Computer Science Mini Test Review

By: Alejandra, Arim, Patty

Computer Systems
What is a computer system?
Computer systems are made of 4 key components

What is a control system? (and examples)

-​ REACT TO INPUTS AND CARRY ACTIONS
Control systems regulate other devices - they react to inputs that have been received and then
perform set actions based on the data received

-​ Fire sprinkler
-​ Automatic doors
-​ Elevator

What is a monitoring system(and examples)

Monitoring systems are passive. They don’t control or change anything, they just monitor or
record data e.g. some CCTV systems just record images

-​ Fuel gauge
-​ Security camera
-​ Thermometer

What is an embedded system(and examples)

Embedded computers are designed to perform one dedicated function, often within a larger
mechanical or electrical system

-​ Traffic Lights
-​ Washing Machine
-​ Fuel Gauge

Storage Devices: Hard drives (HDD) and Solid-State Drives (SSD) store data permanently.
Input Devices: Devices like keyboards, mouse, and scanners are used to input data into a
computer.
Output Devices: Devices like monitors, printers, and speakers are used to output data from a
computer.

The CPU
→CONTAINS A CORE OR CORES

→A core contains an ALU, a control unit, and registers.

State the purpose of the CPU

Responsible for processing instructions entered in the computer like the “brain of the computer”

Main 2 functions of the CPU

●​ to process data and instructions
●​ to control the rest of the computer system

How does a CPU work?

A processor works by fetching instructions from the memory (called addresses), decoding
those instructions, and then executing them into the processor.

-​ It's a continual process

-​ The instructions usually consist of receiving data, performing calculations, and returning
the results.

Common CPU components

The central processing unit (CPU) consists of six main components:
●​ control unit (CU)
●​ arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
●​ registers
●​ cache
●​ buses
 ●​ clock

Define control unit(CU)

The control unit controls the flow of data within the system.

Define ALU
-​ Arithmetic Logic Unit
-​ A component of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logic calculations.

Define Intermediate Access Store

-​ The immediate access store is where the CPU holds all the data and programs that it is
currently using.

Define registers
-​ The section of high-speed memory within the CPU that stores data to be processed.
-​ storage space for units of memory that are used to transfer data for immediate use by
the CPU (Central Processing Unit) for data processing.

program counter (PC) → keeps track of memory address

memory address register (MAR) → stores the memory address where data will be fetched to
the CPU registers or the address to which data will be sent and store via the buses
memory data register (MDR) → temporarily holds data that is transferred to and from the
memory
current instruction register (CIR) → temporarily stores instructions currently being executed
by the processor
accumulator (ACC) → stores immediate results of arithmetic and logical operations

Define cache memory

-​ A piece of temporary memory temporarily holds frequently used data

Define core
-​ A core is an individual processing unit within a CPU

Define buses
-​ The wires through which data travels from one part of a computer to another on the
motherboard.
-​ There are 3 types of buses

Define address bus + directions

-​ Carries signals relating to addresses between the processor and memory
-​ One way(unidirectional)

Define data bus + directions

-​ Sends data between the processor, the memory unit, and input / output devices
-​ Both direction (bi-directional)
Define control bus + directions
-​ Carries signals relating to the control and coordination of activities inside the computer
(read and write functions)
-​ Uni and bi-directional

Define clock(SUPERVISOR)
-​ The clock ensures that the various circuits inside a computer work together at the same
time

Explain the Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle.

1.​ The memory address held in the program counter (PC) is copied into the memory
address register (MAR).

2.​ The address in the program counter is incremented (increased) by one. The program
counter now holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.

3.​ The processor sends a signal along the address bus to the memory address held in the
MAR.

4.​ The instruction or data held in that memory address is sent along the data bus to the
memory data register (MDR).

5.​ The instruction or data held in the MDR is copied into the current instruction register
(CIR).

6.​ The instruction or data held in the CIR is decoded and then executed. The results of
processing are stored in the accumulator (ACC).

7.​ The cycle returns to step one.

Factors affecting CPU performance

●​ clock speed → The speed of a computer's CPU, measured in hertz. This indicates the
number of fetch-decode-execute cycles that can run per second.

-​ The faster the clock speed, the faster the computer is able to run fetch-decode-execute
cycles.

●​ cache size→ A piece of temporary memory.

-​ The larger the cache size, the less time a processor has to wait for instructions to be
fetched. This improves performance.

●​ number of cores→ A processing unit within a CPU. CPUs can have multiple cores.
 -​ A CPU with more cores can process more instructions in a given time. Each core is
capable of fetching, decoding, and executing its own instructions. (INSIDE CPU)

●​ Processor type RISC OR CISC

There are two main types of processors:
●​ reduced instruction set computer (RISC)
●​ complex instruction set computer (CISC)

Explain overclocking and its disadvantages

-​ CPU clocks can sometimes be sped up by the user. This process is known as
overclocking. When the number of pulses per second is increased, more
fetch-decode-execute cycles can be performed and more instructions can be processed
in a given time. This increases performance but also requires more power, which results
in a greater need for heat dissipation and can strain the life of the battery. Overclocking
causes the CPU to work harder and produce more heat, which can lead to long-term
damage to the hardware.

-​ Drains battery life

-​ reduce the CPU's lifespan

Fetch:

-​ The computer gets (or "fetches") an instruction from its memory.

-​ This instruction is stored in the RAM, and the CPU (Central Processing Unit) pulls it out.

Decode:

-​ Once the instruction is fetched, the CPU figures out ("decodes") what it means and what needs to
be done.
-​ The CPU breaks it down into parts so it knows how to act on it.
Execute:

-​ After decoding, the CPU carries out ("executes") the instruction.

-​ This could mean doing a calculation, moving data, or something else the program needs.

Storage and Memory

VOLATILE→a computer storage that temporarily holds data being used or processed.

NON VOLATILE→ computer storage that FOREVER holds data being used or processed.

Primary Memory
-​ RAM: Random access memory, Loses its data when the computer is turned off. (Volatile)
-​ ROM: Read-only memory, the data stored in ROM stays intact even when the computer
is turned off. (Non-volatile)

Secondary Storage
Permanent storage: Data remains even when the computer is off.

Types:
-​ HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Uses spinning disks to read and write data. Slower but cheaper.
-​ SSD (Solid-State Drive): Uses flash memory, faster than HDD but more expensive.
Magnetic Storage
-​ stores data in form of tiny magnetized dots
-​ Lots of moving parts, very cheap
-​ Very large storage capacity → good for desktop PC’s and servers
Optical Storage
-​ any storage type in which data is written and read with a laser.
-​ Uses laser beams and light to store data into the surface of disks
Solid State
-​ Has no mechanical moving parts
-​ Very durables
-​ Very good for mobile devices

Flash Memory
-​ is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in units called blocks and rewrites data
at the byte level
 -​ e.g USB pen drive, Solid State Drive

Offline storage
-​ Any storage device which is kept in a data-library. Cannot be accessed from any
computer until it has been mounted on that computer
-​ DVD / CD
-​ Blu-ray disk
-​ USB / flash memory
-​ Removable hard drive

Computer Architecture

Definition: The design and structure of a computer's components and how they interact.
-​ The number of cores
-​ The Cache size
-​ The clock speed (hertz)
-​ The processor type (CISC or RISC)
Difference between RISC and CISC.
RISC
-​ Simple instructions
-​ A small number of instructions
-​ Instruction takes 1 cycle
-​ The software handles the processing load
-​ Heavy use of RAM
CISC
-​ Complex instructions
-​ Many instructions
-​ Instructions can take multiple cycles
-​ Hardware circuits handle the processing load
-​ Efficient use of RAM

Cache
Definition: Cache is a small, high-speed memory located close to or inside the CPU. It stores
frequently used data and instructions.
Purpose: To speed up the processing by providing the CPU with quicker access to data than it
would get from RAM.
Types of Cache:
-​ L1 Cache: The smallest and fastest cache, located inside the CPU. Stores critical data
for the CPU.
-​ L2 Cache: Slightly larger and slower than L1, still within or close to the CPU.
-​ L3 Cache: Larger but slower than L1 and L2, shared among multiple cores in multi-core
processors.
Importance: By reducing the time it takes for the CPU to access data, the cache improves
overall performance.

Cores
Definition: A core is an individual processing unit within a CPU. Each core can handle its own
tasks and run instructions independently.
Single-Core vs Multi-Core:
-​ Single-Core: Early processors had only one core, meaning they could process one
instruction at a time.
-​ Multi-Core: Modern processors have multiple cores (e.g., dual-core, quad-core, etc.),
allowing them to handle several tasks simultaneously (multitasking).
Benefits of Multi-Core:
-​ Improved Performance: More cores allow a computer to process more instructions at the
same time, making it faster and more efficient, especially with multi-threaded programs.
-​ Better Multitasking: Multiple cores allow the computer to run several applications or
processes smoothly without slowing down.

Binary, Hexadecimal, ASCII

Binary
-​ A base-2 system using only 0 and 1.
-​ Computers use binary to represent all data and instructions

-​ Example :

Hexadecimal
-​ Base-16 system uses digits 0-9 and letters A - F (for values 10-15)
-​ Commonly used to represent large binary numbers in a compact form.

-​ Example:

ASCII (American Standard code for information interchange)

-​ A character encoding standard
-​ Each letter, number, and symbol is assigned a unique 7-bit binary code.
-​ Example:

Compression (Image and Sound)

Definition: The process of reducing the size of a file while retaining its essential information.
Types:
-​ Lossless Compression: Reduces file size without losing any data. Example: ZIP files,
PNG images.
-​ Lossy Compression: Removes some data to significantly reduce file size, often used
for media files. Example: JPEG images, MP3 audio files.

Image Compression:
 -​ JPEG: A lossy compression format commonly used for photographs. It reduces file size
by removing non-essential data.
-​ PNG: A lossless format often used for images with fewer colors or transparency.

Height in pixels * width in pixels * resolution

Sound Compression:
-​ MP3: A lossy audio format that compresses sound files by removing frequencies that are
hard to hear.
-​ FLAC: A lossless audio format that maintains high sound quality but reduces file size

Bit depth * audio length (* sample rate)

Online Threats/Types of attack

-​ Hacking occurs when someone accesses a computer or network without permission -

such as if you forget to log off a shared computer

→ White hat hacker – ‘ethical’ hackers looking to find potential security issues, directly
employed by a business to find flaws

Black hat hacker – illegal hacking for personal gain / criminal intent

Grey Hat Hacker – hackers that search for security flaws and then contact companies for
payment to repair it

-​ A brute force attack is a hacking method that uses trial and error to crack passwords,
login credentials, and encryption keys.
-​ A dictionary attack is a method of breaking into a password-protected computer,
network or other IT resource by systematically entering every word in a dictionary, or
word list, as a password.
-​ A virus is a standalone piece of malware that doesn’t need a host program
-​ Trojan Horse scams are self-replicating piece of malware that look like a harmless file
-​ Phishing scams are when emails, text messages or other notifications are received that
look like they are from a genuine site e.g. a message from Barclays bank saying to click
on the link to update your password
-​ Pharming is a type of malware that redirects you to a bogus website when you type in
the correct web address. This fake site then requests you to type in sensitive data such
as passwords
-​ A Denial of Service attack uses a collection of hacked computers (called a botnet) to
flood a site with server requests, preventing normal users from being able to access it
Online Security - Prevention Methods
▪​ Regular anti virus updates
▪​ Regular software updates
▪​ Firewalls (barrier between your network & external internet)
▪​ Proxy servers (an intermediary between you and the internet)
▪​ VPNs (Virtual Private Network encrypts personal data, masks your IP address)
▪​ DNS (DNS-layer protection stops malware hackers may try to send)
▪​ Data masking (confidential online data replaced with fictitious data)
▪​ Encryption

What is encryption?
-​ Encryption is used to protect data in case it has been hacked. It won’t prevent the
data from being stolen but it makes it meaningless to the hackers, unless they
have the key to decrypt it

What are 2 types of encryption?

What is symmetric encryption?
●​ Symmetric encryption is when both the sender and receiver are given an
identical secret key which can be used to encrypt or decrypt information
●​ If a hacker gains access to the key, then they can decrypt intercepted information
●​ The secret key can be shared with the receiver without sending it electronically:
○​ Both parties could verbally share the key in person
○​ Both parties may use standard postage mail to share the key
○​ An algorithm may be used to calculate the key by sharing secret non-key
information

What is asymmetric encryption?

●​ Asymmetric encryption is when two keys are used, a public and private key
○​ Public key: a key known to everyone
○​ Private key: a key known only to the receiver
●​ Both keys are needed to encrypt and decrypt information
●​ Asymmetric encryption works as follows:
○​ Person A uses a public key to encrypt their message
○​ Person A sends their message over the network or internet
○​ Person B decrypts the message using their secret private key
 ●​ Only one private key can be used to decrypt a message and it is not sent over
the internet like a symmetric key
●​ Keys can be large, a key using 100 bits would generate
1,267,650,600,228,229,401,496,703,205,376 different combinations
●​ Large keys are near impossible for a hacker to guess

3.4E - What is the Internet?

IP Address (Internet Protocol Address): A unique numeric address assigned to every
device connected to the Internet.

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address): A unique physical address assigned to
a network interface card.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator): A unique address used to identify online resources,
such as web pages.

DNS (Domain Name Server): A server that translates domain names into IP addresses.

HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): A protocol used to transfer data

between web servers and clients. HTTPS is an encrypted version for secure
communication.

Data Packet: A small unit of data transmitted over a network.

Packet Switching: A method of dividing data into packets and transmitting them over
multiple paths.

TTL (Time To Live): The maximum number of hops a packet can travel before it is
deleted from the network.

Hop: The number of routers a packet passes through as it travels from its source to its
destination.

WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that connects multiple networks over a large
area.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A network that spans a city.

LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects computers and devices within a
limited area.

PAN (Personal Area Network): A small network that connects devices used by
individuals.
NIC (Network Interface Card): Hardware used to connect a computer to a network.

Modem: A device that converts digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.

Router: A device that transfers data between networks.

WAP (Wireless Access Point): A device that creates a wireless network.

Hub: A device that broadcasts data to all devices on a network.

Switch: A device that transfers data to specific devices on a network.

Interoperability: The ability of different systems or technologies to communicate and

exchange data.

P2P (Peer-to-Peer): A network model in which computers are directly connected to

each other and share resources without a separate server.

Client-Server Model: A network model in which clients request services from a server
and the server provides those services.

VPN (Virtual Private Network): An encrypted connection used to securely transmit data
over a public network.

Proxy Server: A server that acts as an intermediary between a client and the Internet.

Firewall: A security system that blocks unauthorized access from outside to protect the
network.

Net neutrality: The principle that all Internet traffic should be treated equally.