Table: Features and Development of Mughal Painting

Category Details

Time Period 16th century to mid-19th century

Developed in the Mughal courts, primarily in northern India; inspired by Persian

Origins
miniature painting and enriched through Indian and European influence.

- Highly detailed and refined miniature paintings

Core - Use of rich, opaque water-based colours
Characteristics - Paintings part of manuscripts and albums
- Focus on realism and naturalism

- Handmade paper and cloth (sometimes with backing paper)

Medium and - Natural pigments: cinnabar (vermilion), lapis lazuli (ultramarine), orpiment
Materials (yellow), ground shell (white), charcoal (black)
- Brushes made from squirrel or kitten hair

- Optical realism, three-dimensional effects

Visual Style - Vivid yet harmonious colour palette
- Intricate borders with gold/silver decorations

- Court scenes, royal portraits, conquests

- Religious epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata)
Subjects & Themes
- Nature, flora & fauna
- Fantasy and mythology

- Collaborative work in Nigaar Khanas (imperial workshops)

Teamwork
- Specialised roles: composer (tarh), portraitist (chiharanama), colourist
Approach
(rangamizi)

1. Text and layout prepared by calligraphers

Artistic Process 2. Space left for paintings
3. Sketching, colouring, and final burnishing done by artists in phases

- Synthesised elements of Indigenous Indian, Persian (Safavid), and European

Cultural Fusion Renaissance art styles
- Inclusion of religious, philosophical, and political narratives

- Flourished under rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan

Evolution and
- Declined under Aurangzeb, but lived on in provincial courts and later evolved
Patronage
into Company School paintings

- Reflected emperors' taste, philosophy, and worldviews

Purpose & Legacy - Created a visual archive of Mughal life and beliefs
- Inspired later regional styles and even European artists like Rembrandt

Glossary of Important Terms & Concepts

Term Explanation

Miniature Painting Small, highly detailed artwork typically part of manuscripts or albums.

Painting workshop established by Humayun; first organised atelier of

Nigaar Khana
Mughal painting.

Epic narrative on Amir Hamza, richly illustrated with over 1400 folios,
Hamza Nama
started by Humayun and expanded by Akbar.

Illustrated Persian translation of the Mahabharata, reflecting Akbar’s vision

Razm Nama
of cultural integration.

Album of individual paintings, often with elaborate borders; favoured by

Muraqqa
Jahangir.

Tarh The initial sketching or outlining phase in painting.

Chiharanama The stage focused on detailed facial expressions or portrait work.

The final colouring phase of painting, where details and brilliance are
Rangamizi
added.

Bihzad Legendary Persian painter from Herat, admired by Babur.

Mir Sayyid Ali & Abd- Two master painters brought from Persia by Humayun; laid the foundation
us-Samad of Mughal miniature painting.

Jahangir’s favourite artist, known for animal studies like Zebra, Falcon on a
Ustad Mansur
Perch.

Known as “Nadir al-Zaman” (Wonder of the Age); painted Jahangir’s

Abul Hasan
Dream, worked during Jahangir’s reign.

Prominent artist under Jahangir and Shah Jahan; painted Hourglass throne
Bichitra
and Dara Shikoh with Sages.

Development Under Mughal Rulers (Chronological Order)

1. Babur (1526–1530)

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was not just a warrior but also a poet, a writer, and a lover
of beauty. Though he spent a short time in India, his legacy as an aesthete was foundational. In his
autobiography, the Baburnama, he gives vivid descriptions of India’s landscapes, gardens, and
people.

He appreciated portraiture and artistic talent. Among the painters he mentioned were Bihzad, a
Persian artist known for his delicate brushwork and subtle colours, and Shah Muzaffar, admired for
his skill in painting hairstyles. However, Babur's contribution to painting was more inspirational than
institutional—he laid the groundwork by expressing the value of preserving events and emotions
through art and memoirs.
2. Humayun (1530–1540; 1555–1556)

Humayun’s real contribution to Mughal painting began during his exile in Persia. Defeated by Sher
Shah Suri, he sought refuge at the court of the Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp, where he was deeply
impressed by the Persian miniature painting tradition. During his stay, he formed strong cultural ties
with Persian artists and decided to bring this aesthetic back to India.

When Humayun regained his throne, he brought two master painters with him: Mir Sayyid Ali and
Abd-us-Samad. They were pioneers in shaping early Mughal painting, especially in the art of
portraiture. Humayun established a studio or workshop known as the Nigaar Khana, which was
attached to his library. This marked the beginning of organised artistic production in the Mughal
court.

Although Humayun died shortly after, he started the ambitious Hamza Nama project—a richly
illustrated narrative of the adventures of Amir Hamza. This project was later continued and expanded
under Akbar’s rule.

3. Akbar (1556–1605)

Akbar is considered the true architect of Mughal painting. His reign saw the formalisation and
flourishing of the Mughal miniature tradition. Being dyslexic, he had a deep appreciation for visual
storytelling and illustration. According to his court historian, Abul Fazl, Akbar employed more than a
hundred painters in his imperial atelier, including Persian and indigenous Indian artists.

Under his patronage, artists worked collaboratively on massive projects. His greatest contribution
was continuing and completing the Hamza Nama with over 1400 large-format paintings over 15
years. This project established visual storytelling through bold colour schemes, intricate designs, and
dramatic action sequences.

He also commissioned the Razm Nama, a Persian translation and illustration of the Mahabharata,
completed in 1589 under Daswant. Other notable works included the Ramayana, Akbar Nama, and
illustrations of fables and religious texts.

Akbar’s reign also saw the influence of European art through missionaries. One such painting,
Madonna and Child, reflected the fusion of European themes with Indian elements—Madonna in a
classical pose, yet surrounded by Indian motifs.

4. Jahangir / Salim (1605–1627)

Jahangir took Mughal painting to a new level of refined elegance and naturalism. From an early age,
he had a strong inclination towards art and preferred high quality over quantity. He was more
interested in individual paintings or Muraqqas—albums of art that included single-page illustrations,
often mounted with decorated margins.

He was fascinated by nature, animals, birds, and botany. His atelier documented flora and fauna
with scientific precision. Artists like Ustad Mansur, who painted the Falcon, Zebra, and other rare
species, flourished under him. Jahangir also employed Abul Hasan and Bichitra, who painted some
of the most iconic artworks like Jahangir’s Dream, Jahangir in Darbar, and Jahangir on an Hourglass.
European influences deepened, and Jesuit themes and realism became more visible in portraits. His
memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, records his artistic vision and preferences in great detail.

5. Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

Shah Jahan’s era was marked by luxury, splendour, and grand aesthetics. He encouraged paintings
that reflected idealism, perfection, and a glorified image of royalty. Naturalism took a back seat to
highly stylised, romanticised depictions.

The paintings of this period are noted for jewel-like colours, elegant compositions, and intricate
detailing. His court focused on imperial portraits, monumental architecture (like the Taj Mahal), and
ceremonial themes. The famous Padshahnama, a royal chronicle, is a magnificent example of
artwork from his time.

Paintings such as Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh and Dara Shikoh with Sages illustrate both
royal pomp and philosophical depth, especially reflecting the personality of his son Dara Shikoh.

6. Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Aurangzeb had a more orthodox religious attitude and did not actively support the arts. Although he
did not shut down the ateliers entirely, their productivity declined. Artists began to migrate to
provincial courts, leading to the rise of sub-imperial Mughal styles.

The focus shifted from innovation to preservation and repetition of established styles. This phase
marked the beginning of the decline of the Mughal miniature tradition.