METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION

Data refers to a collection of observations on one or more variables. It is a set of the facts or
information usually used to calculate or plan something. It is the distinct pieces of information
presented in a particular way. Such information can exist in a variety of forms. This can be in the
forms of numbers or text on pieces of paper, as sound bites stored in electronic memory or
simply as facts stored in a person’s mind. One of the most important aspects in any statistical
investigation is the manner in which the researcher presents the data.

Modes of Data Presentation

There are four widely used modes of data presentation namely:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical displays
4. Frequency distributions

Textual presentation: In this mode, data is presented in the form of text, phrases or paragraphs.
It is commonly used among newspaper and magazine reports depicting specifically the salient or
important findings.

Example: The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7.19 points to 2,099.12 after
trading between 2,095.30 and 2,108.47. Volume was 1.29 billion shares worth 903.15 million
pesos (16.7 million dollars). The broader all share index gained 5.21 points to 1,221.34. (From:
Freeman dated March 17, 2019).

Tabular presentation: This is a more reliable and effective way of showing relationships or
comparisons of data through the use of tables. The tables must be accompanied by a short
narrative explanation to make the facts clearer and more understandable. A table should have a
title at the top describing its content, a column and row heading, units of measurement, source of
information and footnote (brief explanation of the source of information).

Example: Table showing the period when expectant women start visiting Traditional Birth
Attendants (TBAs) in one unnamed district in Eastern Uganda

Number of months Number of women (N) Percentage

Less than 4 months 3 15
4-7 months 10 50
8-9 months 1 5
No specific months1 3 15
They rarely visit 3 15
TOTAL 20 100

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The respondents failed to provide information on the specific number of months they start visiting TBAs.

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Source: Baseline survey for clean delivery kit (December 2019)

Graphical data presentation: This mode delivers information using a picture or graphic to
display or communicate one’s intent or information. Graphs can easily attract the attention as
well as the interest of the reader.

The most common graphical displays include:

a) Pie chart
b) Bar graph
c) Histogram
d) Line graph
e) Pictogram

Pie chart: This is a type of graph with the shape of a circle or pie. It presents the relationship of
different parts of the data. It helps researchers easily tell the proportional share of the total data
by simply looking at the pie chart. It is used to present quantities that make up a whole. It is
constructed using calculated proportions of a circle (out of 360 degrees) in proportion to the
different values of each class, item, group or category.

Example: Students in a Masters class were asked to indicate the type of transport they regularly
use to travel to campus. The results were as follows: Walking 9, train 10, tram 6, car 12 and
bicycle 3. Construct a pie chart with this information.

Solution: It all starts with the calculation of the total student population = 40.

Transport Number of Percentage of students Angle size for PieChart

Type Students preferring transport type
walking 9 22.5% of 360° = 81°

Train 10 25 % of 360° = 90°

Tram 6 15 % of 360° = 54°

Car 12 30 % of 360° = 108°

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 Bicycle 3 7.5 % of 360° = 27°

Bar chart or graph: This is constructed in such a way that the area of each bar is proportional to
the corresponding frequency or relative frequency. It is constructed using categorical data which
is represented by rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The
length of the bars is used to represent the quantity or frequency of each type or category. The
bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. They must however, be of the same thickness and
have the same distance from each other. Bar graphs or charts are very useful for comparison of
categories, their quantities at a certain time, or their variation in time.

Bar charts are constructed as follows:

 Draw a horizontal axis, and write the category names or labels below the line at regularly
spaced intervals;

 Draw a vertical axis, and label the scale using either frequency or relative frequency;

 Place a rectangular bar above each category label. The height is determined by the
category’s frequency or relative frequency, and all bars should have the same width. With
the same width, both the height and the area of the bar are proportional to the frequency
or relative frequency.

Bar graphs might be of the simple type—those that represent data by a series of bars where the
height of each bar indicates the size of the figure or value or the multiple or component type—
those used when more than one relationship has to be depicted.

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Example of multiple or component graph

Histogram: This is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. It is

constructed in a similar manner to the bar graph EXCEPT the bars of the histogram are joined to
one another.

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Example of a histogram:

Line graph: This type of graphical representation is obtained by connecting lines to show that
something changes in value (with changes in value or time). Line graphs are useful in showing
trends over a period of time.

Example of a line graph

Pictogram: This is a diagram that uses pictures to represent data, and is used in particular when
addressing a very general readership, since its meaning is conveyed in a very simple way. It uses
two techniques; the magnitude of the value is represented either by the number of pictures shown
or by the size of the picture.

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Illustration of a pictogram

NB: Please read about other forms of data presentations such as scatter graphs, box plots,
frequency polygons etc.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS:

Frequency distributions are summarized ways of observations associated with each score value
in a set of quantitative data. Presenting data in a frequency distribution makes inspection of the
data set much more manageable than presenting the entire set of raw data. Frequency
distributions make it easy to see trends in data, particularly when two different data sets are
compared.

In the simplest form, the table consists of two columns, one for the score value (x) and a second
indicating the number of observations for the score value (f).

Example:

Given the following set of data which shows the high temperatures recorded for 30 days,
construct a frequency distribution of the temperatures:

50 45 49 50 43

49 50 49 45 49

47 47 44 51 51

44 47 46 50 44

51 49 43 43 49

45 46 45 51 46

To construct a frequency distribution from this data, we follow the steps below:

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 (i) Identify the highest and lowest values in the data set i.e. the highest temperature is 51
and the lowest temperature is 43.
(ii) Create a column with the title of the variable i.e. temperature.
(iii) Enter the highest score at the top, and include all values within the range from the
highest score to the lowest score.
(iv) Create a frequency column, with the frequency of each value.
(v) At the bottom of the frequency column, record the total frequency for the distribution
proceeded by N or ∑f.
(vi) Enter the name of the frequency distribution at the top of the table.

NB: It is often advisable that you create a tally column to keep track of the scores as you enter
them into the frequency distribution. This is however, not mandatory.

Temperature Frequency
(f)
51 4
50 4
49 6
47 3
46 3
45 4
44 3
43 3
TOTAL ∑f or N=30

GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

In some cases, it is necessary to group the values of the data to summarise it properly. For
example, if we wish to create a frequency distribution for the marks obtained by first year
university Social Science students in a paper, it would be very tedious to do so. It would
therefore be advisable to group the scores together into class intervals and create a grouped
frequency distribution.

In constructing a grouped frequency distribution, we are guided by the following principles:

(i) There should be between 5 and 20 classes;

(ii) The class width should be an odd number. This will guarantee that the class
midpoints are integers instead of decimals;
(iii) The classes must be mutually exclusive i.e. no data value can fall into two different
classes;
(iv) The classes must be all inclusive or exhaustive i.e. all data values must be included;
(v) The classes must be equal in width.

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The following steps are normally followed while constructing a grouped frequency distribution:

(i) Find the smallest and largest values of the data set;
(ii) Calculate the difference between the largest and smallest values of the data set i.e. the
range;
(iii) Select the number of classes desired (normally ranges between 5 and 20);
(iv) Calculate the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes. (If
necessary, round up the figure to the nearest (odd figure);
(v) Pick a suitable starting point less than or equal to the minimum value;
(vi) Find the appropriate frequencies for each class;
(vii) Obtain the total frequency of the distribution (∑f or N).

Exercise:

Use the following data set to construct a grouped frequency distribution:

57 39 52 52 43

50 53 42 58 55

58 50 53 50 49

45 49 51 44 54

49 57 55 59 45

50 45 51 54 58

53 49 52 51 41

52 40 44 49 45

43 47 47 43 51

55 55 46 54 41

REAL LIMITS: These refer to the boundaries of a class interval that generally extend from one
half of the smallest unit of measurement below the value of the score to one-half unit above. To
obtain the limits of a class, subtract 0.5 units from the lower limit and add 0.5 units to the upper
limit.

MID-POINTS: The mid-points of a grouped frequency distribution can be computed by either

taking the middle number of the listed individual values or scores in the particular class (for an

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odd number of scores) or by calculating the average of the two middle values or scores (for even
number of scores).

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

This refers to a distribution that indicates the category or score value and the proportion or
percentage of the total number of cases associated with the category or score value. In other
words, the relative frequency tells us the proportion (or percent) of scores at each score.

The Relative Frequency can be calculated using the formula:

R.F = f/N

Where R.F is the Relative Frequency

f is the frequency associated with each category or score value

N is the total number of observations

NB: (i) The R.F can be converted to a percentage by multiplying the fraction by 100.

Exercise:

Use the above grouped frequency distribution to calculate the RFs.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

The cumulative frequency distribution indicates the frequency up to and including the frequency
for that value. It is advisable that the computation of the cumulative frequency starts at the
frequency of the smallest class. It can however, also be calculated the other way round. In
addition, ensure that the highest cumulative frequency figure equals the ∑f or N (total of the
frequency column).

Example:

Score Frequency Cumulative frequency

51 4 30
50 4 26
49 6 22
47 3 16
46 3 13
45 4 10
44 3 6
43 3 3
∑f= 30

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