Mechanics of Grinding

Hardness of Various Materials

2100 – 3000 Ceramic

7000 – 8000 Diamon

Emery

Carbides
Glass
Hardness (Knoop

CBN

d
s

WC TiC
(N/mm2)
Scale)
Grinding Technology

1800 – 2400

1800 – 3200

4000 – 5000
1400
530

 Grains of such materials have the capability to abrade the

other materials
 these grains are commonly known as abrasives and
 the machining process using such abrasives is called abrasive
machining.
 commonly used abrasive machining processes are Grinding,
Lapping and Honing.

1
 Why a Smooth Surface?

 Reduction in Friction
Grinding Technology

 Reduction in Wear
 Reduction in Corrosion
 Sharpness
 Clearance
 Appearance

Grinding Wheel
Grinding Technology

2
 Advantages of Grinding

Grinding gives
 good dimensional accuracy
Grinding Technology

 good surface finish

 good form and locational accuracy
 applicable to both hardened and unhardened
materials - Grinding of tools and cutters and
resharpening of the same.
 Descaling and deburring

Grinding Wheel
Grinding Technology

3
 Grinding vs Up-milling

 Similar to slab milling

 Cutting occurs with min. chip thickness at the
entry and gradually increasing to max. at the exit
Grinding Technology

 Different than milling

 Cutting occurs by the abrasive grains that are
much smaller, numerous and random.
 Cutting speeds are higher,
 Higher negative rake angle,
 Self-sharpening

Type of Grain Action in Grinding

Grinding Technology

4
 Depth of Cut vs Force in Grinding
Grinding Technology

Grit Shape and Rake Angle

Grinding Technology

5
 Force vs Velocity in Grinding
Grinding Technology

Grinding Force
-ve rake

+ve rake

Grinding Velocity

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Grinding wheel
 Consists of abrasives and bonding material
 Abrasive particles accomplish cutting
Grinding Technology

 Bonding material holds abrasives in place and

establishes shape & structure of wheel
 Parameters
 Abrasive materials
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure

6
 Abrasive Materials
Grinding Wheel Characteristics  Properties
 High hardness
 Wear resistance
 Toughness
 Friability
 Brittleness is the property by virtue of which a material is fractured
without appreciable deformation by the application of load
 Friability is the quality of being friable, or easily broken, crumbled,
or reduced to powder by the application of load
 A friable substance is brittle and disintegrates very easily.

Abrasive Materials
 Al2O3 – most common, balance between hardness
and toughness, for ferrous and high strength alloys
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 SiC – sharper & harder but not as tough, for

nonferrous and low soft materials, chemically
reactive with iron and steel
 cBN – very hard and expensive, chemically stable,
for harden tool steels and aerospace alloys
 Diamond – Harder and more expensive, natural
and synthetic, for hard and abrasive materials such
as ceramics, cemented carbides, glass, granite,
FRPs and non ferrous materials

7
 Abrasive Materials
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Diamond Alumina

CBN Silicon Carbide

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Grinding wheel
 Parameters
 Abrasive materials
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure

8
 Grain Size
 Grit size number varies between 8 (coarse) and 600
(super fine) based on a screen mesh procedure.
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 Small grit sizes produce better finishes

 Larger grit sizes permit larger material removal
rates
 Harder work materials require smaller grain
sizes to cut effectively
 Softer materials require larger grit sizes
Note: The grain size number and the grain size are
inversely proportional.

Grain Size
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

FIGURE: Mesh Number (grain size)

 A grain of 20 grit passes through a mesh of 20 openings / linear inch.

 Higher the grain size no. smaller the size of the abrasive particle.

9
 Grinding Wheel Characteristics
Grinding Wheel Characteristics
Grinding wheel
 Parameters
 Abrasive materials
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure

Bonding Materials
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 Requirements:
 Must withstand centrifugal forces and
high temperatures
 Must resist shattering during shock
loading of wheel
 Must hold abrasive grains rigidly

10
 Types of Bonding Materials
Grinding Wheel Characteristics  Vitrified bond:
 baked clay and ceramic materials
 strong and rigid, most common type of bond
used
 suitable for high stock removal even at dry
condition
 can not be used where mechanical impact or
thermal variations are like to occur
 also not recommended for very high speed
grinding

Types of Bonding Materials

 Silicate bond:
 essentially the silicates of soda (water glass)
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 not as strong as the vitrified bonds, and the

grains are dislodged more rapidly
 used in grinding tools where the temperature
rise should be as small as possible
 Rubber bond:
 fairly hard volcanized rubber
 used for making flexible and thin wheels
 high speed operation is possible when the
wheel is subjected to a side thrust

11
 Types of Bonding Materials

 Resinoid bond:
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 thermosetting resin materials

 used for heavy duty grinding because of their
ability to withstand shock load
 also known for its vibration absorbing
characteristics
 not recommended with alkaline grinding fluid
for a possible chemical attack leading to bond
weakening.

Types of Bonding Materials

 Shellac bond
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 strong but not rigid

 used in making thin but strong wheels
possessing some elasticity
 limited to grinding wheels engaged in fine
finish of rolls.
 Metallic bond
 usually aluminum or bronze
 extensively used with super-abrasive wheels.
 extremely high toughness

12
 Grinding Wheel Characteristics
Grinding Wheel Characteristics
Grinding wheel
 Parameters
 Abrasive materials
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure

Wheel Glazing and Shedding

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

13
 Wheel Grade
 Bond strength in wheel structure
Grinding Wheel Characteristics  A scale ranging between soft and hard
 Soft wheels lose grains readily - for low material removal
rates and hard work materials
 The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make
room for fresh sharp grit in order to avoid excessive rise
of grinding force and temperature. Therefore, a soft
grade should be chosen for grinding hard material.
 Hard wheels retain grains - for high material removal
rates and soft work materials
 During grinding of low strength soft material grit does
not wear out so quickly. Therefore, the grit can be held
with strong bond so that premature grit dislodgement
can be avoided.

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Grinding Wheel Characteristics

Grinding wheel
 Parameters
 Abrasive materials
 Grain size
 Bonding material
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure

14
 Wheel Structure
 Proportion of abrasive grain, bond material and
pores:
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

+ + =1

 measures on a scale that ranges between

“OPEN” and “DENSE”
 Open structure: >>>
 for chips clearance.
 Dense (Closed) structure: <<<
 for better surface finish and dimensional
control

Wheel Loading
Grinding Wheel Characteristics

 The structure should be open for

grinding wheels engaged in high
material removal and also while
machining ductile materials
 The dense structured wheels
should be used while machining
hard materials

15
 Grinding Wheel Specification
Grinding Wheel Characteristics Specification: abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure,
and bond material

Ex.:30 – A – 46 – H – 6 – V – 123
Grain Size: Structure:
Dense 1 Bond Type:
Abrasive Type: 8 – 24 Coarse B – Resinoid
A – Al2O3 30 – 60 Medium 2
. E – Shellac
C – SiC 70 – 180 Fine R – Rubber
B – cBN 220 – 600 Super Fine .
15 S – Silicate
D – Diamond Grade: V – Vitrified
Open 16
A to H Soft
J to P Medium
Q to Z Hard

Mechanics of Surface Grinding

Grinding Mechanics

16
 Cross Section of the Chip
1
ℎ = ℎ
2
1
Grinding Mechanics

=
2

The ratio, =
ℎ

The average volume per chip, = ℎ

1 1
= ℎ = ℎ
4 4

Mechanics of Surface Grinding

The average length of a chip ‘lc’ is given
approximately by
= sin
2
Grinding Mechanics

⁄2 − 2
cos = =1−
⁄2
4 4
=1− = −
Neglected as
ℎ d << D

17
 Mechanics of Surface Grinding
Grinding Mechanics

MRR, Q = f.d.B
where B = width of cut, mm
f = feed rate, mm/min
d = depth of cut, mm

Mechanics of Surface Grinding

1 1
= ℎ = ℎ
4 4
Grinding Mechanics

If, D = Diameter of the grinding wheel (mm)

B = width of cut (mm)
C = surface density of active grains (mm-2)
The number of chips produced per unit time
=
1
∴ = × ℎ
4

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 Mechanics of Surface Grinding

1
∴ × ℎ =
Grinding Mechanics

4 4
⇒ ℎ = =

Forces in Surface Grinding

Grinding Mechanics

19
 Mechanics of Surface Grinding

= watts
Grinding Mechanics

The tangential cutting force, =

60000 60000
= =
60

Mechanics of Surface Grinding

The number of grits actively engaged at a time
= =
Grinding Mechanics

The average force per grit is given by

= = Newtons

20
 Mechanics of Surface Grinding

Substituting = and = ℎ .

in the above expression;

Grinding Mechanics

60000 1 4
=
60 2

. . .
369
= . . .

Specific Energy
Specific Energy:
=
Grinding Mechanics

is greater than machining

 Cutting, plowing and rubbing
 Not all grits are engaged in actual cutting
 Individual grains with extremely negative rake
angles result in low shear plane angles & high
shear strains
 Size effect - small chip size causes energy to
remove each unit volume of material to be
significantly higher (roughly 10 times)

21
 Exercise Problem
Pb: Estimate the grinding force during surface
grinding of a 25 mm mild steel block with a depth
of cut of 0.05 mm. The specific cutting energy of
Grinding Mechanics

steel is 1.4 J/mm3. Diameter of the wheel is 200

mm and it rotates at 3000 rpm. The number of
grits/mm2 is measured to be 3. The feed velocity
of the table is 100 mm/min.
Given: B = 25 mm; d = 0.05 mm; D = 200 mm;
N = 3000 rpm; C = 3; f = 100 mm/min;
= 1.4 J/mm3
To find: FC; FT; and FR

Exercise Problem
Assume rg = 15, the maximum uncut chip thickness
per grit is calculated as:
Grinding Mechanics

ℎ =

6 100 0.05
=
3 × 15 × 200 × 3000 200

ℎ = 0.00033 ⇒ ℎ = 0.000165

22
 Exercise Problem

It is known that
.
= 1.4 × ℎ J⁄
Grinding Mechanics

= 1.4 × 0.000165
= 45.62 J/

Now, MRR, =
= 100 × 0.05 × 25 /min
= / sec = 2.083 /sec

Exercise Problem
Thus, the power consumption is:
= 2.083 × 45.62 Watts ≈ 95 Watts
Grinding Mechanics

The grinding force FC is given by

60,000 × 95
= N=3N
× 3000 × 200
FT ≈ 2 × FC = 6 N,

and = + = 6.7 N.

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 Thermal Aspects
Grinding causes high temperatures and friction,
and most energy remains in the ground surface
(high work surface temperatures)
Grinding Mechanics

 Surface burns and cracks

 Metallurgical damage immediately
beneath the surface
 Softening of the work surface
 Residual stresses in the work surface

Thermal Aspects
1000
∝ =
Grinding Mechanics

taking 1000 as the

⇒ ∝
constant of proportionality
1
∵ = ℎ . ℎ = ℎ
2
.

1 4
∝
2

24
 Thermal Aspects
or for a given material;
. . . .
Grinding Mechanics

∝ .

The time during which an individual grit remains

in contact with the chip

60
x60 = ≈ 0.0005 .

(for d = 0.1 mm; D = 100 mm; N = 1000 rpm)

Thermal Aspects

to reduce the work surface temperature:

 Decrease infeed (depth of cut) d,
Grinding Mechanics

 Reduce wheel speed V,

 Reduce number of active grits per square inch
on the grinding wheel C,
 Increasing work speed f,
 Use a cutting fluid

25
 Exercise Problem
Pb: During the surface grinding operation with a depth of cut
of 0.05 mm and a feed rate of 200 mm/min, the surface
temperature of the workpiece is found to be 850 oC. To
avoid martensitic transformation of the ferrous workpiece,
Grinding Mechanics

it is required to maintain the surface temperature below

700 OC. However, to maintain the productivity, the MRR
should be kept the same. Determine the required depth
of cut and feed combination to achieve this.
Given: d = 0.05 mm; f = 200 mm/min; = 850 oC
To find: to maintain = 700 oC without sacrificing
MRR, what should be d and f = ?

Exercise Problem
.
taking all other parameters constant, ∝ .
Grinding Mechanics

So, if the subscripts ‘o’ and ‘m’ are used to indicate,

the original and the modified values of the variables,
we then have
. .
850 = . ; 700 = .

where K is the constant of proportionality

26
 Exercise Problem
Substituting the values of do and fo, we obtain;
× .
= (consistent unit)
Grinding Mechanics

. .

= 36,354 (consistent unit)

Using this value of K, we get

.
700
. = = 0.0193 (consistent unit)
36,354

Exercise Problem
Now, to maintain the same MRR,
= = 0.05 × 200 = 10 ⁄
Grinding Mechanics

10
⇒ =

Using this in the relation between dm and fm, we get

.

. = 0.0193 (consistent unit)

10
⇒ .
= 0.0306 (consistent unit)

27
 Exercise Problem

This finally yields the required value of the

new depth of cut,
Grinding Mechanics

dm = 0.042 mm

and correspondingly, the feed rate,

fm = 238 mm/min

Exercise Problems
1) During the plunge grinding operation of a prismatic bar
with cross section 25 mm X 10 mm, a grinding wheel of
250 mm diameter rotating at 2500 rpm is used. The
Grinding Mechanics

plunge feed rate is 5 mm/min. What will be the

percentage change in the power consumption if the
original wheel having 3 grits/mm2 is replaced by a
similar wheel with 9 grits/mm2?

2) The base of a brass bracket has to be rough ground to

remove the unevenness. The four wheels available in
store are (i) A 30 K 12 V; (ii) C 90 M 4 B; (iii) C 30 Q 12
V; and (iv) C 50 G 8 V. Select the most suitable wheel.

28
 Exercise Problems
3) When surface grinding a 20 mm wide mild steel block
with a depth of cut of 0.08 mm, a feed of 125 mm/min is
used. The wheel diameter and rpm are 150 mm and
2000, respectively. The number of grits/mm2 is found to
Grinding Mechanics

be 4. It is observed that the wheel is wearing too fast.

Reducing the depth of cut to 0.04 mm, the operation
seems to be acceptable. To maintain the productivity, it
is proposed to keep the material removal rate constant
and to increase the wheel speed. Thus, the apparent
hardness of the wheel can be increased. Estimate the
required wheel rpm.
4) Calculate the power consumption during the grinding
operation described above, with the original and
modified data.

References
 Grinding Technology: Theory and Applications of
Machining with Abrasives, Stephen Malkin, Wiley
Publications
Grinding Mechanics

 Manufacturing Science, Amitabha Ghosh and

Ashok Kumar Mallik, Affiliated East West Press Pub.
 Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools,
G. Boothroyd, Int. McGraw Hill Pub.
 Manufacturing Technology, P.N. Rao, TMH
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting and Machine
Tools, Juneja, Sekhon and Seth, New Age Int. Pub.

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