Cell Biology

The Meaning and Concept of the Cell

Definition of a Cell

A cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms. It is the
smallest unit of life that can carry out all life processes such as growth, metabolism, and
reproduction.

Historical Background

 The term “cell” was first coined by Robert Hooke in 1665 when he observed cork tissue
under a microscope.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek later observed living cells (such as bacteria and protozoa),
which he called “animalcules”.

Cell Theory

Proposed by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow, the main points include:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Types of Cells

1. Prokaryotic Cells:
o Do not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
o Example: Bacteria and Archaea.
2. Eukaryotic Cells:
o Have a true nucleus enclosed in a membrane and other membrane-bound
organelles.
o Example: Animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells.

Functions of the Cell

 Metabolism: Carrying out chemical reactions to sustain life.

 Growth: Cells increase in size or number.
 Reproduction: Cells divide to form new cells (mitosis and meiosis).
 Response to stimuli: Cells can react to environmental changes.
 Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment.

Importance of Cells

 Cells are the foundation of life.

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  Understanding cells helps in medicine, biotechnology, and understanding biological
systems.

Discovery and types of the Microscope

The invention of the microscope was a big step forward in science. It helped people see things
that are too small to see with just their eyes. In the 1600s, a scientist named Robert Hooke used a
microscope to look at a piece of cork. He saw tiny box-like shapes and called them "cells." This
was the beginning of cell theory, which says that all living things are made of cells.

Types of Microscopes

There are 16 types of microscopes

1. Simple Microscope
2. Compound Microscope
3. Electron Microscope
a. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
b. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
4. Phase Contrast Microscope
5. Fluorescence Microscope
6. Dark Field Microscope
7. Dissecting Microscope (Stereo Microscope)
8. Digital Microscope
9. Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM)
a. Atomic Force Microscope (ATM)
10. Inverted Microscope
11. Acoustic Microscope
12. X-Ray Microscope
13. Polarizing Microscope
14. Metallurgical Microscope
15. Pocket Microscope
16. USB Microscope

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Light Microscope (Optical Microscope)

A light microscope uses visible light that passes through or reflects off a sample. The light then
goes through a series of glass lenses to magnify the image.

Two types light microscope

1. Simple microscope is a type of microscope that uses a single lens for magnification. It uses a
single convex lens of a small focal length for magnification. In general, its magnification is about
10X.

Ex. Hand lens

Uses of Simple Microscope

 Used to study morphology of insects, algae, and fungi
 Used in studying soil type and components
 Used in electronic repairing workshops for repairing watches, mobile phones and other
micro devices and components
 Used by jewelers to check quality of diamonds, rubies and other gem stones etc.
Limitation of Simple Microscope
 Have very low magnification; up to 10X
 Mirror for illumination and lack of mechanical stage
 Require thin stained specimen for clear vision
 Very low resolution and image contrast

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2. Compound Microscope is a type of microscope that used visible light for illumination and
multiple lenses system for magnification of specimen. Generally, it consists of two lenses;
objective lens and ocular lens. It can magnify images up to 1000X. Its magnifying power is equal
to the product of magnifying power of the objective lens in use and the ocular lens.
Parts of Compound Microscope
1. Illuminator (Light Source)
2. Diaphragm (Iris)
3. Condenser
4. Condenser Focus Knob
5. Rack Stop
6. Stage
7. Stage Control Knobs
8. Nose Piece
9. Objective Lens
10. Tube (Head)
11. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens)
12. Diopter Adjustment
13. Adjustment Knobs
a. Fine Adjustment Knob
b. Coarse Adjustment Knob
14. Arm
15. Base
16. Light Switch
17. Brightness Adjustment

Uses of Compound Microscope

 Used in microbiology to study the morphology of microorganisms
 Used in histopathology to study tissue, cytopathic effects, tumor, etc.
 Used in cytology to study cellular structure of different types of cells
 Used by biologist to observe slides of cells, tissues or segments of biological components

Limitations of Compound Microscope

 Has lower resolution and image contrast
 Can’t be used to view living internal structures
 Require thin, and stained specimen

Bothe of them

 Viewing live cells, bacteria, and small organisms.

 Common in classrooms and basic biology labs.

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 Parts and function of compound microscope

Part Position and Function

Arm (limb)(2) Supports the body tube and is the part with which you can grip to
carry the microscope.
Base (foot)(15) Gives a firm and steady support to the microscope
Ocular (eye piece A lenses system of the microscope with a magnification power 7 x6,
lens) (1) x or x 10. This lens is often un attached to the other parts, hence can
fall down if not properly kept.
Objective Lens (6) The lens, closed to the object placed on the stage, have several
alternative lenses that are switched one at a time. The objective lens

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 x10, gives the smallest image the middle power (40x), gives
intermediate size and the high power (x100) gives the largest
magnification. The oil immersion lens (x400), operates with the
addition of oil, giving even larger magnification.
Nose piece (4) The revolving part to which the objective lenses are attached.
Body tube This may be monocular or binocular, where the eyepiece and
objective lenses are supported, at a known distance and angle. The
lower and of the tube possess a revolving nosepiece on which the
objective lenses are screwed.
Stage (9) This is a broad flat surface with a circular opening at its center that
serve as a passage for light from the condenser to the objectives. The
stage is also used to support the glass slide that holds the object.
Knobs (10) These are used to move the stage up and down in order to bring the
specimen into focus. The focusing knobs may be located near the
base or the upper arm depending on the type of the microscope
Coarse adjustment Moves the body tube or stage up and down, depending on the design
of the microscope, to approximate the right position so that the
specimen is in focus.
Fine adjustment This is used to move the stage or body tube up and down to exactly
the right position, so that the specimen is in focus. It uses to get fine
focus with the low power objective and for all the high power and oil
immersion objectives
Irisdiaphragm This is controlled by a lever than can be moved back and forth. It is
(11) used to regulate how much light and lamp heat goes through the
specimen.
Condenser (12) This is a lens located above the diaphragm, which concentrates the
light before it passes thought the specimen.
Mirror Collects light and directs it to the condenser
Stage clip (5) This is located on the stage and hold the glass slide in position(place)

Electron Microscope

Electron Microscope is a microscope that uses accelerated electron/a beam of electrons to

create an imaged instead of light rays, to illuminate the specimen and get the highly magnified
image. In this microscope, glass lenses are replaced by electromagnets. Due to the very short
wavelength of electrons, this microscope produces a very high-resolution image with
magnification up to 10,000,000X. Very high-quality images with very high contrast, revealing
detailed structures are produced. Specimen up to 0.2 nm can be clearly viewed using an electron
microscope.

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Types of Electron Microscope
There are different types of electron microscopes of which, TEM and SEM are the most
commonly used and important types. Some common types of electron microscopes are;

 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM):

o Electrons pass through a very thin sample.
o Provides detailed images of the inside of cells and organelles.
o Produces 2D black-and-white images.
 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):
o Electrons bounce off the surface of a specimen.
o Gives a 3D image of the surface.
o Used to study texture, shape, and surface features.

Uses of Electron Microscope

 Used in microbiology to study structure of viruses, flagella, pili, and bacterial cells.
 Used in crystallography, and nano-technology
 To study morphology of cellular organelles
 Used in forensics for ballistic study of gunshots
 Used in geology for studying rocks, minerals and gems
 Used in quality control, detection of fracture and cracks, drug development and analysis
of atomic structure.

Limitations of Electron Microscope

 Highly expensive and complex system
 Images are in black and white
 TEM requires very thin specimen
 Need of vacuum system

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