COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

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MODULE 1
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKS

CO – Students will be able to summarize the

network models and its performance

NETWORK
• Computer network is a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
• The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be
used.
• Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms.
• The Internet is not a single network but a network of networks and
the Web is a distributed system that runs on top of the Internet.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

 Uses of Computer Networks

1. Business Applications
• resource sharing - a group of office workers share a common
printer
• Client-server model - two processes are involved, one on the client
machine and one on the server machine.
Communication takes the form of the client process sending a
message over the network to the server process. The client process
then waits for a reply message. When the server process gets the
request, it performs the requested work or looks up the requested
data and sends back a reply.

• e-mail
• Video conferencing
• e-commerce (electronic commerce)
2. Home Applications
 Access to remote information
 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment (Online Games)
 Electronic commerce
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COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

3. Mobile Users
 Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal
digital assistants (PDAs)
 wireless networks
 mobile computing
4. Social Issues
 new social, ethical, and political problems.
 anonymous (unknown) messages.

 Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex,
and full-duplex.
 Simplex
Communication is unidirectional.
 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive.
Eg : Keyboards and traditional monitors.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

 Half-Duplex
 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
sametime.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
viceversa.
Eg: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.

 Full-Duplex
 Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
 Signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link.

 This sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving
 Or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.
Eg: telephone network.
 The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in bothdirections is required all the time
 The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
betweenthe two directions.

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COMPUTER NETWORKS (21CS52) Module-1

NETWORK HARDWARE
 Two criterion for classifying networks are
1. Transmission technology
Prepared By Mr. EBIN PM, Chandigarh University, Punjab EDULINE9

2. Scale
 There are two types of transmission technology
A. Broadcast links
• Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is
shared by all the machines on the network.
• Short messages, called packets, sent by any machine are received
by all the others.

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• An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient.

Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field.
• If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that machine
processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored.
• Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing
a packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address
field.
• When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and
processed by every machine on the network. This mode of
operation is called broadcasting.

• Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of

the machines, something known as multicasting.
• One possible scheme is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting.
The remaining n - 1 address bits can hold a group number. When a
packet is sent to a certain group, it is delivered to all machines
subscribing to that group.
B. Point-to-point links
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
• When you change television channels by infrared remote control,
you are establishing a point-to-point connection

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• Smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use

broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point.
• Point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.
 SCALE - By physical size of network

1. Local Area Networks (LAN)

• Privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up
to a few kilometers in size.
• They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources
(e.g., printers) and exchange information.
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics:
A. size
B. Their transmission technology
C. Their topology.

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• LANs are restricted in size

• LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to
which all the machines are attached, like the telephone lines used
in rural areas.

MESH TOPOLOGY - every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.

• MESH TOPOLOGY - every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
• To findit the
devices number of physical links in a fully connected mesh
connects.
network with n nodes

• n(n -1) /2
 ADVANTAGE
• Eliminating the traffic problems - the use of dedicated links
guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load
• Mesh topology is robust - If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system
• Privacy or security - When every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient sees it.

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 DISADVANTAGE
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of
cabling and the number of I/O ports required
 EXAMPLE - connection of telephone regional offices

• STAR TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point link

only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another
• The controller (hub) acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other connected device

 ADVANTAGE

• Less expensive than a mesh topology.

• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Less cabling needs to be housed,
• Robustness - If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
• Easy fault identification
 DISADVANTAGE
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead
 EXAMPLE - High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a
central hub.

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• BUS TOPOLOGY - A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts

as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
•Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

 ADVANTAGE
• Ease of installation.
• Bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies

 DISADVANTAGE
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• Difficult to add new devices.
• A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
• Eg : Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology.
• RING TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. Repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them.

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 ADVANTAGE
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections
 DISADVANTAGE
• Unidirectional traffic
• A break in the ring can disable the entire network

• Hybrid Topology - we can have a main star topology with each

branch connecting several stations in a bus topology

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2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

• A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.
• Example of a MAN is the cable television network available in
manycities
• Another example of a MAN is the part of the telephone
companynetwork that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the
customer
3. Wide area network (WAN)
• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical
area,often a country or continent
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually
comprise a router that connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a
telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer
or a small LAN to an Internet service provider (lSP).
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

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NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Protocol Hierarchies:
• To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a
stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each
layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to
network.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher
layers, shielding those layers from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented.
• Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to
the layer above it.

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• Layer N on one machine carries on a conversation with layer N on

another machine. The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer N protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating
parties on how communication is to proceed.
• In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer N on one
machine to layer N on another machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual
communication occurs.

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Layers, protocols, and interfaces

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

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• A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer

5 and given to layer 4 for transmission.
• Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the
message and passes the result to layer 3. The header includes
control information (sequence numbers) to allow layer 4 on the
destination machine to deliver messages in the right order if the
lower layers do not maintain sequence.
• In some layers, headers can also contain sizes, times, and other
control fields.
• Layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units,
packets, prepending a layer 3 header to each packet.M is split into
two parts,M1 and M2,that will be transmitted separately.

• Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and
gives the resulting unit to layer 1 for physical transmission.
• At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to
layer, with headers being stripped off as it progresses.

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 Design Issues for the Layers

• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers.
some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific
destination
• The rules for data transfer- In some systems, data only travel in one
direction; in others, data can go both ways.
• Error control is an important issue because physical communication
circuits are not perfect. Many error-detecting and error-correcting
codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on
which one is being used. In addition, the receiver must have some
way of telling the sender which messages have been correctly
received and which have not.

• Not all communication channels preserve the order of messages

sent on them. To deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the
protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver to allow the
pieces to be reassembled properly
• An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from
avoiding a slow receiver with data.
• Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability
of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property
leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling messages.
• When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a
route must be chosen. Sometimes this decision must be split over
two or more layers (Routing).

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 Connection-Oriented Service
• To use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first
establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the
connection (Eg: telephone system)
• In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the
order they were sent.
• The source first makes a connection with the destination before
sending a packet. When the connection is established, a sequence of
packets from the same source to the same destination can be sent
one after another.
• In this case, there is a relationship between packets. They are sent on
the same path in sequential order.

• A packet is logically connected to the packet traveling before it and to

the packet traveling after it.
• When all packets of a message have been delivered, the connection is
terminated.
 Connectionless Service
• In connectionless service, the network layer protocol treats eachpacket
independently, with each packet having no relationship to any other
packet.
• The packets in a message may or may not travel the same path to their
destination.
• The Internet has chosen this type of service at the network layer.

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 Protocols
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
 Syntax - The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the
data, meaning the order in which they are presented
 Semantics - The word semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits
 Timing - The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services:

Fig: Six different types of service.

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Service Primitives (Connection-oriented):

Fig: Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-oriented service.

Minimal example of service primitives that provide a reliable byte stream

A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to
user processes to access the service
These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an
action taken by a peer entity (usually as operating system calls)
LISTEN is usually implemented by a block system call - the server process is
Modeled after
blocked until the Berkeley
a request socket interface
for connection appears
CONNECT is usually implemented by a connection request to a server
The CONNECT call may need to specify the server’s address
The operating system then typically sends a packet to the peer asking it to
connect
The client process is suspended until there is a response.
When the packet arrives at the server, the operating system sees that the
packet is requesting a connection
It checks to see if there is a listener
If so it unblocks the listener (wake-up call)
The server process may accept the connection with the ACCEPT call
This sends a response back to the client process to accept the connection.

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Next step: RECEIVE

The server prepares to accept the first client request

The RECEIVE call blocks the server

Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request (data or action) followed by the
execution of RECEIVE by the server (and then blocks)

The arrival of the request packet at the server machine unblocks the server so it can
handle the request

After it has done the work, the server uses SEND to return the answer to the client

The arrival of this packet unblocks the client, which can now inspect the answer. If the
client has additional requests, it can proceed immediately.

When the client is done, it executes DISCONNECT to terminate the connection. Usually, a
DISCONNECT is a blocking call, suspending the client and sending a packet to the server
saying that the connection is no longer needed.

When the server gets the client disconnect packet, it also issues a server
DISCONNECT of its own, acknowledging the client and releasing the
connection
When the server’s packet gets back to the client machine, the client process
is released and the connection is broken
In a nutshell, this is how connection-oriented communication works:

Fig:A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams.

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The Relationship of services to protocols:

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OSI REFERENCE MODEL

• A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends
data from one location to another.
• The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries
signals from one point of the network to another. The software
consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we
expect from a network
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems
• It consists of seven separate but related layers
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 PHYSICAL LAYER
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
 Other Responsibilities :
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium – defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.

2. Representation of bits - To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into

signals (electrical or optical). The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
3. Data rate (The transmission rate) - the number of bits sent each
second is also defined by the physical layer.
4. Synchronization of bits - the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
5. Line configuration - The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration,
two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.

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6. Physical topology - The physical topology defines how devices are

connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a
mesh topology ,a star topology ,a ring topology ,a bus topology or a
hybrid topology
7. Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only
receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication.
 In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, butnot at
the same time.
 In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and
receive at the same time.

 DATA LINK LAYER

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next
 Other responsibilities :
1. Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units called frames
2. Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and receiver of the frame. If the frame
is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to
the next one.

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3. Flow control - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control - The data link layer adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or
lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added
to the end of the frame
5. Access control - When two or more devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine
which device has control over the link at any given time.

 NETWORK LAYER
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a network layer.
• If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with
connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination
delivery
 Other Responsibilities :

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1. Logical addressing - The physical addressing implemented by the

data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the
upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver
2. Routing - When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination

 TRANSPORT LAYER
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another. A process is an application program
running on a host.
 Other responsibilities
1. Service-point addressing - delivery of message not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running
program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore
include a type of address called a service-point address (or port
address).

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• The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
 transport
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layerlayer
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entire to thetocorrect
message computer;
the correct the on
process
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.
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2. computer.
Segmentation and reassembly - A message is divided into
2. Segmentation
transmittableand reassembly
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with message is divided
segment into a sequence
containing
transmittable
number.segments, with each
These numbers segment
enable containing
the transport a to
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sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination.
destination.
3. 3. Connection
Connection control
control - The-transport
The transport
layer can be layer
eithercan be either
connectionless
connectionless or connection
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4. Flow
4. Flow control
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flow control at thisat thisislayer
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than across a single link

5. Error control - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for error control. However, error control at this layer is
performed process-to process rather than across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives
at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication).
• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

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 SESSION LAYER
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.
 Specific responsibilities :
1. Dialog control - The session layer allows two systems to enter into
a dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to
take place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex
(two ways at a time) mode.
2. Synchronization - The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data

 PRESENTATION LAYER
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between two systems
 Specific responsibilities :
1. Translation - Because different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer
at the receiving machine changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format

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2. Encryption - To carry sensitive information, a system must be able

to ensure privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms
the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form
3. Compression - Data compression reduces the number of bits
contained in the information. Data compression becomes
particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video

 APPLICATION LAYER
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the
user.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services
 Other Responsibilities:
1. Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) - A network virtual terminal is a
software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log
on to a remote host. The remote host believes it is
communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user
to log on.

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2. File transfer, access, and management - This application allows a

user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer
locally
3. Mail services - This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
4. Directory services - This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects
and services.

TCP/IP Reference Model

 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers:
 Host-to-network
 Internet
 Transport
 Application

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 Host-to-network
 At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any
specific protocol. It supports all the standard and proprietary
protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area
network or a wide-area network.
 Internet Layer
TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.
IP uses four supporting protocols:
• ARP
• RARP
• ICMP
• IGMP

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 Internetworking Protocol (IP)

• IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
• It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol.
• IP provides no error checking or tracking.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is
transported separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of
sequence or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for
reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.
• In LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station
address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
• ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its
Internet address (IP address) is known.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• RARP allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows
only its physical address.
• It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first
time or when a diskless computer is booted.

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 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender.
• ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

• IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients.

 Transport Layer
• Transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP
and UDP.
• IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet
from one physical device to another.
• UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery
of a message from a process (running program) to another process.
• A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the
needs of some newer applications.
 Application Layer
• The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined
session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
• Many protocols are defined at this layer – FTP, DNS, TELNET, SMTP
etc.

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 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from
the upper layer.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• TCP is a reliable transport protocol.
• TCP is connection-oriented: A connection must be established
between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit
data.
• TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments.
• Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after
receipt, and an acknowledgment number

Merits of TCP/IP model:

• It operated independently.
• It is scalable.
• Client/server architecture.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP:
• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• The model cannot be used in any other application.
• Replacing protocol is not easy.
• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

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A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model:

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A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols:

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CHAPTER-2: PHYSICAL LAYER

• One major task of Physical Layer is to provide services for the data
link layer.
• The data in the data link layer consists of 0s and 1s organized into
frames that are ready to be sent across the transmission medium.
• This stream of 0s and 1s must first be converted into signals.
• One of the services provided by the physical layer is to create a
signal that represents this stream of bits.
• The transmission medium must be controlled by the physical layer.

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• At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and

reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
• SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over
the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best
features of UDP and TCP.

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 Analog and Digital Data

• To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals
• Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog
or digital in form.
• The term analog data refers to information that is continuous.
• For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second
hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements of
the hands are continuous
• digital data refers to information that has discrete states. a digital
clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly
from 8:05 to 8:06.

• Digital data take on discrete values.

• For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of
0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated
into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
• Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.

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NETWORK PERFORMANCE
1. Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the data carrying capacity of the
Network/transmission medium. Bandwidth is usually measured in
bits transferred per second (bps) through a path or link.
 bandwidth in hertz
• It is the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
 bandwidth in bits per second
• It is the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

2. Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data
through a network.
• Practical measure of the amount of data actually transmitted
through a channel.
• It depends on the latency.
3. Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire
message to completely arrive at the destination from the time the
first bit is sent out from the source.
• Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay.

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 Propagation Time
• Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel
from the source to the destination.
Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed
 Transmission Time
• There is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last
bit arriving at the receiver.
Transmission time =Message size /Bandwidth
 Queuing Time
• The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that
can carry information from a source to a destination

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 Twisted-Pair Cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with
its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is
used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference
between the two.
• Noise and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
• In one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is
farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by
external influences (noise or crosstalk).

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• This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference

between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted
signals are mostly canceled out.
• The number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect
on the quality of the cable.

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is

referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also
produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded
twisted-pair (STP).

• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered
jack)
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice
and data channels. Local-area networks also use twisted-pair
cables.

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 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges
than those in twisted pair cable.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of
solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating
sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal
foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and
the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

• Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG)

ratings.
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-
Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector.

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• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks.

• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
• Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional
Ethernet LANs

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 Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the form of light.
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A
glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass
or plastic
• Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single
mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring
fiber with different physical characteristics.
• Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or
graded-index.

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• There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables.

• The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a
push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for
connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking
system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that is
the same size as RJ45.

• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its

wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and
coaxial cable
• Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.
 Advantages:
 Higher bandwidth.
 Less signal attenuation.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
 Resistance to corrosive materials.

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 Light weight.
 Greater immunity to tapping.

 Disadvantages:
 Installation and maintenance
 Unidirectional light propagation
 Cost.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA (WIRELESS)

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
• Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in
several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-
sight propagation

 Ground propagation:
• Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere,
hugging the earth.
• These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
• Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance
 Sky propagation:
• Higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere
(the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they
are reflected back to earth.

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• This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower

output power.

 Line-of-sight propagation:
• Very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly
from antenna to antenna.
• Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall
enough or close enough together not to be affected by the
curvature of the earth.
• Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because radio transmissions
cannot be completely focused.


 Wireless Transmission Waves

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 Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional and use omnidirectional
antennas.
• When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do
not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any
receiving antenna.
• Radio waves that propagate in the sky mode can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.

• Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies,

can penetrate walls
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio
and television, and paging systems.
Omni directional antenna

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 Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 Characteristics of microwave propagation:
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities

• Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in

one direction.

 Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)

communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless
LANs.

• Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)

communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
Mr. Sunil J, Dept. of CSE, CIT Gubbi
• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless 523
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 Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• Infrared signals useless for long-range communication.
• We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication
• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for
using these signals for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers.

RJ 45 Connector
RJ 45 Connector network
network interface
interface cardcard (NIC)
(NIC)

Router

Router

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PHYSICAL LAYER DEVICES

1. Repeater
• A repeater operates at the physical layer.
• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal.
• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
• It is a 2 port device.

2. Hub
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
• A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices.
• Transmission mode is half duplex.
• Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for
data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

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 Types of Hub:
 Active Hub
• These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network.
• Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals
before broadcasting them
• Passive Hub
• These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from the active hub.
• Can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

 Intelligent Hub
• It works like active hubs and includes remote management
capabilities.
• They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.
• It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

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