated experiments. For example, we could look at the probability distribution of
the signal amplitude. An experimenter could take a stretch of the signal say, from times
0 to T , select N equally spaced values E(ti ), i going from 1 to N , and make a histogram
of them. The property of time stationarity says that this histogram will turn out to be
(statistically) the same — with calculable errors decreasing as N increases! — if one had
chosen instead the stretch from t to t + T , for any t. The second important characteristic
property of our random phase superposition of many frequencies is that this histogram
will tend to a gaussian, with zero mean as N tends to infinity.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS IN RADIO ASTRONOMY
Amplitude
Time
Figure 1.1: A signal made by superposition of many frequencies with random phases
3. The average values of x21 , x22 and x1 x2 , when arranged as a matrix (the so called
covariance matrix) are the inverse of the matrix of a’s. For example,
4. By time stationarity,
< x21 >=< x22 >= σ 2
< x21 >=< x22 >= σ 2
The extra information about the correlation between x1 and x2 is contained in <
x1 x2 >, i.e. in a12 which (again by stationarity) can only be a function of the time
separation τ = t1 − t2 . We can hence write < E(t)E(t + τ ) >= C(τ ) independent of t.
C(τ ) is called the autocorrelation function. From (1) above, C 2 (τ ) ≤ σ 2 . This suggests
that the quantity r(τ ) = C(τ )/σ 2 is worth defining, as a dimensionless correlation
coefficient, normalised so that r(0) = 1. The generalisation of all these results for a
k variable gaussian is given in the Section 1.8
a signal going from 0 to T , and only later take the limit T → ∞. The usual theory of
Fourier series tells us that we can write
X
E(t) ≡ an cos ωn t + bn sin ωn t
X
≡ rn cos(ωn t + ϕn )
where,
2π p
ωn = , rn = an x2 + b2n , and tan ϕn = −bn /an
T
Notice that the frequencies come in multiples of the “fundamental” 2π/T which is very
small since T is large, and hence they form a closely spaced set. We can now compute
the autocorrelation
X X
C(τ ) = hE(t)E(t + τ )i = h rn cos(ωn t + ϕn ) rm cos(ωm (t + τ ) + ϕm )i
n m
The averaging on the right hand side has to be carried out by letting each of the phases
ϕk vary independently from 0 to 2π. When we do this, only terms with m = n can survive,
and we get
X1
C(τ ) = rn2 cos ωn τ
2
.
Putting τ equal to zero, we get the variance
X1
C(0) = hE(t)2 i =
r2
2 n
We note that the autocorrelation is independent of t and hence we have checked time
stationarity, at least for this statistical property. We now have to face the limit T → ∞.
The number of frequencies in a given range ∆ω blows up as
∆ω T ∆ω
= .
(2π/T ) 2π
Clearly, the rn2 have to scale inversely with T if statistical qualities like C(τ ) are to have
a well defined T → ∞ behaviour. Further, since the number of rn ’s even in a small interval
∆ω blows up, what is important is their combined effect rather than the behaviour of any
individual one. All this motivates the definition.
X rn2
= 2S(ω)∆ω
2
ω<ωn <ω+∆ω
Z ∞ Z +∞
C(τ ) = 2P (ν) cos(2πντ )dν = P (ν)e−2πiντ dν
0 −∞
and as before, P (−ν) = P (ν).
In this particular case of the autocorrelation, we did not use independence of the ϕ ’s.
Thus the theorem is valid even for a non-gaussian random process. (for which different
ϕ ’s are not independent). Notice also that we could have averaged over t instead of
over all the ϕ’s and we would have obtained the same result, viz. that contributions
are nonzero only when we multiply a given frequency with itself. One could even argue
that the operation of integrating over the ϕ’s is summing over a fictitious collection (i.e
“ensemble”) of signals, while integrating over t and dividing by T is closer to what we do
in practice. The idea that the ensemble average can be realised by the more practical
time average is called “ergodicity” and like everything else here, needs better proof than
we have given it. A rigorous treatment would in fact start by worrying about existence of
a well-defined T → ∞ limit for all statistical quantities, not just the autocorrelation. This
is called “proving the existence of the random process”.
The autocorrelation C(τ ) and the power spectrum S(ω) could in principle be measured
in two different kinds of experiments. In the time domain, one could record samples of
the voltage and calculate averages of lagged products to get C. In the frequency domain
one would pass the signal through a filter admitting a narrow band of frequencies around
ω, and measure the average power that gets through.
A simple but instructive application of the Wiener Khinchin theorem is to a power spec-
trum which is constant (“flat band”) between ν0 − B/2 and ν0 + B/2. A simple calculation
shows that
sin(πBτ )
C(τ ) = 2KB (cos(2πν0 τ ))
πBτ
The first factor 2KB is the value at τ = 0, hence the total power/variance to radio
astronomers/statisticians. The second factor is an oscillation at the centre frequency.
This is easily understood. If the bandwidth B is very small compared to ν0 , the third factor
would be close to unity for values of τ extending over say 1/4B, which is still many cycles
of the centre frequency. This approaches the limiting case of a single sinusoidal wave,
whose autocorrelation is sinusoidal. The third sinc function factor describes “bandwidth
decorrelation1 ”, which occurs when τ becomes comparable to or larger than 1/B.
Another important case, in some ways opposite to the preceding one, occurs when
ν0 = B/2, so that the band extends from 0 to B. This is a so-called “baseband”. In this
case, the autocorrelation is proportional to a sinc function of 2πBτ . Now, the correlation
between a pair of voltages measured at an interval of 1/2B or any multiple (except zero!)
thereof is zero, a special property of our flat band. In this case, we see very clearly that a
set of samples measured at this interval of 1/2B, the so-called “Nyquist sampling interval”,
would actually be statistically independent since correlations between any pair vanish
(this would be clearer after going through Section 1.8). Clearly, this is the minimum
number of measurements which would have to be made to reproduce the signal, since if
we missed one of them the others would give us no clue about it. As we will now see, it is
also the maximum number for this bandwidth!
samples separated by 1/2B is sufficient to reconstruct the signal. One can obtain a pre-
liminary feel for the theorem by counting Fourier coefficients. The number of parameters
defining our signal is twice the number of frequencies, (since we have an a and a b, or
an r and a ϕ, for each ωn ). Hence the number of real values needed to specify our signal
for a time T is
∆ωT ∆ω
2× =2 T = 2BT
2π 2π
This rate at which new real numbers need to be measured to keep pace with the signal
is 2B. The so called “Nyquist sampling interval” is therefore (2B)−1 . A real proof (sketched
in Section 1.8) would give a reconstruction of the signal from these samples!
In words, the Shannon criterion is two samples per cycle of the maximum frequency
difference present. The usual intuition is that the centre frequency ν0 does not play a
role in these considerations. It just acts a kind of rapid modulation which is completely
known and one does not have to sample variations at this frequency. This intuition
is consistent with radio engineers/astronomers fundamental right to move the centre
frequency around by heterodyning2 with local (or even imported3 ) oscillators, but a more
careful examination shows that the centre frequency should satisfy ν0 = (n + 12 )B for the
sampling at a rate 2B to work.
when we let the ϕ’s each vary independently over the full circle 0 to 2π. This is true
whether l, m, n are distinct or not. But coming to even powers like hE 4 (t)i, something
interesting happens. When we integrate a product like rl rm rn rp cos(ωm t + ϕm ) cos(ωn t +
ϕn ) cos(ω` t + ϕl ) cos(ωp t + ϕp ) over all the four ϕ’s we can get non-zero answers, provided
the ϕ’s occur in pairs, i.e., if l = m and n = p, then we encounter cos2 ϕl × cos2 ϕn which has
a non-zero average. (We saw a particular case of this when we calculated hE(t)E(t + τ )i
and only rm 2
type terms survived).
Because of the random and independent phases of the large number of different fre-
quencies, we can now state the “pairing theorem”.
X
hE(t1 )E(T2 ) . . . E(t2k )i = hE(t1 )E(t2 )i . . . hE(t2k−1) E(t2k )i
pairs
As discussed in Section 1.8, this pairing theorem proves that the statistics is gaussian.
(A careful treatment shows that only the rm rn terms are equal on the two sides- we have
2 2
not quite got the rm terms right, but there are many more (of the order of N times more)
4
of the former type and they dominate as T → ∞ and the numbers of sines and cosines
we are adding is very large). This result — that the sum of a large number of small, finite
variance, independent terms has a gaussian distribution — is a particular case of the
“central limit theorem”. We only need the particular case where these terms are cosines
with random phases.
2 see Chapter 3
3 aaaaagggh! beware of weak puns. (eds.)
1.6. QUASIMONOCHROMATIC AND COMPLEX SIGNALS 7
In this expression, ω1 is a frequency offset from the chosen centre ω0 , so that E(ω1 )
actually represents the amplitude at a frequency ω0 + ω1 , and ϕ(ω1 ) the phase. We can
now think of our quasimonochromatic signal as a rapidly varying phasor at the centre
frequency ω0 , modulated by a complex voltage
X
Vm (t) = E(ω1 ) exp(iω1 t + iϕω1 )
−∆ω/2<ω1 <∆ω/2
This latter phasor varies much more slowly than exp(−iω0 t). In fact, it takes a time
∆ω −1 for Vm (t) to vary significantly since the highest frequencies present are of order ∆ω.
This time scale is much longer than the timescale ω −1 associated with the centre fre-
quency. Writing Vm (t) in the polar form as R(t) exp(iα(t)), our original real signal reads
It is a standard result, derived by the usual device of completing the square, that this
Fourier transform is itself a gaussian function of the k’s, given by
X
1 1 T
G(k1 , . . . , kk ) = exp − Cij ki kj ≡ exp − k Ck .
2 ij 2
Differentiating with respect to k1 and then k2 , and putting all k’s equal to zero, pulls down
a factor −x1 x2 into the integral and gives the desired average of x1 x2 . This trick now gives
the average of the product of a string of x’s in the form of the “pairing theorem”. This is
easier to state by an example.
Z
Ei (t) = Er (s)P [1/(t − s)] ds/π
There is a similar formula relating Er to Ei which only differs by a minus sign. This
is sufficient to show that one needs values from the infinite past, and more disturbingly,
future, of t to compute Ei (t). This is beyond the reach of ordinary mortals, even those
equipped with the best filters and phase shifters. Practical schemes to derive the complex
signal in real time thus have to make approximations as a concession to causality.
As remarked in the main text, there are many complex signals whose real parts would
give our measured Er (t). The choice made above seemed natural because it was motivated
by the quasimonochromatic case. It also has the mathematical property of creating a
function which is very well behaved in the upper half plane of t regarded as a complex
variable, (should one ever want to go there). The reason is that V (t) is constructed to
have terms like eiωt with only positive values of ω. Hence the pedantic name of “analytic
signal” for this descendant of the humble phasor. It was the more general problem of
continuing something given on the real axis to be well behaved in the upper half plane
which attracted someone of Hilbert’s IQ to this transform.
Chapter 2
A. P. Rao
2.1 Introduction
Radio astronomy is the study of the sky at radio wavelengths. While optical astronomy
has been a field of study from time immemorial, the “new” astronomies viz. radioas-
tronomy, X-ray, IR and UV astronomy are only about 50 years old. At many of these
wavelengths it is essential to put the telescopes outside the confines of the Earth’s at-
mosphere and so most of these “new” astronomies have become possible only with the
advent of space technology. However, since the atmosphere is transparent in the radio
band (which covers a frequency range of 10 MHz to 300 GHz or a wavelength range of
approximately 1mm to 30m) radio astronomy can be done by ground based telescopes
(see also Chapter 3).
The field of radioastronomy was started in 1923 when Karl Jansky, (working at the Bell
Labs on trying to reduce the noise in radio receivers), discovered that his antenna was
receiving radiation from outside the Earth’s atmosphere. He noticed that this radiation
appeared at the same sidereal (as opposed to solar ) time on different days and that its
source must hence lie far outside the solar system. Further observations enabled him to
identify this radio source as the centre of the Galaxy. To honour this discovery, the unit
of flux density in radioastronomy is named after Jansky where
Radio astronomy matured during the second world war when many scientists worked
on projects related to radar technology. One of the major discoveries of that period (made
while trying to identify the locations of jamming radar signals), was that the sun is a
strong emitter of radio waves and its emission is time variable. After the war, the scien-
tists involved in these projects returned to academic pursuits and used surplus equip-
ment from the war to rapidly develop this new field of radioastronomy. In the early
phases, radioastronomy was dominated by radio and electronic engineers and the as-
tronomy community, (dominated by optical astronomers), needed considerable persua-
sion to be convinced that these new radio astronomical discoveries were of relevance to
astronomy in general. While the situation has changed considerably since then much
1
2 CHAPTER 2. INTERFEROMETRY AND APERTURE SYNTHESIS
of the jargon of radio astronomy (which is largely borrowed from electrical engineering)
remains unfamiliar to a person with a pure physics background. The coherent detection
techniques pioneered by radio astronomers also remains by and large not well under-
stood by astronomers working at other wavelength bands. This set of lecture notes aims
to familiarize students of physics (or students of astronomy at other wavelengths) with
the techniques of radio astronomy.
Figure 2.1: Intensity as a function of frequency (“power spectra”) for synchrotron (dashed)
and thermal (solid) radio sources.
a limited number of protected bands where no one else is permitted to radiate and most
radio telescopes work only at these protected frequencies.
Several atoms and molecules have spectral lines in the radio band. For example, the
hyperfine transition of the Hydrogen atom corresponds to a line with a wavelength of
∼ 21cm. Since atomic hydrogen (HI) is an extremely abundant species in the universe
this line is one of the brightest naturally occurring radio lines. The HI 21cm line has
been extensively used to study the kinematics of nearby galaxies. High quantum number
recombination lines emitted by hydrogen and carbon also fall in the radio band and can
be used to study the physical conditions in the ionized interstellar medium. Further the
radio line emission from molecules like OH, SiO, H2 O etc. tend to be maser amplified
in the interstellar medium and can often be detected to very large distances. Of course,
these lines can be studied only if they fall within the protected radio bands. In fact, the
presence of radio lines is one of the justifications for asking for protection in a specific
part of the radio spectrum. While many of the important radio lines have been protected
there are many outside the protected bands that cannot be studied, which is a source of
concern. Further, with radio telescopes becoming more and more sensitive, it is possible
to study lines like the 21cm line to greater and greater distances. Since in the expanding
universe, distance translates to a redshift, this often means that these lines emitted
by distant objects move out of the protected radio band and can become unobservable
because of interference.
where the angular brackets indicate taking the mean value. For a particularly impor-
tant class of random processes, called wide sense stationary (WSS) processes the auto-
correlation function is independent of changes of the origin of t and is a function of τ
alone, i.e.
rxx (τ ) = x(t)x(t + τ )
For τ = 0, r(τ ) is simply the variance σ 2 of x(t) (which for a WSS process is independent
of t).
The Fourier transform S(ν) of the auto-correlation function is called the power spec-
trum, i.e. Z ∞
S(ν) = rxx (τ )e−i2πτ ν dτ
−∞
Hence Z ∞
2
rxx (0) = σ = S(ν)dν
−∞
i.e. since σ 2 is the “power” in the signal, S(ν) is a function describing how that power is
distributed in frequency space, i.e. the “power spectrum”.
A process whose auto-correlation function is a delta function has a power spectrum
that is flat – such a process is called “white noise”. As mentioned in Section 2.2, many
radio astronomical signals have spectra that are relatively flat; these signals can hence be
approximated as white noise. Radio astronomical receivers however have limited band-
widths, that means that even if the signal input to the receiver is white noise, the sig-
nal after passing through the receiver has power only in a finite frequency range. Its
auto-correlation function is hence no longer a delta function, but is a sinc function (see
Section 2.5) with a width ∼ 1/∆ν, where ∆ν is the bandwidth of the receiver. The width
of the auto-correlation function is also called the “coherence time” of the signal. The
bandwidth ∆ν is typically much smaller than the central frequency ν at which the ra-
dio receiver operates. Such signals are hence also often called “quasi-monochromatic”
signals. Much like a monochromatic signal can be represented by a constant complex
phasor, quasi-monochromatic signals can be represented by complex random processes.
Given two random processes x(t) and y(t), one can define a cross-correlation function
rxy (τ ) = x(t)y(t − τ )
2 see Chapter 1 for a more detailed discussion of topics discussed in this section.
2.4. INTERFEROMETRY 5
where one has assumed that the signals are WSS so that the cross-correlation function is
a function of τ alone. The cross-correlation function and its Fourier transform, the cross
power spectrum, are also widely used in radio astronomy.
We have so far been dealing with random processes that are a function of time alone.
The signal received from a distant cosmic source is in general a function both of the
receivers location as well as of time. Much as we defined temporal correlation functions
above, one can also define spatial correlation functions. If the signal at the observer’s
plane at any instant is E(r), then spatial correlation function is defined as:
V (x) = E(r)E ∗ (r + x)
Note that strictly speaking the angular brackets imply ensemble averaging. In practice
one averages over time3 and assumes that the two averaging procedures are equivalent.
The function V is referred to as the “visibility function” (or just the “visibility”) and as we
shall see below, it is of fundamental interest in interferometry.
2.4 Interferometry
2.4.1 The Need for Interferometry
The idea that the resolution of optical instruments is limited due to the wave nature of
light is familiar to students of optics and is embodied in the Rayleigh’s criterion which
states that the angular resolution of a telescope/microscope is ultimately diffraction lim-
ited and is given by
θ ∼ λ/D (2.4.3)
where D is some measure of the aperture size. The need for higher angular resolution
has led to the development of instruments with larger size and which operate at smaller
wavelengths. In radioastronomy, the wavelengths are so large that even though the sizes
of radio telescopes are large, the angular resolution is still poor compared to optical in-
struments. Thus while the human eye has a diffraction limit of ∼ 20 and even modest
00
optical telescopes have diffraction limits4 of 0.1 , even the largest radio telescopes (300m
00
higher resolutions one has to either increase the diameter of the telescope further (which
is not practical) or decrease the observing wavelength. The second option has led to a
tendency for radio telescopes to operate at centimetre and millimetre wavelengths, which
leads to high angular resolutions. These telescopes are however restricted to studying
sources that are bright at cm and mm wavelengths. To achieve high angular resolutions
at metre wavelengths one need telescopes with apertures that are hundreds of kilome-
ters in size. Single telescopes of this size are clearly impossible to build. Instead radio
astronomers achieve such angular resolutions using a technique called aperture synthe-
sis. Aperture synthesis is based on interferometry, the principles of which are familiar
to most physics students. There is in fact a deep analogy between the double slit experi-
ment with quasi-monochromatic light and the radio two element interferometer. Instead
of setting up this analogy we choose the more common route to radio interferometry via
the van Cittert-Zernike theorem.
3 For typical radio receiver bandwidths of a few MHz, the coherence time is of the order of micro seconds, so
in a few seconds time one gets several million independent samples to average over.
4 The actual resolution achieved by these telescopes is however usually limited by atmospheric seeing.
6 CHAPTER 2. INTERFEROMETRY AND APERTURE SYNTHESIS
P1’(x 1 , y 1, z 1 )
P1 (x 1 , y 1, z 1 )
Z −ikD(P10 ,P1 )
e
E(P1 ) = E(P10 ) dΩ1 (2.4.5)
D(P10 , P1 )
5 We assume here for the moment that the electric field is a scalar quantity. See Chapter 15 for the extension
to vector fields.
6 Where we have invoked Huygens principle. A more rigorous proof would use scalar diffraction theory.
2.4. INTERFEROMETRY 7
where D(P10 , P1 ) is the distance between P10 and P1 . Similarly if E(P2 ) is the field at some
other observing point P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) then the cross-correlation between these two fields is
given by
Z 0 0
e−ik[D(P1 ,P1 )−D(P2 ,P2 )]
∗
E(P1 )E (P2 ) = E(P10 )E ∗ (P20 ) dΩ1 dΩ2 (2.4.6)
D(P10 , P1 )D(P20 , P2 )
If we further assume that the emission from the source is spatially incoherent, i.e.
that E(P10 )E ∗ (P20 ) = 0 except when P10 = P20 , then we have
Z 0 0
e−ik[D(P1 ,P1 )−D(P1 ,P2 )]
E(P1 )E ∗ (P2 ) = I(P10 ) dΩ1 (2.4.7)
D(P10 , P1 )D(P10 , P2 )
where I(P10 ) is the intensity at the point P10 . Since we have assumed that the source
can be approximated as lying on a celestial sphere of radius R we have x01 = R cos(θx ) = Rl,
y10 = R cos(θy ) = Rm, and z10 = R cos(θz ) = Rn; (l, m, n) are called “direction cosines”. It can
be easily shown7 that l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 and that dΩ = √1−l dl dm
2 −m2
. We then have:
1/2
D(P10 , P1 ) = (x01 − x1 )2 + (y10 − y1 )2 + (z10 − z1 )2 (2.4.8)
2 1/2
= (Rl − x1 )2 + (Rm − y1 )2 + (Rn − z1 ) (2.4.9)
1/2
= R (l − x1 /R)2 + (m − y1 /R)2 + (n − z1 /R)2 (2.4.10)
1/2
' R (l2 + m2 + n2 ) − 2/R(lx1 + my1 + nz1 ) (2.4.11)
' R − (lx1 + my1 + nz1 ) (2.4.12)
(2.4.13)
i.e. the visibility V(u, v) is the Fourier transform of the modified brightness distribution
√
I(l,m)
1−l2 −m2
. The second situation is when the source brightness distribution is limited to
a small region of the sky. This is a good approximation for arrays of parabolic antennas
because each antenna responds only to sources which lie within its primary beam (see
Chapter 3).
√ The primary beam is typically < 1 , which is a very small area of sky. In this
o
Z
V(u, v, w) = e −i2πw
I(l, m)e−i2π[lu+mv] dl dm (2.4.17)
A C
A
C
B B
U−V
Figure 2.3: The track in the U-V plane traced out by an east-west baseline due to the
Earth’s rotation.
sensitive to fine scale structure. To image large, smooth sources one would hence like
an array with the antennas closely packed together, while for a source with consider-
able fine scale structure one needs antennas spread out to large distances. The array
configuration hence has a major influence on the kind of sources that can be imaged.
The GMRT array configuration consists of a combination of a central 1x1 km cluster of
densely packed antennas and three 14 km long arms along which the remaining anten-
nas are spread out. This gives a combination of both short and long spacings, and gives
considerable flexibility in the kind of sources that can be imaged. Arrays like the VLA on
the other hand have all their antennas mounted on rails, allowing even more flexibility in
determining how the U-V plane is sampled.
Other chapters in these notes discuss the practical details of aperture synthesis.
Chapter 3 discusses how one can use radio antennas and receivers to measure the
electric field from cosmic sources. For an N antenna array one needs to measure N C2
correlations simultaneously, this is done by a (usually digital) machine called the “cor-
relator”. The spatial correlation that one needs to measure (see equation 2.4.6) is the
correlation between the instantaneous fields at points P1 and P2 . In an interferometer
the signals from antennas at points P1 and P2 are transported by cable to some central
location where the correlator is – this means that the correlator has also to continuously
adjust the delays of the signals from different antennas before correlating them. This
and other corrections that need to be made are discussed in Chapter 4, and exactly how
these corrections are implemented in the correlator are discussed in Chapters 8 and 9.
The astronomical calibration of the measured visibilities is discussed in Chapter 5, while
Chapter 16 deals with the various ways in which passage through the Earth’s ionosphere
corrupts the astronomical signal. Chapters 10, 12 and 14 discuss the nitty gritty of go-
ing from the calibrated visibilities to the image of the sky. Chapters 13 and 15 discuss
two refinements, viz. measuring the spectra and polarization properties of the sources
respectively.
10 CHAPTER 2. INTERFEROMETRY AND APERTURE SYNTHESIS
and can be shown to exist for any function u(t) for which
Z ∞
|u(t)|dt < ∞
−∞
The Fourier transform is invertible, i.e. given U (ν), u(t) can be obtained using the inverse
Fourier transform, viz. Z ∞
u(t) = U (ν)ei2πνt dν
−∞
Some important properties of the Fourier transform are listed below (where by con-
vention capitalized functions refer to the Fourier transform)
1. Linearity
F{au(t) + bv(t)} = aU (ν) + bV (ν)
where a, b are arbitrary complex constants.
2. Similarity
1 ν
F{u(at)} = U( )
a a
where a is an arbitrary real constant.
3. Shift
F{u(t − a)} = e−i2πa U (ν)
where a is an arbitrary real constant.
4. Parseval’s Theorem Z ∞ Z ∞
|u(t)|2 dt = |U (ν)|2 dν
−∞ −∞
5. Convolution Theorem Z ∞
F u(t)v(t − τ )dt = U (ν)V (ν)
−∞
6. Autocorrelation Theorem
Z ∞
F u(t)u(t + τ )dt = |U (ν)|2
−∞
Function Transform
2 2
eπt eπν
1 δ(ν)
1 1 1 1
cos(πt) 2 δ(ν − 2 ) + 2 δ(ν + 2 )
i 1 i 1
sin(πt) 2 δ(ν − 2 ) − 2 δ(ν + 2 )
rect(t) sinc(ν)
Chapter 3
Jayaram N. Chengalur
3.1 Introduction
As a preliminary to describing radio telescopes, it is useful to have a look at the trans-
parency of the atmosphere to electro-magnetic waves of different frequencies. Figure 3.1
is a plot of the height in the atmosphere at which the radiation is attenuated by a factor of
2 as a function of frequency. There are only two bands at which radiation from outerspace
can reach the surface of the Earth, one from 3000 Å to 10000 Å – the optical/near-infrared
window, and one from a few mm to tens of meters – the radio window. Radio waves longer
than a few tens of meters get absorbed in the ionosphere, and those shorter than a few
mm are strongly absorbed by water vapor. Since mm wave absorption is such a strong
function of the amount of water vapour in the air, mm wave telescopes are usually located
on high mountains in desert regions.
The optical window extends about a factor of ∼ 3 in wavelength, whereas the radio
window extends almost a factor of ∼ 104 in wavelength. Hence while all optical telescopes
‘look similar’, radio telescopes at long wavelengths have little resemblance to radio tele-
scopes at short wavelengths. At long wavelengths, radio telescopes usually consist of
arrays of resonant structures, like dipole or helical antennas (Figure 3.2). At short wave-
lengths reflecting telescopes (usually parabolic antennas, which focus incoming energy
on to the focus, where it is absorbed by a small feed antenna) are used (Figure 3.3).
Apart from this difference in morphology of antennas, the principal difference between
radio and optical telescopes is the use of coherent (i.e. with the preservation of phase
information) amplifiers in radio astronomy. The block diagram for a typical single dish
radio astronomy telescope is shown in Figure 3.4. Radio waves from the distant cosmic
source impinge on the antenna and create a fluctuating voltage at the antenna terminals.
This voltage varies at the same frequency as the cosmic electro-magnetic wave, referred
to as the Radio Frequency (RF). The voltage is first amplified by the front-end (or Radio
Frequency) amplifier. The signal is weakest here, and hence it is very important that the
amplifier introduce as little noise as possible. Front end amplifiers hence usually use
low noise solid state devices, High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs), often cooled to
liquid helium temperatures.
After amplification, the signal is passed into a mixer. A mixer is a device that changes
the frequency of the input signal. Mixers have two inputs, one for the signal whose fre-
quency is to be changed (the RF signal in this case), the other input is usually a pure sine
1
2 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
150
UV
100
50
IR
V Radio
0
Figure 3.1: The height above the Earth’s surface where cosmic electro-magnetic radiation
is attenuated by a factor of two. There are two clear windows the optical (V) (∼ 4000 −
10000 Å) and the radio ∼ 1mm − 10m. In addition there are a few narrow windows in
the infra-red (IR) wavelength range. At all other wavelengths astronomy is possible only
through satellites.
wave generated by a tunable signal generator, the Local Oscillator (LO). The output of the
mixer is at the beat frequency of the radio frequency and the local oscillator frequency.
So after mixing, the signal is now at a different (and usually lower) frequency than the RF,
this frequency is called the Intermediate Frequency (IF). The main reason for mixing
(also called heterodyning) is that though most radio telescopes operate at a wide range of
radio frequencies, the processing required at each of these frequencies is identical. The
economical solution is to convert each of these incoming radio frequencies to a standard
IF and then to use the exact same back-end equipment for all possible RF frequencies
that the telescope accepts. In telescopes that use co-axial cables to transport the signal
across long distances, the IF frequency is also usually chosen so as to minimize trans-
mission loss in the cable. Sometimes there is more than one mixer along the signal path,
creating a series of IF frequencies, one of which is optimum for signal transport, another
which is optimum for amplification etc. This is called a ‘super-heterodyne’ system. For
example, the GMRT (see Chapter 21) accepts radio waves in six bands from 50 MHz to
1.4 GHz and has IFs at 130 MHz, 175 MHz and 70 MHz1 .
1 There are IFs at 130 MHz and 175 MHz to allow the signals from the two different polarizations received
3.2. EM WAVE BASICS 3
Figure 3.2: The Mauritius Radio Telescope. This is a low frequency (150 MHz) array of
which the individual elements are helical antennas.
After conversion to IF, the signal is once again amplified (by the IF amplifier), and
then mixed to a frequency range near 0 Hz (the Base Band (BB) and then fed into the
backend for further specialized processing. What backend is used depends on the nature
of the observations. If what you want to measure is simply the total power that the
telescope receives then the backend could be a simple square law detector followed by
an integrator. (Remember the signal is a voltage that is proportional to amplitude of the
electric field of the incoming wave, and since the power in the wave goes like the square
of its amplitude, the square of the voltage is a measure of the strength of the cosmic
source). The integrator merely averages the signal to improve the signal to noise ratio.
For spectral line observations the signal is passed into a spectrometer instead of a broad
band detector. For pulsar observations the signal is passed into special purpose ‘pulsar
machines’. Spectrometers (usually implemented as “correlators”) and pulsar machines
are fairly complex and will not be discussed further here (see instead Chapters 8 and 17
more more details). The rest of this chapter discusses only the first part of this block
diagram, viz. the antenna itself.
by the antenna to be frequency division multiplexed onto the same optical fiber for transport to the central
electronics building.
4 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
Figure 3.3: The Caltech Sub-millimeter Observatory (CSO) at Mauna Kea in Hawaii. The
telescope operates in the the sub-mm wavlength range.
electric field has a direction as well as an amplitude. In free space, the electric field of
a plane wave is constrained to be perpendicular to its direction of propagation and the
power carried by the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric
field.
Consider a plane EM wave of frequency ν propagating along the Z axis (Figure 3.6).
The electric field then can have only two components, one along the X axis, and one along
the Y axis. Since the wave is varying with a frequency ν, each of these components also
varies with a frequency ν, and at any one point in space the electric field vector will also
vary with a frequency ν. The polarization of the wave characterizes how the direction of
the electric field vector varies at a given point in space as a function of time.
The most general expression for each of the components of the electric field of a plane
monochromatic wave2 is:
EX = AX cos(2πνt + δX )
EY = AY cos(2πνt + δY )
where AX , AY , δX , δY are constants. If AY = 0, then the field only has one component
along the X axis, which increases in amplitude from −AX to +AX and back to −AX over
one period. Such a wave is said to be linearly polarized along the X axis. Similarly if AX
is zero then the wave is linearly polarized along the Y axis. Waves which are generated by
dipole antennas are linearly polarized along the length of the dipole. Now consider a wave
for which AX = AY , δX = 0, and δY = −π/2. If we start at a time at which the X component
is a maximum, then the Y component is zero and the total field points along the +X axis.
A quarter period later, the X component will be zero and the Y component will be at
maximum, the total field points along the +Y direction. Another quarter of a period later,
the Y component is again zero, and the X component is at minimum, the total field points
2 Monochromaticwaves are necessarily 100% polarized. As discussed in Chapter 15 quasi-monochromatic
waves can be partially polarized.
3.2. EM WAVE BASICS 5
νRF
Mixer Mixer
RF νRF νIF IF νIF νBB BackEnd
Amp Amp
νLO1 νLO2
LO1 LO2
E( t2 )
E( t1 )
Z X
Figure 3.6: Electric field of a plane wave
along the -X direction. Thus over one period, the tip of the electric field vector describes a
circle in the XY plane. Such a wave is called circularly polarized. If δY were = π/2 then
the electric field vector would still describe a circle in the XY plane, but it would rotate
in the opposite direction. The former is called Right Circular Polarization (RCP) and
the latter Left Circular Polarization (LCP).3 Waves generated by Helical antennas are
circularly polarized. In the general case when all the constants have arbitrary values, the
tip of the electric wave describes an ellipse in the XY plane, and the wave is said to be
elliptically polarized.
Any monochromatic wave can be decomposed into the sum of two orthogonal polar-
izations. What we did above was to decompose a circularly polarized wave into the sum
of two linearly polarized components. One could also decompose a linearly polarized
wave into the sum of LCP and RCP waves, with the same amplitude and π radians out of
phase. Any antenna is sensitive to only one polarization (for example a dipole antenna
only absorbs waves with electric field along the axis of the dipole, while a helical antenna
will accept only one sense of circular polarization). Note that the reflecting surface of a
telescope could well 4 work for both polarizations, but the feed antenna will respond to
only one polarization. To detect both polarizations one need to put two feeds (which could
possibly be combined into one mechanical structure) at the focus. Each feed will require
its own set of electronics like amplifiers and mixers etc.
EM waves are usually described by writing explicitly how the electric field strength
varies in space and time. For example, a plane wave of frequency ν and wave number k
(k = 2π/λ, λ = c/ν) propagating along the Z axis and linearly polarized along the X axis
could be described as
E(z, t) = A cos(2πνt − kz)
3 This RCP-LCP convention is unfortunately not fixed, and the reverse convention is also occasionally used,
leading to endless confusion. It turns out however, that most cosmic sources have very little circular polariza-
tion.
4 Not all reflecting radio telescopes have surfaces that reflect both polarizations. For example, the Ooty radio
telescope’s (Figure 3.16) reflecting surface consists of a parallel set of thin stainless steel wires, which only
reflect the polarization with the electric field parallel to the wires.
3.3. SIGNALS AND NOISE IN RADIO ASTRONOMY 7
E(z, t) = Real(Aej(2πνt−kz) )
where Real() implies taking the real part of () and j is the imaginary square root of −1.
Since all the time variation is at the same frequency ν, one could suppress writing it out
explicitly and introduce it only when one needs to deal with physical quantities. So, one
could equally well describe the wave by the complex quantity A, where A = A e −jkz , and
understand that the physical field is obtained by multiplying A by ej2πνt and taking the
real part of the product. The field A is called the phasor field5 . So for example the phasor
field of the wave
E = A cos(2πνt − kz + δ)
is simply Aejδ .
2hν 3 1
B(ν) = 2 hν/kT
W/m2 /Hz/sr
c e −1
i.e. the same units as the brightness. For a typical radio frequency of 1000 MHz, hν/k =
0.048, hence
ehν/kT ∼ 1 + hν/kT
and
2ν 2
kT = 2kT /λ2
B(ν) '
c2
This approximation to the Planck spectrum is called the Rayleigh-Jeans approxima-
tion, and is valid through most of the radio regime. From the R-J approximation,
λ2
T = B(ν)
2k
5 For qasi monochromatic waves, (see Chapter 1), one has the related concept of the complex analytical signal
6 As befitting its relative youth, this is a linear, MKS based scale. At most other wavelengths, the brightness
is traditionally measured in units far too idiosyncratic to be described in this footnote.
8 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
3.3.2 Noise
An antenna absorbs power from the radio waves that fall on it. This power is also usually
specified in temperature units, i.e. degrees Kelvin. To motivate these units, consider
a resistor placed in a thermal bath at a temperature T . The electrons in the resistor
undergo random thermal motion, and this random motion causes a current to flow in the
resistor. On the average there are as many electrons moving in one direction as in the
opposite direction, and the average current is zero. The power in the resistor however
depends on the square of the current and is not zero. From the equipartition principle
one could compute this power as a function of the temperature, and in the radio regime
the power per unit frequency is well approximated by the Nyquist formula:
P = kT,
where k is the same Boltzmann constant as in the Planck law. In analogy with this, if a
power P (per unit frequency) is available at an antenna’s terminals the antenna is defined
to have an antenna temperature of
P
TA =
k
Note again that the antenna temperature does not correspond to the physical temperature
of the antenna. Similarly the total power available at a radio telescope terminals, referred
to the receiver (i.e. the RF amplifier) inputs9 is defined as the system temperature Tsys ,
i.e.
Total Power referred to receiver inputs
Tsys =
k
7 provided that the source is optically thin
8 Seethe discussion on system temperature later in this section
9 By ‘referred to the reciever inputs’ we mean the following. Suppose you have a noise power P at the output
of the radio telescope. If there is only one stage of amplification with gain G, then the power referred to the
inputs is P/G. If there is more than one stage of amplification, one has to rescale each noise source along the
signal path by the gain of all the preceeding amplifiers.
3.3. SIGNALS AND NOISE IN RADIO ASTRONOMY 9
Figure 3.7: The Arecibo telescope consists of a large (300 m) spherical reflector fitted into
a naturally occuring valley. The telescope has feeds which are suspended from cables
which originate from towers on the surrounding hills. Photo courtesy of NAIC, Arecibo
observatory.
The system temperature when looking at blank sky is a measure of the total random
noise in the system and hence it is desirable to make the system temperature as low
as possible. Noise from the various sub systems that make up the radio telescope are
uncorrelated and hence add up linearly. The system temperature can be very generally
written as
Tsys = Tsky + Tspill + Tloss + Trec
Tsky is the contribution of the background sky brightness. For example the galaxy is
a strong emitter of non thermal10 continum radiation, which at low frequencies usually
dominates the system temperature. At all frequencies the sky contributes at least 3K
from the cosmic background radiation.11
The feed antenna is supposed to collect the radiation focused by the reflector. Often
the feed antenna also picks up stray radiation from the ground ( which radiates approx-
imately like a black body at 300 K ) around the edge of the reflector. This added noise
is called spillover noise, and is a very important contribution to the system temperature
at a telescope like Arecibo. In Figure 3.8 is shown (schematically) the system temper-
ature for the (pre-upgrade) Arecibo telescope at 12cm as a function of the zenith angle
at which the telescope is pointed. At high zenith angles the feed radiation spills over
the edge of the dish and picks up a lot of radiation from the surrounding hills and the
10 By non thermal radiation one means simply that the source function is not the Planck spectrum.
11 Historicaly, this fact was discovered by Penzias and Wilson when they set out to perform the relatively
mundane task of calibrating the system temperature of their radio telescope. This excess 3K discovered to
come from the sky was identified with the radiation from the Big Bang, and was one of the powerful pieces
of evidence in favour of the Big Bang model. The field of Radio Astronomy itself was started by Karl Jansky,
who too was engaged in the task of calibrating the system temperature of his antenna (he had been set the
task of characterizing the various kinds of noise which radio receivers picked up, this noise was harmful to
trans-atlantic communication, and was hence essential to understand). Jansky discovered that one component
of the ‘radio noise’ was associated with the Galactic center, the first detection of extra-terrestrial radio waves.
10 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Zenith Angle (deg)
Figure 3.8: Schematic of the variation of Tsys with zenith angle for the pre-upgrade
Arecibo.
different interfering sources and these do not correlate with one another. However since the interference is
typically varying on timescales faster than the system temperature is calibrated, the resulting variations in
the system temperatures of the different antennas cause variations in the observed correlation coefficent (for
telescopes which do a continuous normalization by the auto-correlation of each antenna’s signal) and hence
artifacts in the image plane.
3.3. SIGNALS AND NOISE IN RADIO ASTRONOMY 11
loss of information. However, if the interference is strong enough, the receiver saturates,
which has several deleterious effects. Firstly since the receiver is no longer in its linear
range, the increase in antenna temperature on looking at a cosmic source is no longer
simply related to the source brightness, making it difficult, and usually impossible to
derive the actual source brightness. This is called compression. Further if some other
spectral feature is present, perhaps even a spectral line from the source, spurious signals
are produced at the beat frequencies of the true spectral line and the interference. These
are called intermodulation products. Given the increasingly hostile interference envi-
ronment at low frequencies, it is important to have receivers with large dynamic range,
i.e. whose region of linear response is as large as possible. It could often be the case, that
it is worth increasing the receiver temperature provided that one gains in dynamic range.
For particularly strong and steady sources of interference (such as carriers for nearby TV
stations), it is usually the practice to block such signals out using narrow band filters
before the first amplifier14 .
This is the fundamental equation for the sensitivity of a single dish telescope. Provided
the signal to noise ratio is sufficiently large, one can be confident of having detected the
source.
The signal to noise ratio here considers only the ‘thermal noise’, i.e. the noise from the
receivers, spillover, sky temperature etc. In addition there will be random fluctuations
from position to position as discussed below because of confusion. For most single dish
radio telescopes, especially at low frequencies, the thermal noise reaches the confusion
limit (see Section 3.4) in fairly short integration times. To detect even fainter sources,
it becomes necessary then to go for higher resolution, usually attainable only through
interferometry.
14 Recall from the discussion above on the effect of introducing lossy elements in the signal path that the price
time is ∼ 1/∆ν, which means that in a time of τ seconds, one has ∆ν τ independent samples. The rms decreases
as the square root of the number of independent samples.
12 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
Ae = Ae (θ, φ)
This directional property of the antenna is often described in the form of a power pattern.
The power pattern is simply the effective area normalized to be unity at the maximum,
i.e.
Ae (θ, φ)
P (θ, φ) =
Amax
e
The other common way to specify the directive property of an antenna is the field pattern.
Consider an antenna receiving radio waves from a distant point source. The voltage at the
terminals of the antenna as a function of the direction to the point source, normalized
to unity at maximum, is called the field pattern f (θ, φ) of the antenna. The pattern
of an antenna is the same regardless of whether it is used as a transmitting antenna
or as a receiving antenna, i.e. if it transmits efficiently in some direction, it will also
receive efficiently in that direction. This is called Reciprocity, (or occassionaly Lorentz
Reciprocity) and follows from Maxwell’s equations. From reciprocity it follows that the
electric field far from a transmitting antenna, normalized to unity at maximum, is simply
the Field pattern f (θ, φ). Since the power flow is proportional to the square of the electric
field, the power pattern is the square of the field pattern. The power pattern is hence real
and positive semi-definite.
A typical power pattern is shown in Figure 3.9. The power pattern has a primary max-
imum, called the main lobe and several subsidiary maxima, called side lobes. The points
at which the main lobe falls to half its central value are called the Half Power points and
the angular distance between these points is called the Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW).
The minima of the power pattern are called nulls. For radio astronomical applications
one generally wants the HPBW to be small (so that the nearby sources are not confused
with one another), and the sidelobes to be low (to minimize stray radiation). From simple
diffraction theory it can be shown that the HPBW of a reflecting telescope is given by
ΘHP BW ∼ λ/D
where D is the physical dimension of the telescope. λ and D must be measured in the
same units and Θ is in radians. So the larger the telescope, the better the resolution.
For example, the HPBW of a 700 foot telescope at 2380 MHz is about 2 arcmin. This is
very poor resolution – an optical telescope (λ ∼ 5000Å), a few inches in diameter has a
resolution of a few arc seconds. However, the resolution of single dish radio telescopes,
unlike optical telescopes, is not limited by atmospheric turbulence. Figure 3.10 shows
the power pattern of the (pre-upgrade) Arecibo telescope at 2380 MHz. Although the
3.4. ANTENNA PATTERNS 13
mainlobe
θ HPBW
sidelobe
telescope is 1000 ft in diameter, only a 700 ft diameter aperture is used at any given
time, and the HPBW is about 2 arc min. There are two sidelobe rings, which are not quite
azimuthally symmetric.
There are two other patterns which are sometimes used to describe antennas. The
first is the directivity D(θ, φ). The directivity is defined as:
This is the ‘transmitting’ pattern of the antenna, and from reciprocity should be the
same as the recieving power pattern to within a constant factor. We will shortly work out
the value of this constant. The other pattern is the gain G(θ, φ). The gain is defined as:
Figure 3.10: The (pre-upgrade) Arecibo power pattern at 2380 MHz. The HPBW is ∼ 2 .
0
3.4. ANTENNA PATTERNS 15
B ( θ)
Figure 3.11: The antenna temperature is the convolution of the sky brightness and the
telescope beam.
the integral of the brightness in a given direction times the effective area in that direction
(Figure 3.11). Z
1
(3.4.6)
0 0
W (θ ) = B(θ)Ae (θ − θ )dθ
2
where the available power W is a function of θ , the direction in which the telescope is
0
pointed. The factor of 12 is to account for the fact that only one polarization is absorbed
by the antenna. In two dimensions, the expression for W is:
Z
1
(3.4.7)
0 0 0 0
W (θ , φ ) = B(θ, φ)Ae (θ − θ , φ − φ ) sin(θ)dθdφ
2
in temperature units, this becomes:
Z
1 TB (θ, φ)
(3.4.8)
0 0 0 0
TA (θ , φ ) = Ae (θ − θ , φ − φ ) sin(θ)dθdφ
2 λ2
or Z
Amax
(3.4.9)
0 0 0 0
TA (θ , φ ) = e 2 TB (θ, φ)P (θ − θ , φ − φ ) sin(θ)dθdφ
λ
So the antenna temperature is a weighted average of the sky temperature, the weight-
ing function being the power pattern of the antenna. Only if the power pattern is a single
infinitely sharp spike is the antenna temperature the same as the sky temperature. For
all real telescopes, however, the antenna temperature is a smoothed version of the sky
temperature. Supposing that you are making a sky survey for sources. Then a large
increase in the antenna temperature could mean either that there is a source in the main
beam, or that a collection of faint sources have combined to give a large total power. From
the statistics of the distribution of sources in the sky (presuming you know it) and the
power pattern, one could compute the probability of the latter event. This gives a lower
limit to the weakest detectable source, below this limit,(called the confusion limit), one
can no longer be confident that increases in the antenna temperature correspond to a
16 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE DISH RADIO TELESCOPES
single source in the main beam. The confusion limit is an important parameter of any
given telescope, it is a function of the frequency and the assumed distribution of sources.
Now consider an antenna terminated in a resistor, with the entire system being placed
in a black box at temperature T . After thermal equilibrium has been reached, the power
flowing from the resistor to the antenna is:
PR→A = kT
The power flow from the antenna to the resistor is (from equation (3.4.9) and using the
fact that the sky temperature is the same everywhere)
Z
Amax
e kT
PA→R = P (θ, φ)dΩ
λ2
In thermal equilibrium the net power flow has to be zero, hence
λ2
Amax
e =R , (3.4.10)
P (θ, φ)dΩ
i.e. the maximum effective aperture is determined by the shape of the power pattern
alone. The narrower the power pattern the higher the aperture efficiency. For a reflecting
telescope, Z
λ 2
P (θ, φ)dΩ ∼ Θ2HP BW ∼ .
D
so
Amax
e ∼ D2 .
The max. effective aperture scales like the geometric area of the reflector, as expected.
Also from equation 3.4.10
λ2 P (θ, φ)
Ae = Amax
e P (θ, φ) = R . (3.4.11)
P (θ, φ)dΩ
Comparing this with equation (3.4.1) gives the constant that relates the effective area to
the directivity
4π
D(θ, φ) = 2 Ae (θ, φ). (3.4.12)
λ
As an application for all these formulae, consider the standard communications prob-
lem of sending information from antenna 1 (gain G1 (θ, φ), input power P1 ) to antenna 2
(directivity D2 (θ , φ )), at distance R away. What is the power available at the terminals of
0 0
antenna 2?
The flux density at antenna 2 is given by:
P1
S= G1 (θ, φ)
4πR2
. i.e., the power falls off like R2 , but is not isotropically distributed. (The gain G1 tells you
how collimated the emission from antenna 1 is). The power available at the terminals of
antenna 2 is:
P1
W = A2e S = G1 (θ, φ)A2e
4πR2
substituting for the effective aperture from equation (3.4.12)
λ 2 0 0
W = P1 G1 (θ, φ)D2 (θ , φ )
4πR
3.5. COMPUTING ANTENNA PATTERNS 17
Reflector
Figure 3.12: Aperture illumination for a parabolic dish.
This is called the Friis transmission equation. In Radar astronomy, there is a very
similar expression for the power available at an antenna after bouncing off an unresolved
target (the radar range equation). The major difference is that the signal has to make
a round trip, (and the target reradiates power falling on it isotropically), so the received
power falls like the fourth power of the distance to the target.
field at a point P(R, θ) (Figure 3.13) due to a point source at a distance x from the center
of the aperture is (if R is much greater than l) is:
e(x) −j 2πxsinθ
dE = e λ
R2
x sin( θ)
θ
O x
d
Where x sin θ is simply the difference in path length between the path from the center
of the aperture to the point P and the path from point x to point P. Since the wave from
point x has a shorter path length, it arrives at point P at an earlier phase. The total
electric field at P is:
Z l/2
e(x) −jkµx
E(R, θ) = 2
e dx
−l/2 R
where k = 2πλ and µ = sinθ and x is now measured in units of wavelength. The shape of
the distribution is clearly independent of R, and hence the unnormalized power pattern
FU is just:
Z ∞
FU (µ) = e1 (x)e−jkµx dx (3.5.13)
−∞
where
e1 (x) = e(x) if |x| ≤ l/2 ; 0 otherwise
The region in which the field pattern is no longer dependent on the distance from the
antenna is called the far field region. The integral operation in equation (3.5.13) is called
the Fourier transform.
FU (µ) is the Fourier transform of e1 (x), which is often denoted as
FU (µ) = F e1 (x) . The Fourier transform has many interresting properties, some of which
are listed below (see also Section 2.5).
1. Linearity
If G1 (µ) = F g1 (x) and G2 (µ) = F g2 (x) then G1 (µ) + G2 (µ) = F g1 (x) + g2 (x) .
2. Inverse
3.5. COMPUTING ANTENNA PATTERNS 19
then Z ∞
g(x) = G(µ)ej2πµx dµ
−∞
3. Phase shift
If G(µ) = F g(x) then G(µ − µ0 ) = F g(x)e−j2πµ0 x . This means that an antenna beam
can be steered across the sky simply by introducing the appropriate linear phase
gradient in the aperture illumination.
4. Parseval’s theorem
If G(µ) = F g(x) , then
Z ∞ Z ∞
2
|G(µ)| dµ = |g(x)|2 dx
−∞ −∞
This is merely a restatement of power conservation. The LHS is the power outflow
from the antenna as measured in the far field region, the RHS is the power outflow
from the antenna as measured at the aperture plane.
5. Area
If G(µ) = F g(x) , then
Z ∞
G(0) = g(x)dx
−∞
With this background we are now in a position to determine the maximum effective
aperture of a reflecting telescope. For a 2D aperture with aperture illumination g(x, y),
from equation (3.4.10)
λ2 λ2
Amax
e =R =R (3.5.14)
P (θ, φ)dΩ |F (θ, φ)|2 dΩ
But the field pattern is just the normalized far field electric field strength, i.e.
E(θ, φ)
F (θ, φ) =
E(0, 0)
where E(θ, φ) = F g(x, y) . From property (5)
Z
E(0, 0) = g(x, y)dxdy 0 (3.5.15)
λ sin(πl/λµ)
=
πµ
and the normalized field pattern is
sin(πl/λµ)
F (µ) =
(πl/λµ)
This is called a 1D sinc function. The 1st null is at µ = λ/l, the 1st sidelobe is at
µ = 3/2(λ/l) and is of strength 2/(3π). The strength of the power pattern 1st sidelobe is
(2/3π)2 = 4.5%. This illustrates two very general properties of Fourier transforms:
2. any sharp discontinuities in the function will give rise to sidelobes (‘ringing’) in the
fourier transform.
Figure 3.14 shows a plot of the the power and field patterns for a 700 ft, uniformly
illuminated aperture at 2380 MHz.
Aperture illumination design hence involves the following following tradeoffs (see also
Chapter 19):
1. A more tapered illumination will have a broader main beam (or equivalently smaller
effective aperture) but also lower side lobes than uniform illumination.
2. If the illumination is high towards the edges, then unless there is a very rapid cutoff
(which is very difficult to design, and which entails high sidelobes) there will be a lot
of spillover.
sin(πlµ/λ) sin(πdµ/λ)
E(µ) ∝ −
πµ πµ
3.5. COMPUTING ANTENNA PATTERNS 21
0.5
-20 0 20
Arc Minutes
Figure 3.14: Power and field patterns for a 1D uniformly illuminated aperture.
λ sin(πlµ/λ) sin(πdµ/λ)
F (µ) = −
(l − d) πµ πµ
The field pattern of the “missing” part of the aperture has a broad main beam (since
d < l). Subtracting this from the pattern due to the entire aperture will give a resultant
pattern with very high sidelobes. In Figure 3.15 the solid curve is the pattern due to the
entire aperture, the dotted line is the pattern of the blocked part and the dark curve is
the resultant pattern. (This is for a 100ft blockage of a 700 ft aperture at 2380 MHz).
Aperture blockage has to be minimized for a ‘clean’ beam, many telescopes have feeds
offset from the reflecting surface altogether to eliminate all blockage.
As an example of what we have been discussing, consider the Ooty Radio Telescope
(ORT) shown in Figure 3.16. The reflecting surface is a cylindrical paraboloid (530m×30m)
with axis parallel to the Earth’s axis. Tracking in RA is accomplished by rotating the
telescope about this axis. Rays falling on the telescope get focused onto the a line focus,
where they are absorbed by an array of dipoles. By introducing a linear phase shift
across this dipole array, the antenna beam can be steered in declination (the “phase
shift” property of Fourier transforms). The reflecting surface is only part of a paraboloid
and does not include the axis of symmetry, the feed is hence completely offset, there is no
blockage. The beam however is fan shaped, narrow in the RA direction (i.e. that conjugate
to the 530m dimension) and broad in the DEC (i.e. that conjugate to the 30m dimension).
Aperture blockage is one of the reasons why an antenna’s power pattern would deviate
from what one would ideally expect. Another common problem that affects the power
Other documents randomly have
different content
Resterzeugnisse des Verdauungs-, Assimilations- und
Stoffwechselvorganges gerade wegen ihres Zerfallscharakters auch
nichts anderes als schädliche Reizstoffe sind. Sie müssen den Körper
sobald wie möglich verlassen. Nur dann, wenn es geschieht, kann
man von einem gesunden Stoffwechsel sprechen. Es geschieht aber
nicht immer, und die Zahl der Menschen ist Legion, die an
Darmträgheit oder Verstopfung leiden.
Diese Gefahr ist ganz besonders groß morgens kurz vor oder nach
dem Erwachen, wo die gefüllte Harnblase eine Erregung verursacht
und die Bettwärme sinnliche Bilder entstehen läßt. Am Morgen ist
namentlich bei nervösen oder sonstwie leidenden Menschen die
allgemeine Kraft und besonders die Willenskraft noch gering. Beide
wachsen erst an den Arbeitspflichten des Tages. In dem Träumen
und Hindämmern im Bett nach dem Erwachen liegt etwas riesig
Gefährliches, und es hat wohl schon ungezählte Tausende von
jungen Menschen ihrem guten Vorsatz entfremdet.
Da, lieber Leser, sind wir überhaupt bei der Frage der Muskelarbeit
angelangt, und damit bei einer Frage von so großer Wichtigkeit, daß
wir darüber noch einiges sagen müssen.
Das Leben ist eine wunderbare Einheit, und tief im Innern des
Organismus, im Chemismus der Gewebe, werden in geheimnisvoller
Weise die Kräfte frei, die das Leben zur Entfaltung bringen. Im
ewigen Kampf ums Dasein empfing jedes Lebewesen, empfing auch
der Mensch seine ganz bestimmte Form, seine körperliche und
geistige Organisation. Der Kampf ums Dasein zog die Kräfte bald
hierhin, bald dorthin und hat vor allen Dingen in der Notwendigkeit
der Körperarbeit und der körperlichen Anstrengungen die Muskeln
stark und leistungsfähig gemacht.
Laß dir dies kühl blasierte Gesicht nicht imponieren! Wer zuletzt
lacht, lacht am besten. Laß dir daran gelegen sein, einen kräftigen,
gesunden, elastischen Körper zu gewinnen, den diese „moderne“
Schlaffheit und Moralfaulheit nicht überwinden kann. Sparst du die
Geschlechtskraft, so lenkst du sie um in alle Organe deines Körpers
und baust dir aus dem geheimnisvollen Lebensstoff ein Leben, das
im Alter die Klugheit deiner Jugend segnet.
Besser noch und richtiger als alles, wovon ich oben sprach, besser
als Sport, ist die Arbeit, die rauhe körperliche Arbeit. Der Sport hat
noch kein Volk groß gemacht, sondern die Arbeit, die harte, rauhe
Notwendigkeit. Denn Sport verleitet überall zu Rekordleistungen, zu
Übertreibungen, zu Fexerei und – Schwindel. Der Sport läßt hier und
da nichts mehr von seinem inneren Werte merken und ist zum
Schaustück, zur Unterhaltung, zum Nervenkitzel geworden. Das
beweisen – die Wetten und der Totalisator. Die Sucht nach
wahnsinnigen Gipfelleistungen ist eine Erscheinung der Neurasthenie
eines ganzen Volkes. Schlaffe Nerven antworten nur auf starke
Reize.
Ja, gewiß ist er gesund! Aber ließe sich nicht ein weniges von all
der spielenden Kraft in Ernst, in Arbeit umwandeln? Sollen wir
geschlagenen Deutschen nicht eine ganz neue Zukunft bauen?
Könnten nicht die jungen Burschen, die Sportklubs, die Wandervögel
und Pfadfinder, zum mindesten in den Ferien, einmal zu den Bauern
hinauswandern, um zu arbeiten? Muß man immer spielen? Und
vielleicht nur deshalb spielen, weil zu jedem Sport auch gleich ein
„schickes“ Kostüm erdacht wird? Ja, die kostümlich-dekorative Marke
verdrängt oft sehr aufdringlich die innere Kraft der Sache. Die Arbeit
auf dem Lande wäre für die jungen Burschen aller Stände nicht nur
gesundheitlich förderlich, sondern auch ein kräftiger Faktor ihrer
sozialen Erziehung.
Das deutsche Volk war vor dem Kriege auf jener Stufe der
Degeneration angelangt, wo in einem letzten Aufflackern der
Körperkraft der Gedanke an die Arbeit im Sport ästhetisch kultiviert
wurde. Alle Welt litt und erkrankte an der körperlichen Untätigkeit
und der geistigen und nervösen Überreizung. Alle Welt schaffte sich
nicht Hunger und Verdauungskraft in der Arbeit, sondern hatte die
Mahlzeiten zu einer Haupt- und Staatsaktion erhoben und litt am zu
vielen Essen. Das Geschlechtliche war das Ventil, aus dem die
krankhafte Spannung entwich, und der geschlechtliche Mißbrauch
folgte der körperlichen Untätigkeit und der Unmäßigkeit des Essens
und Trinkens auf dem Fuße. Aber das ging an die Nervenkraft, und
alle Welt ging in die Sanatorien, um – die Zeit weiter totzuschlagen.
Das große Heilmittel für die Neurastheniker und die anderen
Leidenden, die Körperarbeit, wollte niemand versuchen. Hatte der
Arzt eine Überzeugung, so mußte er sie für sich behalten, sonst
kostete sie ihn die Kundschaft. Nur wenigen gelang es, sich dem
großen Humbug mit Erfolg entgegenzustemmen. Nun hat der Krieg
uns aus dem Hindämmern aufgeschreckt, uns den Abgrund gezeigt,
an dem wir hintaumelten. Nun soll ernste, strenge, harte Arbeit uns
einen ganz neuen Weg führen.
Schiller.
1.
Das Erwachen der Liebe.
Um das 15., 16. oder 17. Jahr herum geschieht es, daß aus dem
Knaben ein junger Mann wird und der Körper alle jene bedeutsamen
Veränderungen erlebt, die vereint den Geschlechtscharakter bilden.
Der Körper entwickelt besondere Triebkraft im Wachstum, und
dieses rasche, oft schußweise Wachsen im Knochenbau, dem die
Muskelfülle nicht ganz zu folgen vermag, gibt der Gestalt jene
merkwürdige Eckigkeit und Unbeholfenheit, die uns den jungen
Mann in den „Flegeljahren“ oft so lächerlich ungeschickt erscheinen
lassen. Auf der Oberlippe erscheint der erste Bartflaum, die
sexuellen Organe entwickeln sich stärker; es mehren sich die
Schamhaare; die Stimme verliert den kindlichen Klang; sie „bricht“
und gewinnt jenen dunklen, oft rauhen Timbre, aus dem man den
„Stimmbruch“ eine Zeitlang deutlich heraushört.
Das sind etwa so die Tanzstundenjahre. Eine kleine Welt für sich,
deren glückliches Hoffen nie wiederkehrt. Je stärker und unklarer
diese männliche Sehnsucht ist, desto verlegener und ungeschickter
kann der sonst ganz ruhige und sichere junge Mann werden, wenn
in der Gesellschaft ein junges Mädchen all seinen stürmend-
sehnsüchtigen Gefühlen ein naheliegendes Ziel gibt. Dann ist es mit
der Ruhe vorbei. Er möchte den allerbesten Eindruck machen, die
Ritterlichkeit in Person sein, glaubt sich von allen Anwesenden
beobachtet und möchte sich doch um alles in der Welt vor seiner
„Angebeteten“ keine gesellschaftliche Blöße geben. Das geringste
Mißgeschick bringt ihn in unglaubliche Verwirrung. Er steckt das
Tischtuch als Serviette ins Knopfloch, schüttet der Dame die Suppe
aufs Kleid, wirft einen Stuhl um und sucht verzweifelt nach einem
Gesprächsthema.
Und dann ergreift das Weibliche immer mehr Besitz vom Denken
und Fühlen des jungen Mannes. Es schärft auf der Straße und in der
Gesellschaft seine Augen für Jugend und Schönheit, Grazie und
Charme. Es dringt in seine Träume ein, und während der gesunde,
wohlerzogene junge Mann die Schönheit dieser Jugendjahre nicht
ihres idealen Gewandes entkleidet und die Poesie der jungen Liebe
nicht in der sexuellen Gier vernichtet, kämpfen viele – und
namentlich diejenigen, die den onanistischen Geschlechtserregungen
verfallen sind – mit sexuellen Vorstellungen. Und während bei dem
einen die ersten Regungen der Liebe zugleich seinen männlichen
Stolz und seine sittliche Selbstachtung wecken, und ihm die Liebe
zur Waffe gegen seine unreine Verirrung wird, gerät der andere noch
tiefer in die Gewalt des krankhaften Triebes.
Hier findet der zügelnde Wille und die Klugheit einer gesunden
Lebensführung einen besonderen Boden, zumal es sich darum
handelt, jene nächtlichen automatischen Samenergüsse, die
sogenannten Pollutionen, in ihren physiologischen Grenzen zu
halten.
2.
Die Sittlichkeitsfrage.
Hier haben wir mit einem Male einen Sprung mitten in die
sogenannte „Sittlichkeitsfrage“ hinein getan. Denn der Begriff des
„Sittlichen“ hat sich stillschweigend und in seiner ganzen
Ausdehnung an das Geschlechtliche angeschlossen.
Diese Frage ist durchaus neueren Datums. Denn erstens waren die
sittlichen Anschauungen von früher strenger und straffer, zweitens
hat die Gesellschaft heute in allen Fragen, und somit auch in der
sexual-moralischen, die soziale und sittliche Kritik über das
gedankenlose Sichgehenlassen gesetzt, und drittens ist gerade mit
dem Erwachen dieses kritischen Geistes jener eigenwillige
Individualismus großgezogen worden, der über die Rechte der
Persönlichkeit hinaus auch die Ungebundenheit des Trieblebens mit
„Individualität“ und anderen Phrasen verteidigt, die sozialen
Wurzelungen lockert und dieses ganze philosophische Vorspiel nur
beginnt, um endlich und insbesondere dem vorehelichen
Geschlechtsleben eine unbeschränkte Freiheit zu verschaffen.
Zur selben Zeit begann die Wissenschaft, die bis dahin scheu und
ängstlich dieses Gebiet gemieden hatte, sich doch damit aus
biologischen und medizinischen Interessen zu beschäftigen. Die
Geschlechtswissenschaft (Sexuologie) spürte den geheimnisvollen
Gesetzen dieser menschlichen Leidenschaft nach, um alle
Zusammenhänge zu finden. Und mit einem Male übersah man auch
klarer als bisher die ungeheuren gesundheitlichen Schäden, die das
gedankenlose vielweiberische (polygamische) Geschlechtsleben des
Mannes angerichtet hatte. Man erkannte den Einfluß alles
Geschlechtlichen auf die Erziehung, das Denken überhaupt, auf alle
sozialen Beziehungen, auf die Vererbung, auf Lebensgestaltung und
Lebensglück, und es war wie ein jähes Erwachen, das den
erschreckend neuen Eindruck von der gewaltigen Bedeutung alles
Geschlechtlichen in zahllosen Schriften festhalten zu wollen schien.
Und was bis dahin nie und nirgendwo geschehen war: die Frauen
hatten aufgehorcht. Sie, die bis dahin in der allgemeinen Komödie
der Prüderei die Statisterie gemacht hatten, gewannen nun mit
einem Male das Bewußtsein, daß es eine empörende Ungerechtigkeit
ist, wenn der Mann vom Weibe voreheliche Enthaltsamkeit verlangt,
während er sich selbst doch zu gleicher Zeit recht munter amüsiert
und der Frau als Dank für ihre sittliche Bewahrung eine –
Geschlechtskrankheit als Morgengabe in die Ehe bringt.
Was Wunder, daß gerade die Frauen sich gegen diesen Zustand
auflehnten und mit großer Energie die sexuelle Frage der prüden
Umschleierung entrissen.
Wir stehen ja noch heute vor der Tatsache, daß junge Männer,
wenn sie die Schule und das Elternhaus verlassen haben, oft ohne
alle Gewissensbisse von den sich bietenden Gelegenheiten zum
Geschlechtsverkehr Gebrauch machen, ohne der moralischen und
sozialen Gesetze zu gedenken, welche sich natürlicherweise gegen
den eigenwilligen geschlechtlichen Individualismus auftürmen. Denn
die Beurteilung eines Triebes, der über den Einzelmenschen hinaus
von sozialen Folgen ist, erschöpft sich keineswegs in den Wünschen
und Rechten des Individuums, sondern muß notwendigerweise eine
soziale sein. Die tiefsitzende Inkonsequenz beginnt aber schon mit
der Forderung der Keuschheit der jungen Mädchen, und die sozialen
und mehr noch die sittlichen Zwiespalte fallen zusammen mit der
gesellschaftlichen und seelischen Verwirrung, die ein Mann im Leben
eines Weibes anrichtet, wenn sie der Gegenstand seiner
geschlechtlichen Wünsche geworden ist.
3.
Geschlechtsleben und Gesundheit.
Das jugendliche Geschlechtsleben mit den Forderungen der
Gesundheit zu entschuldigen, ist eine jener sophistischen
Ungereimtheiten, die nur da entstehen, wo die erotischen Wünsche
das Gewissen zum Schweigen bringen wollen.
Wenn ein Mensch ißt und dabei den Zweck des Essens vergißt und
zur Eßgier gelangt; wenn er trinkt, nicht weil der Körper Flüssigkeit
verlangt, sondern weil er der Leidenschaft des Trinkens verfallen ist,
so werden die geistigen Kräfte in demselben Maße schwinden, in
dem die körperliche Sucht sich steigert. So bedeutet auch der
unerlaubte Geschlechtsverkehr der Jugend, eben weil er die sozialen
und sittlichen Kräfte nicht auslöst, eine Hemmung der geistigen und
charakteriellen Entwicklung.
Daß die geschlechtlichen Erschütterungen und die Samenverluste
einen noch nicht ausgereiften Organismus in seiner Entwicklung
hemmen, ist eine ganz allgemeine Erfahrung. Es ist schon rein
logisch und ohne jeden wissenschaftlichen Beweis einzusehen,
warum jene geheimnisvollen Lebensstoffe, deren Entstehung im
Körper zu einem solchen Reichtum und Überschwang des Gefühls
führt, die das Urgeheimnis der polaren Spannung zwischen Mann
und Weib in sich bergen, und die in der Leidenschaft ihrer
Vereinigung das Wunder der Menschwerdung vollbringen, warum sie
ohnedies dem Organismus, solange er sich in der Entwicklung
befindet, seine Spannung geben; denn diese Stoffe, die immer
wieder neues Leben auf die Bahn des Werdens schleudern, sind
nicht nur Ursubstanz des Lebens, sondern zugleich auch seine
feinste Blüte. Sie behalten immer ihre gestaltende Kraft. Und es liegt
große Klugheit darin, durch diese gestaltende Kraft zunächst den
eigenen Organismus auf den möglichen Höhepunkt seiner
Entwicklung zu bringen, ehe man im bloßen Geschlechtsgenuß
Rechte sucht, die erst der mit sich selbst fertige, vollendete
Organismus besitzt.
Sind aber nicht auch die Jahre der Jugend eine Art Training, eine
Vorbereitung für tüchtige Leistungen im Leben? Sollte die Jugend
nicht ebenfalls alle die Kräfte sparen, deren Besitz die offenbare
Quelle für körperliche und geistige Leistungsfähigkeit ist? Wenn die
Eltern alle Nahrungssorgen auf sich nehmen, nur damit die Kräfte
der Jugend sich nicht zwischen Entwicklung und Daseinskampf
zersplittern, hat dann die Jugend ein Recht, diese Kräfte trotzdem zu
vergeuden, und zwar in der Geschlechtslust?
4.
Die Geschlechtsehre.
Freilich wird ja ein junger Mann, wenn er ins Leben hinaustritt, in
einen argen Zwiespalt gebracht. Aus dem Knaben wird ein „Mann“,
und diese „Männlichkeit“ ist im dickflüssigen Strom einer
geschmacklosen Überlieferung leider gar zu sehr aus
geschlechtlicher Abenteuerei und Renommisterei zusammengesetzt
worden. Wer ein „Mann“ sein will, glaubt, etwas erlebt haben zu
müssen und sieht mit Überlegenheit und Spott auf jüngere
Kameraden herab, die noch einen Rest des Schamgefühls aus den
Erziehungsjahren in sich tragen. Aber die freche Großsprecherei und
der Spott der Älteren verwirrt den Jüngeren. Zwar weiß er ganz gut,
wie der anständige Mensch zu handeln hat. Aber sein Wissen in
diesen Dingen ist Stückwerk, ist unklar, unbestimmt, seine
Persönlichkeit ohne Entschiedenheit, ohne Festigkeit. Diesen ewigen
Verlockungen, den spöttelnden Angriffen, erliegt schließlich das gute
Gewissen. Ja, der dumpfe, nicht gezügelte Geschlechtstrieb setzt
sich in einem Augenblicke über Dinge hinweg, die bei ruhiger
Betrachtung häßlich, abstoßend und empörend sind, über Schmutz,
Roheit und ernste Krankheitsgefahr.
Wie ist es doch sonderbar, daß ein junger Mann, kaum daß er in
das Leben hinausgetreten ist – und oft schon vorher – ein Geheimnis
in sein Leben hineinträgt, das ihn in einen inneren Widerspruch zu
seiner gesamten Erziehung bringt. Ein Geheimnis, dessen er sich –
würde es offenbar – vor aller Welt schämen müßte. Ja, er selbst
schämte sich, und scheu und angstvoll, daß er um alles in der Welt
nicht gesehen würde, umschlich er das geheimnisvolle Haus, das die
eigenen Kameraden oder seine lüsterne Neugier ihm gezeigt, und
verschwand darin in einem günstigen Augenblick. Wäre nicht der
Stolz in der sexuellen Spannung erstickt, so müßte sich die
Wirklichkeit des bezahlten Geschlechtsgenusses dem Bewußtsein in
ihrer ganzen Widerlichkeit aufdrängen. Ein Weib, das nicht mehr
Weib, sondern wahlloser Sinnlichkeitsgegenstand wahllos sich
einfindender Männer ist, das oftmals die einfachsten Gesetze der
Reinlichkeit übersieht, für eine Weile zu besitzen, kann einen Mann
von wahrer Mannhaftigkeit nicht locken. Was die jungen Männer zu
diesen frühzeitigen geschlechtlichen Verbindungen treibt, ist ja auch
bei aller Sinnlichkeit tief im Innern die Sehnsucht nach Liebe und das
urewige Rätsel des Weibes. Aber diese zarten knospenden
Empfindungen, die sich in der Ehe, in der Familie, in echter,
mannhafter Liebe ausreifen sollen, werden von den jungen Männern
in Schmutz und gemeine Niedertracht geworfen. Daher die
verkümmerte Empfindungswelt so vieler Menschen, die ihre eigene
Lebenspoesie zerstört haben. Wünsche, Träume, Sehnsucht und
Vorstellungen dürfen nicht in gar zu häßlicher Wirklichkeit erstickt
werden, sonst ist das Ende seelische Erschlaffung, Pessimismus.
Man spricht viel und gern von dem Kampf, den die voreheliche
Geschlechtsentsagung mit sich bringt. Freilich ist es ja wohl am
bequemsten, diesen Kampf durch die erste beste Dirne zu beenden.
Aber ist es denn gut, ihn so rasch zu beenden? Ist nicht der Kampf
die treibende Kraft aller Entwicklung? Weckt er nicht alle
verborgenen Kräfte? Wer die Flinte ins Korn wirft, ist sittlich ein
Feigling. Dieser kampflose, bezahlte, bequeme Geschlechtsgenuß vor
der Ehe, dessen sich junge Männer und auch junge Mädchen
bemächtigen, schadet der Ehe, schadet den Kindern; denn er nimmt
dem Leben und dem Geschlechtsgefühl die Hochspannung. Er
befriedigt die Wünsche, tötet die Sehnsucht, zerstört Illusionen.
Enthaltsamkeit ist biologische Spannung, deren Fehlen man den
Kindern vom Gesicht herunterlesen kann.
Wenn's sein kann, sprich dich mit den Eltern, mit dem Lehrer, mit
einem guten Freund von gesundem Denken und gutem Charakter
darüber aus! Sei nicht wie jene, die im geheimen sündigen und die
Nase rümpfen, wenn ein Wort über Geschlechtliches gesprochen
wird. Das Geschlechtliche soll weder im bösen noch im guten Sinne
das Gesprächsthema sein; aber ein offenes Wort an rechter Stelle
hat oft befreiend gewirkt. Ein klares Wort entreißt oft junge
Menschen der schwülen Phantasiearbeit. Betrachte das
Geschlechtliche als eine besondere Kraft, dich selbst ebenso, und
frage dich. „Wer von uns beiden soll herrschen, ich oder du?“
Wer sein Kind anschaut und aus seinem Gesicht die Schwäche
liest, muß der nicht niedergedrückt werden, wenn er sich selbst
daran schuldig weiß? Wer an seinen Kindern häßliche Züge,
Lüsternheit und Verirrungen bemerkt, muß der nicht entsetzt sein,
wenn er weiß, daß sie nur seine eigene Jugend von neuem
beginnen? Es vererbt sich nicht nur Kraft, sondern auch Schwäche,
nicht nur Körperliches, sondern auch Geistiges, nicht nur gutes
Denken, reines Empfinden, sondern auch geschlechtlich verirrtes
Denken, Charakterlosigkeit und Ausschweifung. Nie kann ein Mensch
etwas anderes erzeugen, als was er selber ist. Ein Kind ist wie Vater
und Mutter, gut oder schlecht. Darum sei gut, handle gut, damit dein
Kind gut sei und gut handle! Laß alles Unsaubere aus deinem
Liebesempfinden heraus, damit dein Kind ein schönes, reines
Empfinden habe! Gehe nicht den traurigen Weg vom Gott zum Tier,
sondern geh den einzig menschenwürdigen Weg, auf dem Gott den
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