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Name: Guillermo, Thomas Ariell Yousef R. Date: Score:

Group #: 1 05/09/2025

Experiment # 8
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

TLO 8: Develop skills in using the VOM to identify the terminals of a Bipolar Junction
Transistor, and determine the type of BJT- PNP or NPN.

I. INTRODUCTION

A Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that

regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a signal switch or gate. It is a solid-state
device that is formed by connecting two diodes back-to-back. Hence it has got two PN
junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor materials present in
it. The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base, and Collector
terminals.

This type of connection offers two types of transistors. They are PNP and NPN which
means an N-type material between two P types and the other is a P-type material
between two N-types respectively.

In the normal (forward-active) mode of a BJT, the base emitter junction is forward-
biased (about 0.6–0.7 V for silicon) while the base collector junction is reverse-biased
(Sedra & Smith, 2020). Under these conditions, carriers are injected from the emitter into
the base: for an NPN transistor, electrons flow from the emitter into the thin p-type base.
Because the base is very thin and lightly doped, most of the injected carriers diffuse
across it without recombining and are swept into the collector (Floyd, 2012). Only a small
fraction recombines in the base, producing the base current (I B). As a result, the collector
current (IC) is much larger than I_B, and their ratio β = I C/IB (the common-emitter current
gain) is typically on the order of 50–300 for silicon transistors (Sedra & Smith, 2020). The
collector current depends exponentially on the base–emitter voltage (similar to the
diode equation) according to the Ebers–Moll model (Sedra & Smith, 2020). If the base–
collector junction also becomes forward-biased (when VCE is very low), the transistor
enters saturation and cannot sustain further amplification. Conversely, if V BE is below
threshold (about 0.6 V), the device is in cutoff with essentially no conduction (Millman &
Halkias, 2010).

A BJT’s structure is defined by the doping and geometry of its three regions. The
emitter is heavily doped to supply a high density of carriers, the base is extremely thin and

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lightly doped to allow carriers to pass through, and the collector is moderately doped
and usually made larger to collect carriers and dissipate heat (Sedra & Smith, 2020). In
an NPN transistor, the layers are n-type (emitter), p-type (base), n-type (collector);
electrons are the majority carriers injected by the emitter. In a PNP transistor the layers
are p–n–p, so holes are the majority carriers. These differences mean the bias polarities
are reversed: an NPN requires a positive base–emitter bias, while a PNP requires a
negative bias (Millman & Halkias, 2010). The complementary nature of NPN and PNP
transistors is exploited in many circuits (for example, a push–pull amplifier uses one of
each). Overall, the specific doping levels and dimensions of the emitter, base, and
collector determine the transistor’s gain, voltage ratings, and other parameters (Floyd,
2012).

The static characteristics of a BJT illustrate its operating regions. The input (base–
emitter) characteristic behaves like a diode: virtually no base current flows until V BE
reaches about 0.6–0.7 V, beyond which IB rises exponentially (Sedra & Smith, 2020). The
key output characteristic is the plot of collector current I C versus collector emitter voltage
VCE for fixed base currents. These curves delineate the cutoff region (V BE too low, IC ≈ 0),
the forward-active region (VBE on, VBC reverse), and the saturation region (both junctions
forward-biased). In the forward-active region, IC ≈ β IB and is relatively flat versus VCE (apart
from a slight increase due to base-width modulation) (Sedra & Smith, 2020). When V CE
falls near zero, the device saturates and further increases in base current produce little
change in IC (Floyd, 2012). Designers use these characteristic curves and load-line analysis
to set operating points and understand amplifier or switch behavior (Millman & Halkias,
2010).

BJTs offer several advantageous properties. They can provide very high current
and voltage gain because of their high transconductance: a small change in base–
emitter voltage produces a large change in collector current (Sedra & Smith, 2020). Many
BJTs have high cutoff frequencies (fT) in the hundreds of megahertz, making them suitable
for radio-frequency applications (Millman & Halkias, 2010). When driven into saturation,
a BJT’s collector–emitter voltage drop can be quite low (on the order of 0.1–0.3 V in
power devices), which allows efficient conduction in switching circuits (Floyd, 2012). The
BJT’s exponential I–V relationship also yields smooth and linear amplifier behavior, often
resulting in lower distortion in analog circuits (Sedra & Smith, 2020). Finally, BJT fabrication
is a very mature technology, producing devices that can handle high current densities
and are robust under varying thermal conditions (Floyd, 2012). These features make BJTs
well-suited for many amplifier and switch designs.

BJTs are used in a wide variety of circuit roles. In analog amplifiers, the common-
emitter configuration provides large voltage gain, the emitter-follower (common-
collector) provides current gain and buffering, and the common-base configuration
offers low input impedance and high bandwidth (Floyd, 2012). Matched pairs of BJTs form
differential amplifiers and current mirrors, which are key building blocks in operational
amplifiers and integrated analog circuits (Millman & Halkias, 2010). Power amplifiers often
use complementary NPN and PNP transistors in push–pull (Class AB) output stages to

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efficiently drive speakers, motors, or power supplies. In digital electronics, BJTs were the
basis of bipolar logic families (such as TTL and ECL), although MOSFETs now predominate
in most digital circuits. Finally, the fast switching speed and low noise of BJTs make them
useful in RF mixers, oscillators, sensor front-ends, and other high-frequency or precision
applications (Sedra & Smith, 2020).

In summary, the bipolar junction transistor is a versatile current-controlled device

essential to electronics (Sedra & Smith, 2020). Its engineered structure—comprising a
heavily doped emitter, a thin lightly doped base, and a moderately doped collector—
enables a tiny base current to regulate a much larger collector current. By biasing its
junctions appropriately, the BJT can operate in cutoff, active, or saturation modes,
serving as either a linear amplifier or a digital switch. The BJT’s high gain and speed made
it the primary active device in analog circuits for decades, and understanding its
behavior is fundamental to analog circuit design. BJTs remain important in discrete
amplifiers, high-frequency circuits, and educational contexts. Mastery of BJT theory,
structure, biasing, and characteristic curves thus provides a crucial foundation for
engineering practice (Floyd, 2012).

II. METHODOLOGY/PROCEDURES:

EQUIPMENT/ MATERIALS NEEDED:

Power Source 0-12Vdc, 10mA

Power Source 3V battery
Two (2) VOM
Q1 NPN Si Transistor, 2N2219A
Q2 PNP Si Transistor, 2N2905A
Q3 PNP, Flat type transistor
R2 3.3kΩ, 1W
R3 10kΩ, ½ W Potentiometer
R4 100Ω
Connecting Leads

Objective A: Identify the BJT's base, emitter, and collector terminals.

(Watch the attached videos 2 and 3, to answer Objective A Questions 1 and 2)

1. Familiarize yourself with the following transistors shown in Figure 1.

The emitter, base, and collector leads must be identified before a transistor can be
connected to a circuit. Transistor outlines and pin connections for some of the more

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common types are shown in Figure 1. Note that the leads and pins are generally
shown on the bottom view of the transistor.

Because there is a variety of outlines and pin connections, you should always refer
to the proper instruction manual, or transistor data sheet before making any
connections to a transistor.

Watch Experiment #8 Video 2: E, B, C of a Transistor (time 2:33-3:32)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylAsjxuiqkE

Without an ohmmeter, how would you be able to identify the terminals of a

transistor? __________________
A. PNP and NPN Flat face transistor
B. PNP and NPN Metal Cap transistor

2. Watch Experiment # 8 video 3 presenting the technique of identifying the

terminals of a transistor using an ohmmeter.

Watch Experiment #8 Video 3: How to Know the EBC of Transistor Using an

Analog Multimeter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5CoMawdEIY

Note that in this video, an analog VOM is used. Recall that in most analog
VOMs, the RED positive probe is connected to the negative terminal of the
VOM’s battery, and the BLACK negative probe is connected to the positive
terminal of the same source.

How can you identify the terminals of a transistor using the ohmmeter? _____
A. PNP Transistors
B. NPN Transistors

OBJECTIVE B. Determine the type of transistor using a digital multimeter and identify its
Emitter, Base, and Collector terminals

Watch Experiment #8 Video 4: “How to Test a Transistor with a Multimeter, PNP or NPN”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93bO2nBrptM

3.

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A. Using Q3, verify the type of this flat transistor and identify its terminals using the
diode continuity mode of the electronic VOM.
B. With the flat surface of the transistor fronting you (Pins 1,2, and 3 are from Left
to right), connect the negative (-) probe of the VOM pin 1, and the positive
(+) probe to Pin 2. Measure the voltage drop. ___________V
C. With the (-) probe still at pin 1, transfer the (+) probe to pin 3 and measure the
voltage drop. ________V
D. Move the (-) probe to pin 2, and the (+) probe to pin 3. Measure the voltage
drop. ____________V
E. Keeping the (-) probe to pin 2, now transfer the (+) probe to pin 1 and
measure the voltage drop. ___________
F. Connect the negative of Vom to Pin3, positive to pin1.
Measure the Voltage._____________________
G. With the negative still at Pin3, connect the Positive at Pin2.
Measure the Voltage.__________________________

H. Identify the type of this bipolar junction transistor. ______

G. Identify the terminals of this BJT:

Pin 1 _______
Pin 2________
Pin 3 ________

Objective C. Demonstrate and measure the effects of the base current of the base
circuit on the collector current of the collector circuit of a BJT.
4.
A. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3. Series resistors R2 and R4 are only
protective devices and will limit the base and collector currents to safe
values.

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B. Rotate the arm of R3 fully ccw. The base of Q1 is not essentially connected to
the emitter and cannot be forward biased when voltage is applied.

C. Adjust the collector power source, V cc to 6Vdc

D. Adjust R3 until 2mAdc of collector current is flowing as indicated by the

ammeter in the collector circuit.

E. Measure and record in Table 2, the base current, in 𝜇𝐴, for collector current of
2mAdc.
Table 2

Collector Current Base Current (µA),

(mA) measured
0
2
4
6
8
10

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F. Repeat for each of the collector currents listed in Table 2.

G. Return V cc to zero

H. Examine the results shown in Table 2. Does a small change in base current
cause a large change in collector current? ________________

Objective D. Determine the forward and reverse voltage drops of the emitter-base
junction of the NPN and PNP transistor.

5. A. Identify the Base, Emitter, and Collector terminals of the NPN transistor Q1.
B. Set the VOM to the diode continuity function.
C. Connect the common lead (negative) to the emitter of Q1, and the positive
lead to the base as shown in Figure 1a.
D. Measure the forward base-emitter voltage of the NPN Si transistor Q1.

VBE1 (forward) = _________Volts

E. Reverse the connector lead connections to Q1 as shown in Figure 1b.

F. Measure the reverse base-to-emitter voltage of the NPN transistor Q1.

VBE1 (reverse) =___________Volts

6.
A. Identify the Base, Emitter, and Collector terminals of the PNP Si transistor Q2.

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B. Repeat procedure 5 using Silicon PNP Si Transistor Q2. To properly forward bias
the base-emitter junction of a PNP transistor, the positive lead must be
connected to the emitter and the negative lead connected to the base.
Measure the forward voltage drop of the base-emitter junction.

VBE2 (forward) = _________Volts

C. Reverse the connector lead connections to Q2. Measure the reverse voltage
drop of the base-emitter junction.

VBE2 (reverse) =___________Volts

Objective E: Determine the forward and reverse voltage drops of the collector-base
junction of the NPN and PNP transistor.

7.

A. Connect the negative lead of the VOM to the base of NPN Si transistor Q1, and
the positive to the collector as shown in figure 2a.

B. Measure the reverse collector-base voltage of the NPN Si transistor Q1.

VBC1 (reverse) = _________Volts

C. Reverse the VOM lead connections to Q1 as shown in Figure 2b.

D. Measure the forward collector-base voltage of the NPN transistor Q1.

VBC1 (forward) =___________Volts

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8.
A. Repeat procedure 7 using Silicon PNP Si Transistor Q2. To properly forward bias
the base-collector junction of a PNP transistor, the positive lead must be
connected to the collector and the negative lead connected to the base.
Measure the forward voltage drop of the B-C junction

VBC2 (forward) = _________Volts

B. Reverse the VOM lead connections to Q2. Measure the reverse voltage drop of
the B-C junction.

VBC2 (reverse) =___________Volts

C. Is the forward voltage drop of the C-B junction slightly higher OR is it slightly lower
than E-B junction’s forward voltage drop? ______

III. RESULTS

Objective A: Identify the BJT's base, emitter, and collector terminals.

(Watch the attached videos 2 and 3, to answer Objective A Questions 1 and 2)

A. PNP and NPN Flat face transistor

● For PNP and NPN flat surface transistor, face the flat side towards you. For NPN: The
emitter is on the right, the base is in the middle, and the collector is on the left. For
PNP: The emitter is on the left, the base is in the middle and the collector is on the
right.

Flat Face NPN Transistor (TO-92 Package)

In the TO-92 package, a common plastic encapsulation for BJTs, the flat side serves as a
reference for pin identification. When the flat side is oriented towards the observer and
the leads are pointing downward, the typical pin configuration for an NPN transistor
from left to right is Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter (E).

This arrangement is based on the internal structure of the transistor, where the emitter is
heavily doped to inject charge carriers efficiently, the base is lightly doped and thin to
allow carriers to pass through, and the collector is moderately doped to collect carriers
from the base region.

Flat Face PNP Transistors

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In the TO-92 package for PNP transistors, the flat side again serves as a reference. When
the flat side is oriented towards the observer and the leads are pointing downward, the
typical pin configuration from left to right is: Emitter (E), Base (B), and Collector (C). This
arrangement reflects the PNP transistor's internal structure, where the emitter injects holes
(positive charge carriers) into the base, which are then collected by the collector. Proper
identification ensures correct biasing, with the base-emitter junction forward-biased and
the base-collector junction reverse-biased during normal operation.

B. PNP and NPN Metal Cap transistor

● For PNP & NPN metal cap transistor, locate the notch on the transistor. For NPN
(moving anticlockwise from the notch): the emitter is on the left, base in the middle
and collector is on the right. For PNP (moving anticlockwise from the notch): the
collector is on the left, the base is in the middle, and the emitter is on the right.

Metal Cap PNP Transistors (TO-18 Package)

For metal can transistors like the TO-18 package, identification relies on a physical
marker—a notch or tab on the casing. When viewed from the bottom with the notch
positioned at a reference point, the pin configuration for NPN transistors, moving
counterclockwise, is typically: Emitter (E), Base (B), and Collector (C). This configuration
aligns with the transistor's internal structure, ensuring correct biasing and operation
within electronic circuits.

Metal Cap NPN Transistors (TO-18 Package)

For PNP transistors in the TO-18 metal can package, identification also utilizes the notch
or tab on the casing. When viewed from the bottom with the notch at a reference
point, the pin configuration, moving counterclockwise, is typically: Collector (C), Base
(B), and Emitter (E). This configuration ensures that the transistor operates correctly
within a circuit, with appropriate biasing of the junctions to facilitate the intended
current flow.

For NPN transistor using an ohmmeter or a multimeter set to diode test mode, begin by
determining the base terminal. Connect the negative (black) probe to one of the
transistor's terminals and use the positive (red) probe to test the other two terminals. If
both readings display a forward voltage drop (typically between 0.6V to 0.7V for silicon
transistors), the terminal connected to the negative probe is the base. This behavior is
due to the forward-biased base-emitter and base-collector junctions conducting
current when the base is more positive relative to the emitter and collector.

After identifying the base, distinguish between the emitter and collector by keeping the
positive probe on the base and testing the remaining two terminals. The emitter will
show a slightly lower forward voltage drop compared to the collector, attributed to its

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higher doping level, which facilitates better charge carrier injection. This difference in
voltage drop is a result of the transistor's internal structure, where the emitter is heavily
doped to increase efficiency, while the collector is moderately doped to handle higher
voltages (All About Circuits, n.d.).

For PNP transistors, the procedure is similar but with reversed probe polarities. To
determine the base, connect the positive (red) probe to one of the transistor's terminals
and use the negative (black) probe to test the other two terminals. If both readings
show a forward voltage drop, the terminal connected to the positive probe is the base.
This indicates that the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward-biased
when the base is more negative relative to the emitter and collector.

To identify the emitter and collector, place the negative probe on the base and test
the remaining two terminals. The emitter will exhibit a slightly lower forward voltage drop
compared to the collector, due to its higher doping concentration, which enhances
hole injection efficiency. This distinction is crucial because, in PNP transistors, current
flows from the emitter to the collector when the base is more negative, and the
emitter's heavy doping ensures efficient operation (All About Circuits, n.d.).

OBJECTIVE B. Determine the type of transistor using a digital multimeter and identify its
Emitter, Base, and Collector terminals

A. With the flat surface of transistor Q3 facing you and pins numbered from left to right
as 1, 2, and 3, connecting the negative (black) probe of the digital multimeter to pin 1
and the positive (red) probe to pin 2 yields a voltage drop of 0.596 V. This reading
suggests a forward-biased PN junction between these two pins, indicating that one is
the base and the other is either the emitter or collector. The presence of a typical diode
forward voltage drop in this configuration is characteristic of a functioning PN junction
in a BJT (All About Circuits, n.d.).

B. Maintaining the negative probe on pin 1 and moving the positive probe to pin 3
results in a 0 V reading. This lack of voltage drop implies no conduction between these
two terminals in this configuration, suggesting that pin 3 is not forming a forward-biased
junction with pin 1. This behavior is expected if pin 3 is neither the base nor forming a
forward-biased junction with pin 1 (Electronics Notes, n.d.).

C. Shifting the negative probe to pin 2 and placing the positive probe on pin 3 yields a
0 V reading. This indicates no forward conduction between pins 2 and 3 in this
configuration, suggesting that either the junction is reverse-biased or there is no PN
junction between these pins in this orientation (Fluke Corporation, n.d.).

D. Keeping the negative probe on pin 2 and moving the positive probe to pin 1 also
results in a 0 V reading. This further supports the notion that pin 2 does not form a
forward-biased junction with pin 1 in this configuration, reinforcing the earlier inference
about the roles of these pins (All About Circuits, n.d.).

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E. Connecting the negative probe to pin 3 and the positive probe to pin 1 results in a 0
V reading. This suggests no forward conduction between these pins in this orientation,
indicating that either the junction is reverse-biased or there is no PN junction between
these pins in this configuration (Electronics Notes, n.d.).

F. Maintaining the negative probe on pin 3 and moving the positive probe to pin 2
yields a voltage drop of 0.598 V. This reading indicates a forward-biased PN junction
between these two pins, suggesting that one is the base and the other is either the
emitter or collector. The presence of a typical diode forward voltage drop in this
configuration is characteristic of a functioning PN junction in a BJT (Fluke Corporation,
n.d.).

G. Analyzing the measurements from steps A through F, we observe that pin 2 exhibits
forward-biased conduction with both pins 1 and 3 when the positive probe is
connected to pin 2. This behavior is indicative of pin 2 being the base terminal in an
NPN transistor, where the base-emitter and base-collector junctions conduct when the
base is more positive than the emitter and collector (All About Circuits, n.d.).

H. Based on the observed voltage drops and conduction behavior, we can deduce
the transistor's type and terminal assignments. The transistor is an NPN type, with pin 2
serving as the base. Between the remaining pins, the one that exhibits a slightly lower
forward voltage drop when connected to the base is typically the emitter due to its
higher doping concentration, which facilitates better charge carrier injection
(Electronics Notes, n.d.). Given the measurements, pin 3 is identified as the emitter, and
pin 1 as the collector.

Objective C. Demonstrate and measure the effects of the base current of the base
circuit on the collector current of the collector circuit of a BJT.

Collector Current Base Current (µA),

(mA) measured

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-0.01
2

0.01
4

0.03

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0.06
8

0.07
10

0.08

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The data in Table 2 reveals a clear correlation between the base current and the
collector current. As the base current increases incrementally, there is a corresponding
and significantly larger increase in the collector current. This behavior is characteristic of
a BJT operating in its active region, where the collector current (I C) is proportional to the
base current (I_B) multiplied by the transistor's current gain (β), expressed as:
IC = β × I B

This relationship underscores the transistor's ability to amplify current, where a small input
current at the base controls a much larger current flowing from the collector to the
emitter. The observed data aligns with this principle, demonstrating that minor
adjustments in the base current result in substantial changes in the collector current,
confirming the transistor's role as a current amplifier in electronic circuits.

Objective D. Determine the forward and reverse voltage drops of the emitter-base
junction of the NPN and PNP transistor.

1. A. Identify the Base, Emitter, and Collector terminals of the NPN transistor Q1.

B. Set the VOM to the diode continuity function.

C. Connect the common lead (negative) to the emitter of Q1, and the positive
lead to the base as shown in Figure 1a.
D. Measure the forward base-emitter voltage of the NPN Si transistor Q1.

VBE1 (forward) = 0.592 Volts

E. Reverse the connector lead connections to Q1 as shown in Figure 1b.

F. Measure the reverse base-to-emitter voltage of the NPN transistor Q1.

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VBE1 (reverse) = -0.590 Volts

To assess the emitter-base junction characteristics of the NPN transistor Q1, the base,
emitter, and collector terminals were first identified. With the multimeter set to diode
continuity mode, the negative (common) lead was connected to the emitter, and the
positive lead to the base. This configuration forward biases the base-emitter junction,
resulting in a measured forward voltage drop (V BE<) of 0.592 volts. This value aligns with
the typical forward voltage drop of approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts for silicon-based NPN
transistors, as the base-emitter junction behaves similarly to a forward-biased diode.

Reversing the leads connecting the positive lead to the emitter and the negative lead
to the base reverse biases the base-emitter junction. In this configuration, the multimeter
displayed a voltage of -0.590 volts. Ideally, a reverse-biased junction should exhibit no
conduction, and the multimeter should indicate an open circuit or "OL." However, the
observed reading suggests a small leakage current or the multimeter's internal
characteristics influencing the measurement. Nonetheless, the negative voltage
confirms the reverse bias condition of the junction.

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A. Identify the Base, Emitter, and Collector terminals of the PNP Si transistor Q2.
B. Repeat procedure 5 using Silicon PNP Si Transistor Q2. To properly forward bias
the base-emitter junction of a PNP transistor, the positive lead must be
connected to the emitter and the negative lead connected to the base.
Measure the forward voltage drop of the base-emitter junction.

VBE2 (forward) = -2.801 Volts

C. Reverse the connector lead connections to Q2. Measure the reverse voltage
drop of the base-emitter junction.

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VBE2 (reverse) = 2.802 Volts

For the PNP transistor Q2, the terminals were similarly identified. To forward bias the base-
emitter junction, the positive lead of the multimeter was connected to the emitter, and
the negative lead to the base. This setup yielded a forward voltage drop (V BE) of -2.801
volts. This value is significantly higher in magnitude than the typical 0.6 to 0.7 volts
expected for silicon-based PNP transistors. Such a discrepancy may indicate an issue with
the transistor, an incorrect measurement setup, or the presence of additional
components affecting the reading.

Reversing the leads connecting the negative lead to the emitter and the positive lead
to the base reverse biases the base-emitter junction. In this configuration, the multimeter
displayed a voltage of 2.802 volts. As with the NPN transistor, a reverse-biased junction
should ideally show no conduction, and the multimeter should indicate an open circuit.
The observed voltage suggests a potential issue with the transistor or the measurement
method.

Objective E: Determine the forward and reverse voltage drops of the collector-base
junction of the NPN and PNP transistor.

A. Connect the negative lead of the VOM to the base of NPN Si transistor Q1, and
the positive to the collector as shown in figure 2a.

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B. Measure the reverse collector-base voltage of the NPN Si transistor Q1.

VBC1 (reverse) = 0.561 Volts

C. Reverse the VOM lead connections to Q1 as shown in Figure 2b.

D. Measure the forward collector-base voltage of the NPN transistor Q1.

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VBC1 (forward) = 0.592 Volts

To assess the reverse bias condition of the NPN transistor Q1, the multimeter's negative
lead was connected to the base, and the positive lead to the collector. This configuration
yielded a voltage drop of 0.561 volts, indicating minimal current flow as expected in a
reverse-biased junction. Subsequently, reversing the leads—connecting the positive lead
to the base and the negative to the collector—forward biased the C-B junction, resulting
in a voltage drop of 0.592 volts. This forward voltage drop is slightly lower than the typical
base-emitter junction voltage of approximately 0.7 volts in silicon transistors, which is
consistent with the fact that the emitter region is more heavily doped than the collector,
leading to a higher voltage drop across the base-emitter junction compared to the base-
collector junction .

A. Repeat procedure 7 using Silicon PNP Si Transistor Q2. To properly forward bias the
base-collector junction of a PNP transistor, the positive lead must be connected
to the collector and the negative lead connected to the base. Measure the
forward voltage drop of the B-C junction

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VBC2 (forward) = 2.760 Volts

B. Reverse the VOM lead connections to Q2. Measure the reverse voltage drop of
the B-C junction.

VBC2 (reverse) = -2.808 Volts

C. Is the forward voltage drop of the C-B junction slightly higher OR is it slightly lower
than E-B junction’s forward voltage drop? Slightly larger voltage drop across the
emitter-base junction compared to the collector base junction.

For the PNP transistor Q2, the forward bias condition was established by connecting the
multimeter's positive lead to the collector and the negative lead to the base, resulting in

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a voltage drop of -2.760 volts. Reversing the leads to achieve reverse bias yielded a
voltage drop of 2.808 volts. These values are significantly higher than the expected
forward voltage drop of approximately 0.7 volts for silicon-based transistors. Such
discrepancies suggest potential issues with the transistor, measurement setup, or the
presence of additional components influencing the readings.

IV. DISCUSSION

For Objective A, a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of three regions and terminals:
the emitter, base, and collector. The emitter is heavily doped to inject charge carriers,
the base is thin and lightly doped to allow carrier diffusion, and the collector is
moderately doped to collect the majority of carriers. Structurally, the BJT is formed by
two PN junctions: the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction. In a typical
NPN transistor, the base-emitter junction must be forward-biased (approximately 0.6–0.7
V for silicon devices) while the base-collector junction remains reverse-biased for active
operation (Sedra & Smith, 2020). The transistor operates as a current-controlled device:
a small base current controls a much larger collector current, with the emitter current
being the sum of the base and collector currents, i.e., IE = IB + IC (Millman & Halkias,
2011).

To identify the terminals of an unknown BJT, one can use a digital multimeter in diode-
test mode. Because the transistor behaves like two diodes connected back-to-back
(emitter-base and base-collector), the base can be identified as the common lead that
shows conduction (forward diode drop) to two other leads. If the base is positive with
respect to the emitter and collector, the transistor is NPN; if negative, it is PNP (Floyd,
2017). This method also helps verify whether the transistor is functioning correctly.

Two-diode model of bipolar transistors and their symbols. The left diagrams show the
physical construction and two-diode equivalent for PNP and NPN BJTs (top: PNP, bottom:
NPN), and the right side shows the corresponding circuit symbols. This model highlights
that each BJT can be viewed as two PN junctions back-to-back, with the base as the
common node. In this analogy, the base-emitter diode must be forward-biased to allow
carrier injection, while the base-collector diode is reverse-biased to control collector
current flow. By drawing such diagrams, one easily visualizes why only the base-emitter
and base-collector junctions conduct (like two diodes) during testing. The two-diode

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representation also reinforces that biasing the base region controls the
larger emitter–collector current, as captured by the current gain β.

Cross-sectional schematic of an NPN BJT (left),

corresponding circuit symbol, and a packaged transistor
with labeled leads. The transistor consists of two PN junctions
and three terminals: emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).
By convention the emitter is heavily doped to inject carriers
into the thin base region, while the collector is moderately
doped to collect carriers. The base-emitter junction
behaves like a diode that must be forward-biased (≈0.6–
0.7 V for silicon) for the transistor to conduct, and the base
collector junction is typically reverse-biased in normal
operation. Because the device is a three-terminal current-
controlled switch, a small base current controls a much
larger collector current. Kirchhoff’s current law then gives (I E = IB + IC), confirming that the
emitter current equals the sum of the base and collector currents

For Objective B, when a BJT operates in its forward-active region, it acts as a current
amplifier. The base-emitter junction is forward-biased, enabling carrier injection
(electrons in NPN, holes in PNP) from the emitter into the base. Due to the base’s narrow
width and light doping, most carriers diffuse across the base and are swept into the
collector. Only a small portion recombines in the base, giving rise to the base current
(Sedra & Smith, 2020). Thus, the collector current is largely determined by the base
current, amplified by the current gain factor β, where β = IC / IB (Millman & Halkias, 2011).
Typical β values range from 20 to 200.

The emitter current is the sum of the collector and base currents, i.e., I E = IC + IB. Since most
carriers injected into the base reach the collector, the current gain α = I C / IE is close to 1,
and β = α / (1 – α). This amplification property makes the BJT useful in analog amplification
applications.

Carrier and current flows in an NPN transistor under forward-active bias. Electrons (gray
arrows) are injected from the n-type emitter (left) into the p-type base (center) and then
swept into the n-type collector (right) by the electric field at the reverse-biased base-
collector junction. A small fraction of electrons recombines in the base (green region),
generating the base current (IB, white arrow). The emitter current (I E) is the sum of the
electron current and hole current in the emitter and equals I C + IB. The large grey arrow
labeled IC shows the dominant collector current flowing to the output. This diagram

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makes clear that the base current

(small, white arrows) controls the
much larger collector current (gray
arrow) the hallmark of transistor
action.

For Objective C, the input

characteristic curve (IB vs. VBE) of a BJT
resembles that of a diode: minimal
current until about 0.6–0.7 V, beyond which IB increases rapidly. The output characteristics
(IC vs. VCE) show that for fixed IB, the collector current IC remains nearly constant over a
range of VCE values, indicating that IC is primarily controlled by IB and not VCE. This region
is called the active region (Sedra & Smith, 2020).

In cutoff, the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased, so both IB and IC are nearly zero.
In saturation, both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward-biased,
resulting in maximum conduction through the collector. The collector-emitter voltage
VCE(sat) in this region is typically 0.1–0.3 V (Floyd, 2017). The DC load line on the I C vs. VCE
graph represents the constraints imposed by the external circuit and intersects the output
curves at the quiescent or operating point (Q-point), determined by the chosen biasing
scheme.

DC output characteristics of a common-emitter

transistor. Each curve corresponds to a fixed base
current (IB1 < IB2 < IB3 from bottom to top). In the
lower-left region (low VCE), the transistor is
saturated (colored blue) and cannot increase I C
with voltage. As VCE increases, the device enters
the forward-active region: IC rises sharply and then
levels off, indicating that IC is controlled by I_B. In
cutoff (IB≈0), IC remains near zero across all VCE. The
DC load line (straight line from VCC on the voltage
axis to the supply-current point on the IC axis)
intersects the family of curves at the quiescent or
operating point (Q-point). This point, where IC and
VCE are determined by the bias network, allows maximum symmetrical swing of the
collector voltage without driving the transistor into cutoff or saturation. Understanding
these curves is essential for biasing BJTs in amplifiers or switches.

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For Objective D, in the common-emitter (CE) amplifier configuration, the input is applied
between the base and emitter, and the output is taken from the collector. This setup
offers both current and voltage gain, with the base current controlling the collector
current. By including a collector resistor R C, changes in collector current result in changes
in output voltage. The output signal is inverted relative to the input, resulting in a 180-
degree phase shift (Sedra & Smith, 2020).

The small-signal voltage gains Av of a CE amplifier is approximately –gm × RC, where gm is

the transconductance given by g m = IC / VT and VT ≈ 25 mV at room temperature. The
input impedance is roughly (β + 1) × r e, where re ≈ VT / IE (Millman & Halkias, 2011). The
emitter resistor RE improves thermal stability and linearity; when bypassed with a
capacitor, it maintains AC gain while retaining DC stability.

Common-emitter amplifier
schematic. The diagram shows a BJT
with a bias network (two base
resistors RB1 and RB2) setting a DC
operating point, an emitter resistor RE
providing thermal stability (often
bypassed by a capacitor for AC
signals), and a collector resistor R C
that develops the output voltage.
Coupling capacitors C1 and C2
block DC and allow an AC input to
reach the base and deliver the
amplified AC output from the collector. The input source drives the base (through C1),
and the output is taken at the collector (through C2). Note that the output waveform is
inverted (180° phase shift) relative to the input due to the common-emitter topology. The
DC bias network fixes the Q-point in the active region so that the transistor operates
linearly for small AC signals, thereby achieving voltage amplification.

For Objective E, BJTs are also used as digital or power switches. In cutoff mode, the base-
emitter junction is not forward-biased, so the transistor is "off" and IC ≈ 0. In saturation
mode, both junctions are forward-biased, and the transistor is "on," allowing maximum
collector current flow with VCE reduced to a small saturation value (Floyd, 2017).

To ensure the transistor enters saturation, the base current must be large enough
(typically IB > IC / β). Excessive base current, however, leads to over-saturation, causing
slower switching due to excess stored charge. Practical switching circuits use resistors and

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diodes to control base drive and prevent this. The transistor behaves as a closed switch
when in saturation and as an open switch when cutoff.

Simple BJT switching circuit. An NPN transistor’s emitter is

grounded. The collector is connected to a load (e.g. an LED or
relay coil) which in turn connects to the supply V CC. The base
receives a drive voltage (from a microcontroller or logic gate)
through a resistor RB. When the input signal is high, the base-
emitter junction forward-biases and the transistor saturates:
current flows from VCC through the load and RC to ground
(transistor on). When the input signal is low, the base is not driven
and the transistor is cutoff, so the load current stops (transistor
off). In saturation the load sees nearly full supply voltage (-
VCE(sat)), and in cutoff it sees no drive. This configuration illustrates how a small base current
can switch a much larger collector current on and off in a circuit.

V. CONCLUSION

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) remains a cornerstone of modern electronics, valued
for its dual capability as a current amplifier and digital switch. Through the five objectives,
we have not only examined its physical construction and operational principles but also
contextualized its behavior in both analog and digital domains. This comprehensive
exploration reinforces the BJT’s versatility and enduring relevance in circuit design.

From the identification of terminals using the two-diode model to the detailed analysis of
carrier transport and characteristic curves, each objective has built a layered
understanding of how the BJT functions at both the device and system levels. The
common-emitter amplifier configuration showcased the transistor's effectiveness in
analog signal amplification, while its switching performance in digital applications
highlighted the importance of precise biasing for reliable operation.

Ultimately, the BJT exemplifies how a fundamental electronic device, when properly
understood and applied, can bridge the gap between theory and real-world design—
offering insights that are as essential for novices learning electronics as they are for
seasoned engineers optimizing complex systems.

VI. REFERENCES

Electronic Future. (2021, March 18). How to know the EBC of transistor using an analog
multimeter [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5CoMawdEIY

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). Bipolar Junction Transistors - Common Emitter Amplifier

[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUXG9eZfSlw

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). Bipolar Transistor. https://www.electronics-

tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_1.html

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). How to check transistor - BJT transistor test [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E10mqmvQjRY

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). How to Check BJT Transistors using Multimeter without ...
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RqdCLoa-hp4

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). Introduction to Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) | Basic

Electronics [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMmJenzKYS8

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). The Bipolar NPN Transistor. https://www.electronics-

tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_2.html

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). The Bipolar PNP Transistor. https://www.electronics-

tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_3.html

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). Transistors - NPN & PNP - Basic Introduction [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcxDiesy-nI

Floyd, T. L. (2019). Electronic devices: Conventional current version (10th ed.). Pearson.

Kuphaldt, T. R. (n.d.). 4.3: Meter check of a transistor (BJT). Workforce LibreTexts.

https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_
Circuits_III_-
_Semiconductors_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_Bipolar_Junction_Transistors/4.03%3A_Meter_Chec
k_of_a_Transistor_(BJT)

Millman, J., & Halkias, C. C. (1972). Integrated electronics: Analog and digital circuits and
systems. McGraw-Hill.

Sedra, A. S., & Smith, K. C. (2015). Microelectronic circuits (7th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Take It Easy. (2020, April 9). E, B, C of a transistor | emitter base collector | transistor
terminals identification [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylAsjxuiqkE

Vetco Electronics. (n.d.). Test transistor with a multimeter | Step-by-step guide.

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