Notes prepared by : Ruby Durban Catalan, Ph.D.

Ethical Considerations in Doing Research

All researchers must be aware of the ethical issues involved in doing an
educational research. Respect for audiences and the use of
nondiscriminatory language are ethical issues that must be observed
(Creswell, 2014). Webster’s dictionary defines ethical behavior as
“conforming to the standards of conduct of a given profession or group.”
Three Important Ethical Considerations (Gay and Airasian, 2003)
1. Protecting Participants from harm
2. Participants in a research study should be protected from physical or
psychological harm, discomfort, or danger which can be caused by research
procedures.
3. The consent of participants should be obtained.
Three important ethical questions to ask in a study are:
1. Could people be harmed (physically or psychologically) during the
study?
2. If so, could the study be conducted in another way to find out what the
researcher wants to know?
3. Is the information that can be possibly obtained from this study so
valuable that it warrants possible harm to the participants?
Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data
1. Once the data is gathered no one else, except for key research
assistants, should have access to the data.
2. If possible , the names of the subjects should be removed from all data
collection forms
3. In cases where names are needed linkage system should be guarded
4. All participants should be assured that all data gathered from or about
them will be confidential.
5. Names of participants should never be used in any publication that
describes the research.
6. Participants have the right to withdraw anytime from the study.
Should Participants be Deceived
1. Whenever possible, a researcher should conduct the study using
methods that do not require deception
2. If alternative method cannot be devised, the use of deception must be
justified by the prospective study’s scientific, educational, or applied value.
3. If the participants are deceived, the researcher must ensure that the
participants are provided with sufficient explanation as soon as possible.

Stating the Research Topic

Stating the Quantitative Research Topics
According to Gay and Airasian (2003) the nature of a research topic varies in
form and specificity according to the type of research undertaken and the
preferences of the researcher. For a quantitative study, a well-written
statement of the topic generally describes the variables of interest, the
specific relationship between those variables, and, ideally, the nature of the
participants involved ( i. e., gifted students , learning disabled fourth graders,
teenage mothers).
An example of a problem statement might be.
o “The topic to be investigated in this study is the effect of positive
reinforcement on the quality of 2nd year high school students’ English
compositions.” In this statement, the variables to be examined are “positive
reinforcement” and “quality of English compositions.” The participants will
consist of 2nd year high school students.
o “The topic to be investigated in this study is secondary teachers’
attitudes toward required afterschool activities.”
o “The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between
school entrance age and reading comprehension skills of primary – level
students.”
o “The problem to be studied is the effect of wearing required school
uniforms on the self – esteem of socio - economically disadvantaged 6th
grade students.”
o “Does the effect of periodic home visits diminish the recidivism rate of
high school juvenile offenders?

Stating Qualitative Research Topics

Gay and Airasian (2003) reported that qualitative research topics often are
stated later in a written study and stated more generally than quantitative
ones, because in many cases, the qualitative research needs to spend time
in research context for the focus of the study to emerge. Remember, the
qualitative researcher usually is much more attuned to the specifics of the
context in which the study takes place. Qualitative topic statements initially
tend to be general, eventually becoming narrowed as the researcher learns
more about the research context and its inhabitants. Qualitative topics
typically started as in following examples:
o “The purpose of the study is to describe the nature of children’s
engagement with mathematics. The intention is to gather details about
children’s ways of entering into and sustaining their involvement with
mathematics.”
o The purpose of this research is to study the social integration of
children with special needs in an integrated third – grade class.”

Functions of a Title (Gay and Airasian, 2003)

1. It draws, in summary form, the content of the entire investigation.
2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of
theory.
Requisite of a Good Title (Gay and Airasian, 2003)
1. It must be a brief descriptive label that subsumes the theme of the
study as a whole. Good research titles tell the reader something about the
major variables and type of subjects that are studied in less than 15 words
(McMillan, 2012).
Verbose and long – winding title only serves to distract the reader’s attention
from the main focus of the study; hence, the use of a brief but concise title is
preferred.
2. It names the major variables that are subject of the investigation,
thereby giving an instant grasp of what the subjects of the investigation is all
about.
3. It answers the questions of “what,” “who,” and “where.”
4. Modern trends dictate doing away with the “when,” that is, the school
year or period covered by the study since this can be appropriately included
under, “Delimitation of the Study.”
5. Similarly, such phrases as “A study of,” “An Analysis of,” “An
Evaluation of,” etc. are to be avoided as the use of such phrases only serves
to lengthen the title unnecessarily without adding much meaning to it.
6. The title must also be “eye-catching” and “thought-provoking” so as to
titillate the reader’s attention, to arouse his intellectual curiosity into reading
further the text of the manuscript, and to simultaneously achieve brevity.

Do’s and Don’ts in a Title (Gay and Airasian, 2003)

1. Avoid long worded title. The shorter the better.
2. Observe inverted pyramid format in the tile with three or less layers or
at least 12 to 15 words.
3. Always indicate the main concept in the title.
4. The title should subsume the content of the study.

The Statement of a Problem (Gay and Airasian, 2003)

1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question
form.
3. It should be possible to collect data to answer the question(s) asked.
4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position.

Writing the Statement of a Problem (Gay and Airasian, 2003)

1. Indicate the purpose of the study generally and specifically.
2. State the problem either declarative or interrogative.
3. Observe SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, result – oriented,
and time – bounded).
Types of Statement of a Problem (Gay and Airasian, 2003)
The types of statements are: question of description (or status), question of
difference (comparison), and question of relationship or association. The
general statement precedes with the specific statement of the problem

Examples of the Statement of the Problem

• Interrogative
o Question of Description: What is the level of stress among teachers at
ABAKADA Elementary School?
o Question of Difference: Is there a significant difference in the level of
stress among teachers of ABAKADA Elementary school when categorized into
length of service?
o Question of Relationship: Is there a significant relationship between the
level of stress and resiliency of teachers?
• Declarative and Interrogative Form
o Descriptive Question: To determine the level of stress among public
school teachers in Metro Manila.
o Question of Difference: To compare the level of stress among public
school teachers in Metro Manila when categorized according to length of
service.
o Question of Relationship: To determine the relationship between the
level of stress and resiliency of teachers.

The Statement of the Problem provides a focus for the research. It gives the
reader and user of research important information. Often it is referred to as
the statement of purpose.
Examples of General Statement of the Problem
o The purpose of the research is to study students’ academic difficulties.
o This research will investigate the social integration of special education
students.
o The purpose of this study is to investigate the cognitive processes of
students.
o This study investigates the relationship between creativity and
intelligence.
Example of Good Research Problem
 “The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of Interactive
Multimedia on the Achievement of 10th – Grade Biology Students.”
(Calderon, S. J., 1994 cited in Gay and Airasian, 2003, p. 72 – 73).

o Researchability of Problems

Non researchable Researchable

Should we teach sex education in What is the difference in knowledge and
elementary schools? attitudes of 5th –graders taught in sex
education compare to 5th – graders who
are not taught sex education?

Do teachers need to have courses in test Will the classroom testing procedures
construction? used by teachers who take a course in
test construction differ from those of
teachers who have not had the course?

Should the school day be longer? What is the relationship between the
length of the school day to NAT scores
of high school students?

Should learning disabled students be What is the effect of mainstreaming 4th –

mainstreamed in English as well as in grade learning disabled pupils into
Physical Education? English class on the self- concept,
attitudes, and achievement of all
students?

What is a Research Hypothesis?

Definition
o A tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be
tested by further investigation (Muijs, 2011. p.7).
o Refers to a researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of the
research findings. In a quantitative research, it states how the variables are
related to answer a research question or to make predictions about what the
researcher expects the results to show (Creswell, 2014).
o Hypotheses are educated “guesses” or tentative expectations about a
correct solution to a problem, descriptions, possible relationships, or
differences. It is typically the investigator’s prediction or expectation of what
the results will show (McMillan, 2012).

Criteria for Evaluating Research Hypothesis (McMillan, 2012)

1. A research hypothesis should be stated in declarative form.
2. The research hypothesis should be consistent with known facts,
previous research and theory.
3. The research hypothesis should follow from the research problem.
4. The research hypothesis should state the expected relationship
between two or more variables.
5. The research hypothesis should be testable.
6. The research hypothesis should be clear.
7. The research hypothesis should be concise.

Criteria for a Good Hypothesis (Gay and Airasian, 2003)

1. It is based on a sound reasoning.
It derives from previous research or theory and its confirmation or
disconfirming should contribute to educational theory or practice.
Therefore, a major characteristic of a good hypothesis is that it is
consistent with theory or previous research.
 In areas of research where there are conflicting results, you will not be
consistent with all of them, but your hypothesis should follow from a rule, not
from the exception.
2. It provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.
If your telephone is out of order, you might hypothesize that it is
because there are butterflies sitting on your telephone wires; such
hypothesis would not be a reasonable explanation. A more reasonable
hypothesis might be that you forgot to pay your telephone bills or that a
repair crew is working outside.
If a hypothesis suggested that school children with freckles pay
attention longer than school children without freckles, it would not be a
reasonable explanation for children‘s attention behavior. On the other
hand, a hypothesis suggesting that children who have a good breakfast pay
attention longer than children who have no breakfast is more reasonable.
3. It clearly states the expected relationship between defined variables.
A good hypothesis states as clearly and concisely as possible the
expected relationship (or difference) between two variables and defines
those variables in operational, that is, measurable terms.
A simple but clearly stated hypothesis makes it easier, for readers to
understand, simplifies its testing, and facilitates formulating conclusions.
The relationship expressed between the two variables may or may not be a
causal one.
For example, the variables anxiety and Math achievement might be
hypothesized as significantly related ( there is a significant correlation
between anxiety and Math achievement), or it might be hypothesized that on
Math problems high – anxiety students perform better than low – anxiety
students is an example of a causal relationship.
4. It is testable within a reasonable time frame.
A well-stated and defined hypothesis must be testable (and it will be if
it is well-formulated and stated). It should be possible to test the hypothesis
by collecting and analyzing data.
It would not be possible to test a hypothesis that indicated that some
students behave better than others because some have an invisible little
angel on their right shoulder and some have an invisible little devil on their
left shoulder. There would be no way to collect the data to support the
hypothesis.
 A good hypothesis should normally be testable within some reasonable
period of time. For example, the hypothesis that first-grade students who
brush their teeth after lunch every day will have fewer false teeth at age 60
would obviously take a very long time to test. The researcher would very
likely be long gone before the study was completed, not to mention the
negligible educational significance of the hypothesis. A more manageable
hypothesis with the same theme might be that first-grade children who
brush their teeth after lunch every day will have fewer cavities at the end of
the first grade than those who don’t brush.
Types of Hypothesis (Gay and Airasian, 2003)
1. Inductive Hypothesis vs. Deductive
2. Alternative or Research Hypothesis vs. Statistical or Null Hypothesis
3. Directional Hypothesis or Non- directional Hypothesis
Inductive
It is a generalization based on specific observations. The researcher observes
that certain patterns or associations among variables occur in a number of
situations and uses this tentative observation to form an inductive
hypothesis. For example, a researcher observes that in some 8th – grade
classrooms students who are given essay tests appear to show less testing
stress than those who are given multiple-choice tests. This observation could
become the basis for an inductive hypothesis. Certain variables are noted to
be related in a number of situations and tentative explanation, or hypothesis,
formulated. Such inductively derived hypothesis can be very useful but are
of limited scientific value.
Deductive
Deductive hypotheses are generally derived from theory, based on the
researcher’s developing a specific prediction from general principles. They
do contribute to the science of education by providing evidence that
supports, expands, or contradicts a given theory and by suggesting future
studies. A research hypothesis states an expected relationship or difference
between two variables. It specifies the relationship the quantitative
researcher expects to verify in the research study.
Research hypothesis states what relationship the researcher expects to
verify from the collection and analysis of data. Research hypothesis are
stated in declarative form. Otherwise known as alternative hypothesis,
research or declarative hypothesis are non-directional or directional.
 A non-directional hypothesis simply indicates that a relationship or
difference exists. It usually requires a two-tailed test of significance.

Examples of Non-directional hypothesis:

There is a significant difference in the achievement of 2nd year-high
school biology students who are instructed using interactive multimedia and
those who receive regular instruction.
There is a significant difference in the value orientation of urban school
students and rural school students.
A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the relationship or
difference. It indicates the nature of the relationship or difference. A
directional hypothesis should not be stated if you have any reason to believe
that the results may occur in the opposite direction. A directional hypothesis
requires a one-tailed test of significance.
Characteristics of Directional Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the
relationship or difference.
It indicates the nature of the relationship or difference.

A directional hypothesis should not be stated if you have any reason to

believe that the results may occur in the opposite direction.
A directional hypothesis requires a one-tailed test of significance.
Statistical Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the relationship or
difference. It indicates the nature of the relationship or difference. A
directional hypothesis should not be stated if you have any reason to believe
that the results may occur in the opposite direction. A directional hypothesis
requires a one-tailed test of significance.
Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis makes prediction that in a general population, no
relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable
(Creswell, 2014). The null hypothesis is chosen when there is little research
or theoretical support for a hypothesis. Also, statistical tests for the null
hypothesis are more conservative than they are for directional hypothesis.
The disadvantage of null hypothesis is that they rarely express the
researcher’s true expectations based on literature, insights, and logic. The
disadvantage of null hypothesis is that they rarely express the researcher’s
true expectations regarding the results of a study.
Examples of a Null Hypothesis:
There is no significant difference in the value orientation of urban
schools’ students’ and rural schools’ students.
There is no significant difference in the achievement level of the 2nd
year-high school biology students who are instructed using interactive
multimedia and those who receive regular instruction.

Relationship of Research Problem, Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis

Research Problem Research Hypothesis Null Hypothesis

What is the effect of inclusion Teachers’ attitudes toward There is no difference in
workshop on the attitudes of inclusion will improve as a teachers’ attitudes toward
public school teachers result of attending a inclusion measured before a
towards inclusion? workshop on inclusion. workshop on inclusion
compared to their attitudes
after the workshop.

Is there relationship between There is positive correlation There is no correlation

teachers’ attitudes toward the between teachers’ attitudes between teachers’ attitudes
students’ attendance and towards the students’ towards students’ attendance
student achievement? attendance and student and student achievement.
achievement

Is there difference in the Students receiving more short There is no difference in

achievement between the quizzes will show higher achievement between
students who are given more achievement than students students receiving more short
short quizzes to students who who were given only one quizzes compared to students
are given only one long quiz? long quiz. receiving only one long quiz.

Activity No. 2

1. My understanding of a research topic is…

2. In selecting my research topic the following criteria were considered…

3. Where could you source your research topic?

4. What are the requisites of a good research title?

5. A research hypothesis is a….

6. What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?

7. The criteria for a good hypothesis are…

8. The following are examples of a research hypothesis…