SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

PHSENG2 PHYSICS 2

Prepared by:
A Self -regulated Learning Module
MICHELLE W. SORIANO, REE, MA -PHYS

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INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE 3

MODULE 1: THERMODYNAMICS 7

MODULE 2: ELECTRICITY 17

MODULE 3: MAGNETISM 32

MODULE 4: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 41

MODULE 5: INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE 48

MODULE 6: ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS 56

MODULE 7: LIGHT AND OPTICS 71

REFERENCES 80

EVALUATION OF THE COURSE 85

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 1. Course Code: PHSENG2
Course Title: PHYSICS
2

2. Course Description

Physics 2 tackles on topics involving the Laws of Thermodynamics,

Basic concepts on heat engine and refrigerators; Basics of Energy conversion
that includes Electromagnetic induction, magnetic flux and generators; AC
and DC electricity and semiconductors. This course is a continuation of
Physics for Engineers (PHSENG1) course taken last semester. Thus, students
should have already taken PHSENG1 before taking this course.
Physics 2 introduces the electrical and magnetic phenomena in nature
and its applications in the field of electrical and electronics engineering.
Physics 2 is a problem-solving course, thus, the measure of a student’s
progress is demonstrated by his ability to solve algebraic and trigonometric
problems, aside from knowing and reciting facts, laws and formulas.

3. Requirements of the Course

a. Must get at least 70% of all quizzes, other activities (assignments,

seatwork, research work, etc.), and exams, to have a passing grade.

b. It is expected that you have an adequate working knowledge of

algebra and trigonometry from taking the PHSENG1 course
previously. In order to do all the calculations necessary for this
course, you are required to have a scientific calculator at
hand.

c. When instructed to write your solutions for a given set of problems,

please use short bond paper with the following format:

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 - The margin for the boarders is 1 cm all around and is drawn
using a red ballpen.
- The heading’s height is 1 inch, then divided into half as shown.
- Write your name on the upper left corner, starting with your
family name then followed by your given name. (ex. Soriano,
Michelle) - Date of activity will be placed across your
name.
- The subject plus the schedule will be written just below the
name. (ex.
PHSENG2 9:30 – 11:00 TTH)
- The type of activity should be placed just below the date. (ex.
QUIZ1,
ASSIGNMENT1, SEATWORK1)

 NOTE: All activities, including assignments, are to be

handwritten. Printed activites will not be accepted.

 The rubrics to be used for problem solving are as follows:

PROBLEM SOLVING RUBRIC

Point If…
s
5 There is evidence of analytic evaluation of the problem
with complete details.
The student clearly understands how to solve the problem.

4 Main concepts are used for the analytic evaluation of the

problem with some lacking details.
The student understands the problem-solving techniques
but resulted in a different answer.

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3 Some concepts are used for the analytic evaluation of the
problem and most details are lacking.
The student partially understood the problem but is not
able to complete the solution.

2 Main concepts are not presented for the evaluation of the

problem.
The student has a poor understanding of the problem but
attempted to solve the problem.

1 Different concepts not related to the problem are

presented.
The student did not understand the problem with
0 The student wrote
illustrations nothing
or solution notorrelated
almosttonothing.
the problem.

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 Since this course is a combination of lecture and laboratory, your grade will be
computed further as 2/3 lecture grade plus 1/3 laboratory grade, for all of the three
grading periods.

6. Study Guide
 Going through the modules can be both fun and meaningful learning experience.
And the key to passing this subject is in your hands. Hereunder are some guidelines
in making use of your time and resources efficiently:

a. Take time in reading and understanding each lesson. It is better to be

slow but has surely understood the lesson than to hurry finishing each
module and missing out on the concepts you are supposed to learn.
Remember, this subject is a pre-requisite to your major subjects, so it is
very important for you to be able to grasp each concept and internalize it.

b. Do not jump from one chapter to another. The lessons are usually
arranged such that one lesson is built upon another, thus an
understanding of the first is important in understanding the succeeding
lessons.

c. Do not procrastinate. Set a time to do the activities in this subject and

stick to it. Remember that you also have other activities in your other
modules. That is why, it is best to make a study guide and post it where
you can easily see it so that overlapping of activities to be done will be
avoided.

d. Be honest when answering the given activities and the test items.
Develop the ability to work independently and be committed to finish
the task that you are required to do. Before answering the activities given
to you, please read thoroughly the instructions and make sure that you
submit all the tasks on time. Be self-motivated, you can do it!

e. Don’t hesitate to ask. If you need to clarify something, feel free to ask me
through whatever ways and means, but in a respectful manner. But,
before you do so, make sure that you have read the module part or
instruction thoroughly. There are times that the matter that you need to
clarify is already in the discussions.






 :

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*In this module, we will relate the Law of Conservation of Energy which you have already
taken in Physics 1 to the Laws of Thermodynamics. We have applied the Law of
Conservation of Energy only with respect to mechanical aspects in Physics1, but in
Physcis2 we are going to include the transfer of energy by both heat and work, and apply
the concepts in heat engines and refrigerators.

 The following lessons will be discussed in this module:

LESSON 1 - Laws of Thermodynamics

LESSON 2 - Heat Engines and Refrigerators

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Explain the concepts and laws on Thermodynamics, heat engine and refrigerators.
2. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
3. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Thermodynamics is the study of the relations between:
1. heat,
2. work,
3. temperature, and
4. energy
 The laws of thermodynamics describe how the energy in a system changes and
whether the system can perform useful work on its surroundings.

A. 1st Law of Thermodynamics

- is an extension of the Law of Conservation of Energy when applied to
thermodynamic systems.

 Can you still recall what the Law of Conservation of Energy is all about?

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that:

“Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one
form of energy to another form.”

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 How energy is conserved is shown when you eat. The chemical energy in food will
be converted into mechanical energy that enables you to do work like walking, running
and climbing stairs, though not all the chemical energy in the food you take will be
transformed into mechanical energy, but some of it will be released from your body as
heat, that is, when you sweat and feel warm. How are these three quantities related when
we speak of thermodynamics systems?
Let us first define what a thermodynamics system is. A thermodynamics system is
any region completely enclosed within a well-defined boundary and everything outside this
system is considered it surroundings. The system is classified into three, namely, the
isolated, closed and open systems, as shown on the illustrations below.

 The first law is all about the relationship between the internal energy, heat and
work. To find out the relationship of these quantities, do this simple activity
called the popping popcorns.
 When heat is supplied to the popcorn, some of it increases the internal energy of
the kernels and the rest is converted into mechanical work to lift the lid of the
pot.

 This is the first law of thermodynamics, “The heat added to a system is

equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the external
work done in the system.”

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Simply put it,

HEAT = INCREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY + WORK

OUTPUT
In equation,

𝑸=𝑼+𝑾
Where,

𝑄 = HEAT, which is the thermal energy that flows from one body or system
to another, which is in contact with it, because of their temperature difference.

- Its unit is Joule (J) or calorie (cal), in which, 1 cal = 4.184 J (also
called the mechamical equivalent of
heat)

𝑈 = INTERNAL ENERGY, which is the total energy content of the system.

- Also, 1 kilo calorie (kcal) = 1000 cal

𝑊 = WORK done by the system in Joules (+W)

- Unit is in Joule

= WORK done on the system in Joules (-W)

EXAMPLES:

1. In a certain process, 8 kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the system
does 6 kJ of work. By how much does the internal energy of the system change
during the process?

Given: 𝑄 = 8 kcal, convert it to joule unit so we have, 8 kcal x 4.184 J/cal = 33.47

𝑊 = 6 kJ
kJ

𝑈
Solution: 𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 33.47Kj – 6
Find:
27.47kJ
Kj =

2. How much does the internal energy of 5 grams of ice at precisely 0°C increase as
it is changed to water at 0°C? Neglect the change in volume.

𝑈
Given: m = 5 grams

Solution: 𝑈 = 𝑄 – W
Find:

𝑄 = mLf = 5 grams * 80 cal/gram = 400 cal

o There is no external work done by the ice as it melts and thus making W = 0.

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 Therefore, = 400 cal – 0 = 400 cal * 4.184 J/cal = 1,673.6 J

 Lf is the HEAT OF FUSION of ice which is the quantity of heat required to

melt a unit mass of the solid at constant temperature. It is also equal to the
quantity of heat given off by a unit mass of the molten solid as it crystallizes
at this temperature. The heat of fusion of water at 0C is about 335 kJ/kg or
80 cal/gram.

 This law also provides the basic principle in heat engines, which we will be taking in
lesson 2.

B. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

- states that, “Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter to a colder object,
but not vice versa.”

 Why is it that when you leave an ice cube at room temperature, it begins to
melt? Why do we get older and never younger? And, why is it whenever
rooms are cleaned, they become messy again in the future? Certain things
happen in one direction and not the other, this is called the "arrow of time"
and it encompasses every area of science. The thermodynamic arrow of
time (entropy) is the measurement of disorder within a system. Denoted as
ΔSΔS, the change of entropy suggests that time itself is asymmetric with
respect to order of an isolated system, meaning: a system will become
more disordered, as time increases.

 Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot was a French physicist, who is considered to be

the
"father of thermodynamics," for he is responsible for the origins of the
Second Law of Thermodynamics, as well as various other concepts. The
current form of the second law uses entropy rather than caloric, which is
what Sadi Carnot used to describe the law. Caloric relates to heat and Sadi
Carnot came to realize that some caloric is always lost in the motion cycle.
Thus, the thermodynamic reversibility concept was proven wrong, proving
that irreversibility is the result of every system involving work.

 Rudolf Clausius was a German physicist, and he developed the Clausius

statement, which says "Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from
a material at a lower temperature to a material at a higher temperature."
 William Thompson, also known as Lord Kelvin, formulated the Kelvin
statement, which states "It is impossible to convert heat completely in a
cyclic process." This means that there is no way for one to convert all the
energy of a system into work, without losing energy.

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  The observation on the direction of heat does not just hold true for the blocks
we have experimented on. In fact, it governs all natural phenomena. The way
ice melts, the law changes in the weather and operation of engines are all
governed by the second law of thermodynamics.

Remember this:

nd
The 2 Law tells us the manner inawhich
spontaneous change will occur, and it deals
st
with the
dispersal of energy.
The 1 Law tells us whether or not the change is possible, and it
deals with the
conservation of energy.

Activity 1.1

PROBLEM SOLVING: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which the internal energy

decreases by 500 J. Over the same time interval, 220 J of work is done on the
system. Find the energy transferred from it by heat.
2. In each of the following situations, find the change in internal energy of the system.
a. A system absorbs 500 cal of heat and at the same time does 400 J of work.
b. A system absorbs 300 cal of heat and at the same time 420 J of work is done on
it.
c. 1200 cal is removed from a gas held at constant volume.

LESSON 2: HEAT ENGINES AND REFRIGERATORS

A. HEAT ENGINES

- A device that changes heat (thermal energy) into work(mechanical energy) while
operating in a cycle.
- Heat engines (machines) are intended for the production of useful work due to the
heat received from the combustion of fuel or other energy sources.
- A heat engine is a system which converts Thermal energy into Mechanical Energy.

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 A basic heat engine model consists of the following processes:
1. Heat energy is transferred into the engine.
2. The engine then uses that energy to do work.
3. Any leftover heat is expelled from the engine.

The diagram below shows these basic processes.

\

EXAMPLE:

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 A heat engine takes in 4,500 J of heat energy, then does 2,750 J of work. How
much heat energy does the engine expel as waste?

Given: QH = 4,500
J
W = 2,750 J
FIND: QL
SOLUTION:
W = Q H – QL
QL = QH - W = 4,500 – 2,750 = 1750J

 The heat that was transferred out represents the heat that was just wasted.
Ideally a heat engine must be able to convert all of the heat input into usable
work. But in real life applications, heat losses are always present due to factors
like friction. The lesser the heat loss the more efficient is the heat engine in
converting heat into usable work. For you to be able to know if the heat engine
is efficient, a simple formula shown below can be used.

EXAMPLE:
A steam engine takes 64,500 J from the boiler and gives up 10,600 J in
exhaust during one cycle. Compute the engine’s efficiency.

Given: QH = 64,500 J
QL = 10,600 J
FIND: EFFICIENCY
SOLUTION:
Eff = 1 – QL/QH
0.84 or (0.84 * 100) =
84% = 1 – (10,600/64,500) = 1 – 0.16 =

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  What do you think does 84% efficiency mean???

B. REFRIGERATORS

• are machines that makes possible the transfer of heat from a low-
temperature to a high- temperature region.
• Though the transfer of heat from a low to a high temperature region will not
spontaneously happen but will only be possible when work is done on the
system.
• A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a refrigerant
substance in order to collect energy from a cold region and exhaust it in a
higher temperature region, thereby cooling the cold region further.

 If you open a refrigerator, you will feel that the temperature inside is cooler than
that outside. We can relate the temperatures inside and outside of the
refrigerator as cold and hot reservoirs, respectively, as shown on the illustration
below.

When we place the food inside the refrigerator, what happens to the food
temperature? It becomes cooler right? What does this mean? Did the food
temperature drop or was heat removed from it?

 Here’s an activity to help you understand this concept better. Read the
following steps on how a refrigerator works. After that, look for a real
refrigerator and try to locate the motor and the condenser and evaporator coils.
Finally, in the given illustration, label the locations where the different processes
in a refrigerator take place. Have fun!

1. The compressor ( a mechanical device that increases pressure of a gas by

reducing its volume) takes in freon and compresses then delivers it to the
heat pump at high temperature and pressure. The compressor is driven by a
motor that does work on the working substance in the next cycles.

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 2. The surrounding air in the heat pump is cooler than the refrigerant so the
refrigerant gives off heat and partially condenses to liquid.

3. The refrigerant expands in the expansion valve. As it expands, it cools

considerably so that the refrigerant is cooler than the surroundings of the
evaporator coil which is the inside of the refrigerator.

4. The condensed refrigerant then absorbs heat from its surroundings. As a

result, the contents of the refrigerator become colder and the refrigerant
becomes warmer that it eventually vaporizes to gas.

5. The fluid enters the compressor again to repeat the cycle.

ACTIVITY 1.2

 Now, it’s your turn! Locate the five processes in a refrigerator in the diagram given
below. Connect a line from the number to the appropriate part of the diagram
that corresponds to the process.

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

1. Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy.

2. The First Law of Thermodynamics relates heat, internal energy and work output of
thermodynamic systems. According to this law, the heat added to a system is used
to increase the internal energy of the system and do work.

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 3. In thermodynamics, a system is any region completely enclosed with a well defined
boundary and everything outside this system is considered its surroundings.
4. Heat always naturally travels from object of internal energy at higher temperature
to object of lower temperature.
5. The Second Law of Thermodynamics tells us that it is impossible to construct an
engine operating in a cycle that converts heat totally to mechanical energy to do an
equivalent amount of work. This law governs the operations of heat engines and
refrigerators.
6. Heat engines take heat from a hot reservoir, use some of it to do work and exhaust
the rest to a cooler reservoir as waste.
7. Refrigerators take heat from a cold reservoir and partially transport it to a hotter
reservoir by doing some amount of work.

ASSESSMENT

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  In this module, we will we discuss in more depth the basic concepts of electricity
which you have already taken in Physics 1 and apply it to more challenging
problems in circuitry, as well as, understand the basic electrical operation which
governs most practical applications of electricity today.

 The following lessons will be discussed in this module:

LESSON 1 - REVIEW ON THE BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

LESSON 2 - SERIES, PARALLEL AND COMBINATION CIRCUITS

LESSON 3 - KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss competently the concepts and laws on electricity.
2. State Kirchhoff’s Laws and apply in DC circuit analysis.
3. Demonstrate these concepts by solving problems using step by step methods.
4. Solve problems correctly and confidently.
5. Apply vectors in solving problems.

LESSON 1: REVIEW ON THE BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

 This lesson will help you recall the important aspects of direct current circuits which
you have taken in Physics 1. You will be given a series of questions which are
related to the basics of electricity.

ACTIVITY 2.1
A. Electric Current and Charge

1. How are the current and charge related?

2. What is the charge of an electron/proton?

3. Find the charge in coulombs of

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 a) 5.31x1020 electrons

b) 2.9 x 1022 protons

4. How many protons have a combined charge of 6.8pC?
5. Find the current flow through a light bulb from a steady movement of a) 60 C in 5
sec

b) 15 C in 2 min
c) 1022 electrons in 1 hr
B. Problem solving: Show your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. An electric heater is rated at 1,500 watts, a toaster at 750 watts and an electric
grill at 1000 watts. The three appliances are connected to a common 120V
supply. A) How much current flow through each appliance? B) If the circuit is
protected by a 25A circuit breaker, will the circuit breaker be tripped if all
appliances were to operate at the same time? Explain your answer.
2. Using the data of problem #1, calculate a) the resistance of each appliance; and
b) the cost of using these appliances in one month, for an average of 1 hour per
day for each appliance, if the cost per KWH of electricity is 8.50 pesos.

LESSON 2: SERIES, PARALLEL AND COMBINATION CIRCUITS

 An electrical circuit is a defined as a path for current to flow. Just like a hose
which is used for water to flow through it.

 There are three basic parts of an electric circuit, namely,

1. Voltage source, like batteries and outlets.
2. Electrical load, like bulbs, appliances, etc.
3. Connecting wires

 The voltage source is like the gate valve and the hose like the connecting
wires. Once the gate valve is opened, water automatically flows through the
hose to its destination at the other end of the hose. The water that flows is
like the current in the circuit.
 Also, current only flows when the three important parts of the circuit are
present.

 Schematic or electrical diagrams are a graphical representations of an electrical

circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a
schematic diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using
standardized symbolic representations.

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 Schematic and Pictorial diagrams of a simple circuit

A. SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

 Circuits consisting of just one battery and one load resistance are very simple to
analyze, but they
are not often found in practical applications. Usually, we find circuits where more
than two components are connected together.

 There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit
components: serie andparall .
s el
1. Series – in this circuit connection the components are connected end-to-end in a
line to form a single path through which current can flow.

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3) connected
in a long chain from one terminal of the battery to the other. (It
should be noted that the subscript labeling—those little
numbers to the lower-right of the letter “R”—are unrelated to
the resistor values in ohms. They serve only
to identify one resistor from another.)

The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path for
current to flow. In this circuit, the current flows in a clockwise direction, from point 1
to point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back around to 1. Also, the total resistance is
equal to the sum of all resistances connected in series and the total voltage is equal
to the sum of the voltage drop across each resistance.

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In equation form:

IT=I1=I2=I3 = constant current

RT=R1+R2+R3

VT=V1+V2+V3

EXAMPLE:

Given the circuit below, determine the total resistance (R T), total current (IT)
and voltage drop for each resistance (V 1, V2, V3).

Solution:

a) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 + 10 + 5 = 18 k or
18,000 
b) Using Ohm’s Law, IT = VT/ RT
0.0005 A or 0.5 mA
(milliAmpere) = I1 = I2 = I3
c) V1 = I1R1 = 0.0005*3,000 = 1.5 V
V2 = I2R2 = 0.0005*10,000 = 5.0 V

V3 = I3R3 = 0.0005*5,000 = 2.5 V

 Let us verify if the sum of the voltage drops is equal to the total
voltage:

 VT=V1+V2+V3 = 1.5+5.0+2.5 = 9 V

2. Parallel – in this circuit connection, all components are connected across each
other’s leads. In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of
electrically common points, no matter how many components are connected.
There are many paths for current flow, but only one voltage across all
components.

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 Electrically common points are shown in this
diagram.

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more
than
one continuous path for current to flow. There’s one path from 1 to 2
to
7 to 8 and back again.
to 1 There’s another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 6 to 7
8 and back to 1 to again. And then there’s a third path from 1 to 2 to 3
4to
to 5 to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to 1 again. Each individual path
R(through
1, R2, and 3R
) is calledbranch
.
The defining characteristic of a a parallel circuit is that all components are connected
between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the schematic
diagram, we see that points 1,
2, 3, and 4 are all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all
resistors, as well
as the battery, are connected between these two sets of points.
In equation form:

VT=V1=V2=V3 = constant voltage

IT=I1+I2+I3
EXAMPLE:

Given the circuit below, determine the total resistance (R T), total
current (IT) and current for each resistance (I 1, I2, I3). For parallel circuit,
VT=V1=V2=V3, since voltage is

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 (a) RT = 1/ [( 10,000) + ( 2,000) + ( 1,000) ] = 625 
1 1 1

9
(b) I T = VT/ RT = 625 = 0.0144A or 14.4 mA
9
(c) I 1 = V1/ R1 = 10000=
9
= V2/ R2 = 2000 =
9
2

I 3 = V3/ R3 = 1000 = 0.0090A

0.0009 A
I 0.0045 A

 Let us verify if the sum of the current per branch is equal to the total
current:

 IT=I1+I2+I3 = 0.0009+0.0045+0.0090 = 0.0144 A

 And, of course, the complexity doesn’t stop at simple series and parallel circuits.
We can have
circuits that are a combination of series and parallel, too.
B. Combination Circuits
 These circuits combine the characteristics of both series and parallel.

 Strategy for simplifying series parallel circuits:

a. Begin as far away as possible from the voltage source.
b. Find pair of resistors in the circuit that are in parallel or in series,
combine them using the principles that we have learned
previously, and then replace these series or parallel resistors
with their equivalent resistor.
c. Continue, moving toward the voltage source until a single
equivalent resistor represents the entire resistor network.
d. Watch the video on the link provided to learn more about
combination circuits.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-PiB2Xd3P94

 Let us now apply the characteristics of both series and parallel circuits in
the given circuits below to be able to understand further these concepts.

 Given the circuit below, solve for: R T, IT, I1, I2, I3, V1, V2, V3, PT, P1, P2, P3

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Solution:
(a) Before solving for the total resistance, examine first the circuit and
see if there are resistances connected in simple series and in simple
parallel. In the circuit, we can see that resistors R 1 and R2 are in
parallel, thus

R 
we can redraw the circuit such that,

 The original series parallel circuit is now simplified to a series

circuit with two
resistances connected. Combining these resistances will give
us a simple circuit with only one resistor load. Thus, we have
the total resistance as,

RT = R12 +R3 = 81.71+470 = 551.71

0.0218A or 21.8 mA

(c) From this circuit, since R12 and R3 are connected in series, then we
can say that same current flows thru them which is the total
current, so that IT=I12=I3=21.8 mA

Knowing the value of I3, we can solve for the voltage drop
of R3 using Ohm’s Law:
V3=I3R3 =0.0218* 470 = 10.246 V

Also, the voltage drop across R12 is, V12=I12R12 = 0.0218*81.71= 1.781 V

Since, R1 and R2 are in parallel, they have the same voltage drop, thus
V1=V2=V12

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 Therefore, currents for R1 and R2 can now be solved:

I 0.0081 A or 8.1 mA

I 0.0137 A or 13.7 mA

(d) The total power taken by the circuit is P T=VTIT= 12*0.0218 =

0.2616 watt Also the individual power taken by each resistor are:
P1 =V1I1 = 1.781*0.0081 = 0.0144 watt
P2 =V2I2 = 1.781*0.0137= 0.0244 watt
P3 =V3I3 = 10.246*0.0218= 0.2234 watt

 Note that the sum of all the power taken by each resistor is equal
to the total power regardless of their connection whether series,
parallel or combination circuits.

 After solving all currents, voltages and powers, it is best to make a table to
present your answers like the one shown below:

Resistance, Current, A Voltage, V Power, watt


R1 = 220 0.0081 1.781 0.0144
R2 = 130 0.0137 1.781 0.0244

R3 = 470 0.0218 10.246 0.2234

A Self-regulated Learning Module 24

 PROBLEM SOLVING: Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted
bond papers and show your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. Two 30 resistors are connected in series to a 120V power supply. A) When an
unknown resistor is connected across one of them, the total resistance is equal to
40. Find the value of the unknown resistance.
2. A 12 resistor is connected in parallel with a series combination of two resistors of 8
and 16 ohms respectively. If the voltage drop across the 8 resistor is 48V,
determine the total voltage, total resistance and the total current.

3. Given the circuit below, solve completely, systematically and show illustrations of
the resistors being combined, for the following: (a) R T (10 points with illustrations),
(b) IT (5 points), (c) PT (5 points), (d) voltage, current and power per resistor (12
points)
Make a
table to
show your
final
answers
for letter
(d)-(8
points)

A Self-regulated Learning Module 25

LESSON 3: KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS (by Gustav Kirchhoff)

 These laws are used to analyze and solve circuits that cannot be reduced by the
rules of combining resistors in series and in parallel, thus in this lesson we are
going to analyze complex circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s rules.

A. Current Law (KCL) or Junction Rule

 states that, “The sum of all currents entering a junction must be equal to
the sum of all currents leaving the junction”, or “The algebraic sum of
all currents entering and leaving a junction is equal to zero."

o ∑Iin=∑Iout

• A Junction or node is any point in a circuit where three. or more

electrical branches or wires are connected.

• applies to the charge entering and leaving a junction. Current is

the flow of charge, and charge is conserved; thus, whatever
charge flows into the junction, must flow out of it.

 Currents are indicated by arrows such that, arrows pointing toward the junction
are entering and currents pointing away from it are leaving the junction. Since
we are taking the algebraic sum, let us denote a positive current for those

A Self-regulated Learning Module 26

 entering the junction and negative current for those leaving the junction. And so
we can rewrite the equation as,

I1+I2+I4+I5-I3-I6 = 0

B. Voltage Law (KVL) or Loop Rule

 states that the algebraic sum of potential differences, including voltage

supplied by the voltage sources and resistive elements, in any loop must
be equal to zero.

o V = 0

 Let us formulate an equation from the circuit below based on the loop rule,

 Starting from point a,

a. we move around the circuit in a clockwise direction, take note of
the voltage polarities (+ and – signs) as we move around
passing through each voltage source and the voltage drops
- polarity of the voltage source is fixed but that of the voltage
drop will depend on the direction of current and the direction
of traverse or motion of the loop

 When a resistor is traversed in the same direction as

the current, the change in potential is −IR.
 When a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite
to the current, the change in potential is + IR.
 When a voltage source is traversed from – to +, the
change in potential is +V.
 When an emf is traversed from + to –, the change in
potential is – V

A Self-regulated Learning Module 27

 V = -IR V = +IR

V = +E V = -E

b. We can now formulate the loop equation starting from point a, to

point b, then to point c, though to point d and back to point a,
we have

+V -I1R1 -I2R2 -I3R3 = 0, substituting the values we have,

12 -I1 -2I2 -3I3 = 0, and so we have an equation representing the

loop rule.

 Here are the steps to be done first before formulating the current and
voltage equations:

1. Label junction points in the circuit diagram using either lowercase or uppercase
letters like a, b, c, A, B, C so as not to confuse with the resistance labeling which are
using numbers.
2. Locate the junctions in the circuit. The junctions are points where three or more
wires connect. Label each junction with the currents and directions into and out of it.
Current directions are assumed so you can assign any direction as you wish just
make sure at least one current points into the junction and at least one current
points out of the junction.
3. Choose the loops in the circuit. Every component must be contained in at least one
loop, but a component may be contained in more than one loop.
4. Apply the junction rule and formulate the current equations.
5. Apply the loop rule and formulate the voltage equations.
 Note: Remember to only formulate equations equal to the number of
unknowns, so if you are solving for three resistor currents, then
formulate only three equations. Making more or less equations will just
complicate your solution.

6. Solve for the unknown currents using rules of elimination and substitution which you
have learned in Algebra.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 28

 7. Check to see if you have arrived at the correct answers by substituting the values
that you got to the equations you formulated.

EXAMPLE:
Find the currents flowing thru each resistor in the given circuit.

Solution:

1. We begin by applying Kirchhoff’s first or junction rule at point a. This gives

I1 = I2 + I3 – this is equation 1
- since I1 flows into the junction, while I2 and I3 flow out. Applying the
junction rule at e produces exactly the same equation, so that no new
information is obtained.
* This is a single equation with three unknowns—three independent equations
are needed, and so the loop rule must be applied.

2. Now we consider the loop abcdea. Going from a to b, we traverse R 2 in the

same direction of the current I 2, and so the change in potential is −I 2R2. Then
going from b to c, we go from – to +, so that the change in potential is +E 1.
Traversing the internal resistance r 1 from c to d gives −I2r1. Completing the
loop by going from d to a again traverses a resistor in the same direction as
its current, giving a change in potential of −I 1R1. The loop rule states that the
changes in potential sum to zero. Thus,
−I2R2 + E1 − I2r1 − I1R1 = −I2(R2 + r1) + emf1 − I1R1 = 0.

Substituting values from the circuit diagram for the resistances and
emf, and canceling the ampere unit gives

A Self-regulated Learning Module 29

 −3I2 + 18 − 6I1 = 0 – this is now equation 2

3. Now applying the loop rule to aefgha (we could have chosen abcdefgha as
well) similarly gives
+ I1R1 + I3R3 + I3r2 − V2 = + I1R1 + I3(R3 + r2) − V2 = 0.
Note that the signs are reversed compared with the other loop,
because elements are traversed in the opposite direction. With values
entered, this becomes
+6I1 + 2I3 − 45 = 0 – we have this as equation 3

4. These three equations are sufficient to solve for the three unknown currents.
I1 = I 2 + I 3
−3I2 + 18 − 6I1 = 0
+6I1 + 2I3 − 45 = 0
First, solve the second equation for I 2:

I2 = 6 − 2I1
Now solve the third equation for I3:

I3 = 22.5 − 3I1

Substituting these two new equations into the first one allows us to find a
value for I1:

I1 = I2 + I3 = (6−2I1) + (22.5− 3I1) = 28.5 − 5I1.

Combining terms gives
6I1 = 28.5, and
I1 = 4.75 A
Substituting this value for I1 back into the fourth equation gives
I 2 = 6 − 2I1 = 6 − 9.50
I2 = −3.50 A

 The minus sign means I 2 flows in the direction opposite to that

assumed in the circuit.
Finally, substituting the value for I 1 into the fifth equation gives
I3 = 22.5 − 3I1 = 22.5 − 14 . 25
I3 = 8.25 A

A Self-regulated Learning Module 30

 5. Just as a check, we note that indeed I 1 = I2 + I3. The results could also have
been checked by entering all of the values into the equation for the
abcdefgha loop.

I1 = I2 + I3 = -3.50+8.25 = 4.75 A

 We can see that the value obtained is the same as the value
solved above for I1.

ACTIVITY 2.3
PROBLEM SOLVING: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

 Find the currents flowing thru each resistor in the given circuit. Show step by step
solution. Substitute your answers to check the validity of the values that you
arrived at. Be patient and always double check your solution especially for the –
and + signs of the equations. 😊  Point distribution:
Node and loop equations – 5 points each (15 points total)
Complete Solution – 15 points
Current values (I1, I2, I3, and I4) – 5 points each (20 points total)

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 31

 1. In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single
path for current flow.
2. In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming
exactly two sets of electrically common points.
3. A “branch” in a parallel circuit is a path for electric current formed by one of the
load components (such as a resistor).
4. Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyze any circuit, simple or complex.
5. Kirchhoff’s first rule—the junction rule: The sum of all currents entering a
junction must equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction.
6. Kirchhoff’s second rule—the loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential
around any closed circuit path (loop) must be zero.
7. The two rules are based, respectively, on the laws of conservation of charge and
energy.
8. When calculating voltage and current using Kirchhoff’s rules, a set of conventions
must be followed for determining the correct signs of various terms.
9. The simpler series and parallel rules are special cases of Kirchhoff’s rules.
10.In actual electrical practice, consider safety at all times when dealing with
electrical lines, connections, outlets, and when using electrical equipment and
devices.

ASSESSMENT

A Self-regulated Learning Module 32

*In this module, we will study the basic concepts on magnetism which plays many important roles in
our lives today. Physicists’ understanding of magnetism has enabled the development of technologies
that affect our everyday lives.

 The following lessons will be discussed in this module:

LESSON 1 - Forces in magnetic fields

LESSON 2 - Sources of magnetic fields

OBJECTIVES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss competently the concepts on magnetism.
2. Demonstrate these concepts by solving problems using step by step methods.
3. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
4. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: FORCES IN MAGNETIC FIELDS

 The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force.
 The magnetic field lines or forces are representations of the strength and the direction of
a magnetic field.

 Magnetic field is created by:

1. Moving electric charges and
2. current flowing through a
wire.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 33

 • The diagrams below show the behavior of the magnetic field lines of forces
between unlike and like poles of a magnet.

Magnetic field lines Magnetic field lines

• These figures show the magnetic field surrounding different shapes of magnets.
The magnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of forces, which are shown
here by lines and arrows.
• Magnetic lines of forces comes out of the north pole and goes into the south pole
as shown by the arrow directions

between unlike poles between like poles

 The properties of magnetic field lines can be summarized by these rules:

1. The direction of the magnetic field is tangent to the field line at any point in space. A
small compass will point in the direction of the field line.
2. The strength of the field is proportional to the closeness of the lines. It is exactly
proportional to the number of lines per unit area perpendicular to the lines (called
the magnetic filed strength or density).
3. Magnetic field lines can never cross, meaning that the field is unique at any point in
space.
4. Magnetic field lines are continuous, forming closed loops without beginning or end.
They go from the north pole to the south pole outside of the magnet, and from south
pole to the north pole inside of the magnet.
5. North and south poles cannot be separated, they always come together.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 34

A. Magnetic field strength: Force on a moving charge in a
magnetic field - Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges

 The magnitude of the magnetic force F on a charge q moving at a speed v in a

magnetic field of strength B is given by

F = qvB sin θ
Where:

F – is the force in newton (N) v – is the speed in m/s q – is the

charge of a proton/electron in coulomb (C) = 1.6 x 10-19C θ
- is the angle between the directions of v and B

B - is the magnetic field strength in tesla (T), after the inventor Nikola
Tesla (1856–1943). Another smaller unit is called the gauss (G), equal to

1 G = 1 x 10-4 T

 This force is often called the Lorentz force. Lorentz force is the force experienced
by a particle of charge q moving with a velocity v in an electric field E and a
magnetic field B.

 Since force is a vector quantity, then its direction should be indicated. How? By
using the concept of the Right-Hand-Rule (RHR).

The direction of the magnetic force F is perpendicular to the plane formed by

v and B, as determined by the right hand rule. Righthand-rule states that, to
determine the direction of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, you
point the thumb of your right hand in the direction of v, the fingers in the direction
of B, and a perpendicular to the palm points in the direction of F as shown in the
figure.
The thumb always points to the direction of velocity, extended fingers point
to the direction of magnetic field and the force is in the

A Self-regulated Learning Module 35

direction you would push with your palm. The force on a negative charge is in exactly the
opposite direction to that on a positive charge.

 In the RHR, note that the three quantities namely, velocity, magnetic field and force,
should be perpendicular with each other, that is they are at right angle with each
other.
 Watch the link below to have a better understanding of the Right-hand-rule:
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVignrHljXQ
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eutjurQgMuE

EXAMPLE:
A proton moves at 8 x 10 6 m/s along the +x-axis and enters a region where
there is a magnetic field of magnitude 2.5 T, directed at an angle of 30 with
the x-axis and lying in the xy-plane. a) Find the magnitude and direction of
the magnetic force on the proton.
b) If the proton were replaced with an electron, what will be the force
magnitude and direction acting on it?

Y-axis
Given: By
v B
30

Bx

v = 8 x 106
m/s B = 2.5 T
θ = 30
q = 1.6 x 10-19C

Solution:

a) F = qvB sin θ = (1.6 x 10-19)( 8 x 106)(2.5)*sin 30 = 1.6 x 10-12 N,

out of the page

 Using RHR to determine the direction of the force, the velocity and
the magnetic field should be perpendicular with each other, so
looking at the diagram, notice that the component of the magnetic
field that is perpendicular with the velocity is By. Thus, placing our
fingers in the direction of By which is upward and the thumb in the
direction of v, we can have the direction of force which is
toward you or outside of the page.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 36

 b) The force magnitude on an electron is the same as that of the proton,
but its direction is reversed, thus, F = 1.6 x 10-12 N, into the page

B. Magnetic Force on a Current-carrying Wire

- A charge moving through a magnetic field experiences a force due to the field.
- Since current is simply a stream of positive charges, a current experiences a force
due to a magnetic field.

 The magnitude of the magnetic force F on a length l of wire carrying current I in a

magnetic field of strength B is given by

F = ILB sin θ
Where:
F – is the force in newton (N)
L – is length of wire in meter (m) I – is the
current in ampere (A) θ - is the angle
between the directions of I and B
B - is the magnetic field strength in tesla (T)

 The direction of force can also be determined by using the Right-hand-rule (RHR).

The direction of the magnetic force F is perpendicular to the plane formed by

I and B, as determined by the right hand rule. Right-hand-rule states that, to
determine the direction of the magnetic force on currentcarrying wire, you point the
thumb of your right hand in the direction of I, the fingers in the direction of B, and a
perpendicular to the palm points in the direction of F as shown in the figure.
The thumb always points to the direction of current, extended fingers
point to the direction of magnetic field and the force is in the direction you would push
with your palm.

EXAMPLE:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 37

 A wire carries a current of 22 A toward east. If the magnetic field in the area is
vertical and directed to the north with a magnitude of 0.5 x 10 -4 T, find the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on a 36-m length of wire.

Given: B=0.5 x10-4T

I =22A l = 36 m
θ = 90, since B and I are perpendicular with each other

Solution:

F = IlB sin θ = (22)(36)(0.5 x10-4) sin 90 = 0.0396 N, out of the

page

 The force direction as indicated by the RHR is out of the page, since if
we orient the thumb toward the East and the fingers toward the
North, the palm of our hands will be toward us.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed. Take a picture or scan your
paper and upload it in our CANVAS class on or before the due date.

1. For the given figures a,b,c,d,e,f. ( 5 points each; 3 pts for magnitude, 2 points for
direction) Solve for the magnitude and direction of the force on a proton given the
following particulars:
q = 1.6 x 10-19C

v = 10 x 106 m/s B

= 0.15 T

a) F= qvB sin θ = 1.6 x 10-19C (10 x 106 m/s) (0.15T) sin 90 = 2.4 x 10 -13 N, left direction(-
x)

A Self-regulated Learning Module 38

b) F=2.4 x 10-13 N, upward (into the page)

c) F= 2.4 x 10-13 N, upward (+Y)

d) F=0, no direction
e) F=2.4 x 10-13 N, right (+X)

f) F=2.4 x 10-13 N, (-Y)

2. A 15 m long wire carries a current of 6 A and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of

0.40 T directed in the -X. Solve for the magnitude and direction of the force on the
wire when the wire is (a) perpendicular to the field directed upward, and (b) at 30 
to the field directed downwards.
Draw your diagram indicating the current and magnetic field directions.
(5 points each for the drawing, 3 points for the magnitude, 2 points for the
direction)

LESSON 2: SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

 We have previously discussed that a moving charged particle produces a magnetic

field. This connection between electricity and magnetism is exploited in
electromagnetic devices, such as a computer hard drive. In fact, it is the underlying
principle behind most of the technology in modern society, including telephones,
television, computers, and the internet.

 Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges, which includes electric currents.
The figure below shows the nature of the magnetic fields produced by several
current arrangements.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 39

 A. Current in a long straight wire

The magnetic field lines around a long

wire carries an electric current forming
concentric circles around the wire and is
directed perpendicular to the wire which is in
the direction of the fingers of your right hand as
you curl and wrap them around the wire with
your thumb pointed in the current’s direction as
shown in the figure.

B. Loop of Wire

Electric current in a circular loop creates

a magnetic field which is more concentrated in
the center of the loop than outside the loop.
Stacking multiple loops concentrates the field
even more into what is called a solenoid.

C. Solenoid

- is a thin wire wound into a coil that produces a magnetic field when
an electric current is passed through it.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 40

 The magnetic field is concentrated into almost uniform field in the center
of a solenoid like that formed in a long straight wire. The magnetic field outside
is weaker represented by the magnetic field lines that are further apart.

D. Bar Magnet
The lines of magnetic field from a bar magnet form closed lines. By
convention, the field
direction is taken to be
outward from the North
pole and in to the South
pole of the magnet.
Permanent magnets can
be made from
ferromagnetic materials.
The figure shows the magnetic field lines
in which the magnetic field is strongest inside the magnetic material. The
strongest external magnetic fields are near the poles.

E. The Earth

The Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a

bar magnet.

ACTIVITY 3.2
ESSAY: Answer the following questions completely, comprehensively and
neatly.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 41

 1. State the following laws and indicate how they are used in determining the magnetic
field in a certain region.
a. Biot - Savart Law (10 points)
b. Ampere’s Law (10 points)

2. What are ferromagnetic materials? And what is ferromagnetism? (5 points each)

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

2. Magnetic fields can be pictorially represented by magnetic field lines, the properties of
which are as follows:
a. The field is tangent to the magnetic field line.
b. Field strength is proportional to the line density.
c. Field lines cannot cross.
d. Field lines are continuous loops.

3. Magnetic fields exert a force on a moving charge q, the magnitude of which is

F=qvBsinθ

where θ is the angle between the directions of v and B

4. The SI unit for magnetic field strength B is the tesla (T)

5. The direction of the force on a moving charge is given by right hand rule (RHR):
- Point the thumb of the right hand in the direction of v, the fingers in the
direction of B, and a perpendicular to the palm points in the direction of F.
- The force is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B. Since the force is
zero if v is parallel to B.

6. The magnetic force on current-carrying conductors is given by F=IlBsinθ

where I is the current, l is the length of a straight conductor in a uniform

magnetic field B, and θ is the angle between I and B. The force follows
RHR with the thumb in the direction of I.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 42

 7. Magnetic fields are created by moving charges through conductors where current
can pass though and by materials possessing natural magnetism like bar magnets
and the Earth.

ASSESSMENT

*In this module, we will study the basic concepts on electromagnetic induction and
electromagnetism which plays many important roles in our lives today. Electromagnetic
induction has many applications in electrical technology such as inductors, transformers,
in motors and in generators.

 The following lessons will be discussed in this module:

LESSON 1 - Introduction, Magnetic Flux

LESSON 2 - Generators

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss competently the concepts on electromagnetic induction.
2. Demonstrate these concepts by solving problems using step by step methods.
3. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
4. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION, MAGNETIC FLUX

A. A magnetic field can be used to produce current and vice-versa.

How?
When a wire is moved across the magnetic field, a small voltage is created or
induced and this is what we call the ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, which was
discovered in 1831-1832 during a series of experiments by Michael Faraday.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 43

 Thus, Electromagnetic Induction is the process through which the electromotive
force is produced whenever:
a. an electric conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field
b. a conductor is rotating in a magnetic field

• Watch the video in the link below to understand this concept better:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tC6E9J925pY

 Electromagnetism, on the other hand, is a branch of physics involving the study of

the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between
electrically charged particles. When electric current flows through a simple wire, it
creates a magnetic field in the whole conductor. The magnetic field around the
conductor has a definite direction North and south. This north and south poles
determined the direction of the electric current flowing through the conductor.

- A solenoid, comprising of a coil of wire, is an example of a device that

operates through the concept of electromagnetism, and is also an
example of a temporary magnet, since magnetic field is only present
when current flows through it, but losses magnetism once current is
removed.

 The magnitude of the voltage produced is given by Faraday’s Law (Michael

Faraday), which states that,
“ The magnitude of the induced electromotive force in a circuit is
directly proportional to the rate at which magnetic flux changes through
the circuit.”

In equation form: 
Where:  = emf in volts
N = number of turns or loops of the coil of wire

A Self-regulated Learning Module 44

 = rate of flux change in weber per second

B. Magnetic flux (Φ – Greek letter PHI )

- Refers to the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface.
- In equation,
Φ = B*A cos θ
Where,
Φ - magnetic flux in weber (Wb)
B - magnetic field in Tesla (T) A
- area in m2

θ - angle at which the field lines pass through the given surface area

EXAMPLES:

1. A circular loop of wire with a diameter of 12 cm has 10 turns and is in a magnetic

field of 1.8 T. The loop is removed from the magnetic field over a time of 0.25
sec. What is the induced emf in the loop?

Given: N = 10
d = 12 cm = 0.12 m; A = r2 = *(0.12/2)2 = 0.0113 m2 θ –
assumed to be zero since it is not indicated in the problem
t = 0.25 sec
B = 1.8 T
Solution:
Φ = B*A cos θ = (1.8T)(0.0113m2) cos 0 = 0.0203 Wb

Thus,  10 (0.0203/0.25) cos 0 = - 0.8136 volt

2. A rectangular coil comprising of 100 turns has a length of 20 cm and a width of

10 cm is initially held so that its plane is parallel to a magnetic field of 1.5 T. The
coil is then rotated in 0.20 sec such that it is now perpendicular to the magnetic
field. Find the induced emf in the coil.

Given: N = 100
A = l x w = 20 cm x 10 cm = 200 cm2 x (1m/100 cm)2 = 0.02 m2
B = 1.5 T

T = 0.20 sec
θi = 90 ; θf = 0

A Self-regulated Learning Module 45

 - this diagram shows the shift of the rectangular coil from θ = 90 to θ=0 Solution:

Φi = B*A cos θ = 1.5*0.02*cos 90 = 0

Φf = B*A cos θ = 1.5*0.02*cos 0 = 0.03 Wb

Thus,  -N *( Φf – Φi/t ) = - 100 * (0.03-0)/0.2 = 15 V

• You can watch this video for more solved examples:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDIm_ZtN1h4

ACTIVITY 4.1
• ESSAY: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. Cite two examples of devices using the concept of electromagnetism and

explain how the device works thru electromagnetism. a) (10 points)
b) (10 points)
2. What does the negative sign in the induced voltage equation of
Faraday’s Law mean? Answer completely. (10 points)
3. Differentiate between induced and generated voltage. (10 points) -this
is from lesson 2

LESSON 2: GENERATORS

 Electric generators are machines that convert mechanical energy (rotation) to

electrical energy (electricity) through the Principle of Electromagnetic Induction that
we have learned earlier.

How do electric generators work?

Electric generators are used to produce electric energy, which can be stored
in batteries or can be directly supplied to the homes and industrial buildings.
Electric generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 46

 A conductor coil is rotated rapidly between the poles of a horseshoe type
magnet. The conductor coil along with its core is known as an armature. The
armature is connected to a shaft of a mechanical energy source such as a motor and
rotated. The mechanical energy required is supplied by a prime mover which can
be provided by engines, motors, hand-cranks or turbines.

When the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field which lies between the two
poles of the magnet. The part where the magnets are placed in the generator is
called the field. The magnetic field will interfere with the electrons in the conductor
to induce a flow of electric current inside it.

 The figure on the left side below shows a cut out view of the parts of a generator.
The figure on the right side is a typical generator that we see on the streets during
brownouts to supply electricity to the buildings.

 Watch the video link below to have a deeper understanding of how a generator
works in producing electricity. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mq2zjmS8UMI

 Two types of Generators:

1. Direct current (DC) Generator
 this type of generator supplies DC loads

A Self-regulated Learning Module 47

 A DC generator consists of a coil of wire
rotated by a prime mover in a magnetic field. As
the loop rotates, the magnetic flux changes which
induces a voltage in the loop according to
Faraday’s Law. The end loops are connected to a
split-ring device called a commutator, that
rotates with the loop. Generally speaking, the
voltage induced in the armature of a generator is
always AC. The commutator acts as a rectifier that converts the internally AC
voltage to a DC output voltage.

2. Alternating current (AC) Generator or Alternators

 This type of generator supplies AC loads

An AC generator, likewise consists of a

coil of wire rotated by a prime mover in a
magnetic field. But this time the end loops are
connected to two slip-rings, that rotate with
the loop. There is no need to convert the AC
voltage induced since the load to be supplied
with electricity is also AC.

 There are THREE WAYS/METHODS in which voltage can be developed in a coil of

wire in a generator:
1. By changing the flux through the coil
2. By moving the coil through the magnetic field
3. By changing the direction of the flux with respect to the coil

• Induced emf in the coil of a generator is produced by number 1 above and is

given by:


For maximum emf:

 = 𝑵𝑩𝑨
Where:

 - induced voltage in volts

N - number of coil turns or loops

A Self-regulated Learning Module 48

 B – magnetic field in Tesla

A - Area of the coil loop in m2

 - angular velocity in rad/sec,

 = 𝟐𝒇, where f is the frequency in hertz (hz)

• Generated voltage is produced by methods 2 and 3, and is given by:

 = 𝑩 𝒍𝒗
Where:

B - magnetic field in Tesla (T)

𝒍 – length of wire in meter (m), that is moved relative to the flux

𝒗 – velocity of the wire in m/s

EXAMPLE:

1. The coil in an alternator consists of 8 loops of wire, each with an area of 0.09 m 2.
The total resistance of the coil is 12 , and rotates in a 0.5 T magnetic field
moving at a constant frequency of 60 hz. Find,
a) Maximum induced emf in the coil.
b) Maximum induced current when the output ends of
the coil are connected to a 20- electrical load.
Given: N–8
A – 0.09 m2
B – 0.5 T R – 12 
f – 60 hz
Solution:
a)  =  = 8(0.5T)(0.09 m2)(2)(60 hz) = 135.72 volts
b) From Ohm’s Law, 4.24 A

2. A coil of wire with an average length of 20 cm moves through a magnetic field of

1.2 T. The flux is cut with a speed of 7 x 10 2 m/s. What is the generated
voltage?

Given: l = 20 cm = 0.2 m
B = 1.2 T
V = 7 x 102 m/s

Solution:
 = 1.2T(0.2m)( 7 x 102 m/s) = 168 volts

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 ACTIVITY 4.2
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and
show your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. A generator has 200 turns of wire on a coil of radius 2.00 cm. If the magnetic
field in the region of the coil is 0.180 T and is moving with an angular velocity of
314 rad/sec, how much voltage is generated? (10 points)

2. a) At what angular velocity will the peak voltage of a generator be 480 V, if its
500-turn, 8.00 cm diameter coil rotates in a 0.250 T field? (10 points) b) What is
its frequency? (5 points)

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

1. Electromagnetic induction is creating an electric current from a changing

magnetic field.
2. Electromagnetism is the creation of a magnetic field from the movement of
electrical charges.
3. Magnetic Flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given
closed surface area.
4. Faraday’s Law is used to find the magnitude of the induced voltage.
5. Generators convert mechanical rotation to electricity by using the concept of
electromagnetic induction.
6. DC generators are used to supply DC loads while AC generators are used to
supply AC loads.

ASSESSMENT

*In this module, we will study the basic concepts of inductance and capacitance circuits
and incorporate these with resistance that we have studied previously. These three
components, the inductor, capacitor and resistor, are the main components in any
electronic or electrical device.

 The following are the lessons we will be taking up in this module:

LESSON 1 - Self and mutual inductance

LESSON 2 - Capacitance

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LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Explain the concepts and laws on capacitance and inductance circuits.
2. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
3. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE

 Induction is the process in which an induce by changing magnetic
 emf is d flux.
Inductance is the property of a conductor by which a change in current in the
conductor
creates a voltage in both the conductor itself (self-inductance) and any nearby
conductors (mutual inductance).
- It is actually a measure of an inductors “resistance” to the change of the current
flowing through the circuit and the larger is its value in Henries, the lower will be
the rate of current change.

A. Self-inductance (L)
• is the effect of Faraday’s law of induction wherein a coil can induce an emf on
itself. When current through a coil changes, the magnetic field and flux also
changes, inducing a counter emf, as required by Lenz’s law.
• From Lenz’s law, a changing electric current through a circuit that has
inductance induces a proportional voltage which opposes the change in current.
• The emf created is called the self-induced emf or the back emf of the coil and is
given by:


𝒕
Where:

𝑳 – is the self-inductance of the device in Henry(H)

 - induced emf in volts

– rate of change of current in A/s

• An inductor is a device that exhibits self-inductance.
- also called choke, they are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a
solid central core which can be either a straight cylindrical rod or a
continuous loop or ring to concentrate their magnetic flux.
- inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a
steady state DC current.

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 • Thus, we can also say that, Inductance is the ability of an inductor to resist
changes in current.
• Shown in the figures are the symbol of an inductor/inductance and a picture
of a typical inductor.

EXAMPLE:
A steady state direct current of 4 ampere passes through a solenoid coil of
0.5H. What would be the back emf induced in the coil if the switch in the circuit was
opened for 10mS and the current flowing through the coil dropped to zero ampere.
Given: I- 4 A
L- 0.5 H
t – 10ms
Solution:
 0.5 H (4A/10x10-3s) = 200 volts

B. Mutual Inductance (M)

• is the interaction of one coil’s magnetic field on another coil as it induces a
voltage in the adjacent coil.
• when two or more coils are magnetically linked together by a common magnetic
flux they are said to have the property of Mutual Inductance.
• when the emf is induced into an adjacent coil situated within the same magnetic
field, the emf is said to be induced magnetically, inductively or by Mutual
induction ( M ).
• Mutual induction can be defined as the current flowing in one coil that induces a
voltage in an adjacent coil.

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 This figure shows two separate coils wound
in the same core. Here the current flowing in
coil one, L1 sets up a magnetic field around
itself with some of these magnetic field lines
passing through coil two, L 2 giving us mutual
inductance. Coil one has a current of I 1 and
N1 turns while, coil two has N 2 turns.
Likewise, the flux linking coil one, L 1 when a
current flows around coil two, L2 is exactly the same as the flux linking coil two when
the same current
flows around coil one above, then the mutual inductance of coil one with respect of coil
two is defined as M21. This mutual inductance is true irrespective of the size, number of
turns, relative position or orientation of the two coils.

 Mutual Inductance is the basic operating principal of the transformer, motors,

generators and any other electrical component that interacts with another magnetic
field.
 The induced emf for mutual induction is given by:


Where:
 - induced emf in volts
M – mutual inductance in henry

– rate of change of current in A/s

 The energy stored in the coil (W), due to the increase in the current through an
inductor from zero to I is given by:

W= , in joules

o When a changing current flows into an inductor, energy is stored in its

magnetic field.
EXAMPLE:
Two coils are wound on the same iron rod so that the flux generated by one
passes through the other also. A current of 2A flows through the primary coil
having 50 loops or turns of wire. The mutual flux linking the two coils through
the rod is equal to 2.5 x 10 -4 weber. Determine the mutual inductance of the two
coils if the secondary coil equal loops of wire as the primary coil.
Given: I = 2A
NP = turns in the primary coil (this coil is connected to the power
source)
NS = turns in the secondary coil (connected to the load side)

o NP = NS = 50

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  = 2.5 x 10-4 weber
Solution:

• Remember the induced emf equation from Faraday’s Law which is,

𝑡
• Let us incorporate it in the equation of mutual inductance,

• Equating the two equations, we have

M = N∗ ( )(𝑡)/(𝐼)(𝑡), the change in time cancels, thus

• So that we have a new equation for M,

giving us

M= = 50* (2.5 x 10-4 weber/2A) = 0.00625 H or 6.25 mH

ACTIVITY 5.1
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. An emf of 8V is induced in a coil of wire when the current in it changes at a rate of

32 A/s. Find: a) the self-inductance of the coil, and b) the energy stored in the coil.
(5 points for each unknown)

2. Two neighboring coils, A and B, have 300 and 600 turns, respectively. A current of
1.5A in coil A causes 1.2 x 10-4 weber to pass thru A and 0.90 x 10-4 to pass thru B.
Determine: a) selfinductance of coil A, b) mutual inductance of coils A and B, and c)
average induced emf in B when the current in A is interrupted in 0.2 second. (5
points for each unknown)

LESSON 2: CAPACITANCE

 The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy
temporarily in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference
across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.

A. The Capacitance of a Capacitor (C)

- Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor to resist the change of
voltage across it.
- It is the measure of a capacitor’s ability to store an electrical charge onto its
two plates - its unit is the Farad (F), named after the British physicist
Michael Faraday.

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 - It is equal to the ratio of the charge (Q) to the voltage (V),

C=
Where: C – capacitance in Farad (F)
Q – charge in coulomb (C)
V – voltage in volts (V)

 Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use, thus it is more convenient

to use smaller units such as micro-farads (F), nano-farads (nF) and pico-
farads (pF).
B. Parallel-plate capacitor
- Basically, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductor plates which
are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated
either by air or by some form of a good insulating material such as waxed
paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between the parallel plates of a
capacitor is commonly called the Dielectric.

• Shown in the figures are the picture of a typical capacitor and its symbol.

• Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

- The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
𝑨
C = ko
𝒅

Where: C – capacitance in Farad

k – dielectric constant (no unit)
A – area of one plate in m2
d – height of the dielectric
o – permittivity of free space = 8.84 x 10 -12 F/m

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  When a voltage is applied to the leads of these plates an electrical current flows
charging up one plate with a positive charge with respect to the supply voltage
and the other plate with an equal and opposite negative charge. The greater the
applied voltage the greater will be the charge stored on the plates of the
capacitor. Likewise, the smaller the applied voltage the smaller the charge.
C. Energy in a Capacitor o When a capacitor charges up from the power supply
connected to it, an electrostatic field is established which stores energy in the
capacitor.
o The amount of energy that is stored in this electrostatic field is equal to the
energy the voltage supply exerts to maintain the charge on the plates of
the capacitor and is given by the formula:

W= CV2
Where:
W – energy in joules
C – capacitance in
Farad V – voltage in
volts
EXAMPLES:

1. A 1.2 F capacitor is charged to 3kV. Compute for the charge and the energy
stored in the capacitor.

Given: C = 1.2 F V =
3kV = 3000 V Solution:

o The charge on the capacitor is,

Q = CV = (1.2 x 10-6)(3000) = 0.0036 C or 3.6mC

o The energy store is,

W= 5.4 Joules

A Self-regulated Learning Module 56

 2. A certain parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel plates with area of 200
cm2 each, separated by a 0.4 cm air-gap.
a. Compute its capacitance.
b. If the capacitor is connected across a 500 V source, find the charge on it,
and the energy stored in it.
c. If a liquid with k = 2.6 is filled between the plates so as to fill the air gap,
how much additional charge will flow onto the capacitor from the 500V
source?

Given: A = 200 cm2 x ( = 0.02

2
m d = 0.4 cm = 0.4cm/100cm =
0.004 m
Solution:

a. The dielectric constant for air is 1, k=1

𝑨
C = ko
𝒅

= (1)( 8.84 x 10-12 F/m)( m) = 4.42 x 10-11 F or 44.2 pF

b. If V = 500V, then

Q = CV = (4.42 x 10-11)(500) = 22.1 x 10-9 C or 22.1 nC

W= J or 5.525 J
c. If k=2.6, then the capacitor will have a capacitance that is 2.6 larger than
its original value. Thus,
Q = CV = (2.26*4.42 x 10-11)(500) = 57.46 nC

Since the charge was initially equal to 22.1 nC, then the charge that was added to
it is,

QADDED = 57.46 nC – 22.1 nC = 35.36 nC

ACTIVITY 5.2
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. A 3-f capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery. ( 5points for each unknown)

a. How much energy is stored in the capacitor?

A Self-regulated Learning Module 57

 b. If the capacitor is connected to a 6-V source, how much is the change in the
energy stored?

2. The voltage across an air-filled parallel-plate capacitor is measured to be 85 volts.

When a dielectric is inserted and completely fills the space between the plates,
the voltage drops to
25 volts. (5 points for each unknown)
a. What is the dielectric constant of the inserted material?
b. Can you identify the dielectric material? If so, what is it?
c. If the dielectric did not completely fill the space between the plates, what
would you conclude about the voltage across the plates?

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

1. An inductor, also called choke, is a device made up of coils of wire wound around
an iron core which exhibits self-inductance.
2. Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical conductor that “opposes a change in
the current”.
3. Self-induction is the characteristic of a coil to induce an emf on itself while mutual
inductance is the property of coils to be magnetically linked together by a common
magnetic flux.
4. Inductors resist or oppose changes of current but will easily pass a steady state DC
current
5. A capacitor temporarily stores electrical charge onto its plates.
6. The amount of electrical charge that a capacitor can store on its plates is known as
its Capacitance value and depends upon three main factors.
 Surface Area (A) – the surface area, A of the two conductive plates
which make up the capacitor, the larger the area the greater the
capacitance.
 Distance (d) – the distance, d between the two plates, the smaller the
distance the greater the capacitance.
 Dielectric Material – the type of material which separates the two plates
called the “dielectric”, the higher the permittivity of the dielectric the
greater the capacitance.
7. A capacitor is a device which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy
temporarily in the form of an electrical charge.
8. Capacitance is also the property of a capacitor that “opposes a change of voltage
across it.”

A Self-regulated Learning Module 58

 ASSESSMENT

 In this module, we will study the basic concepts of alternating current circuits and
relate it to the previous topics that we have already studied. Also, the three basic
components, the inductor, capacitor and resistor, will be combined and their
characteristics will be studied further, which are the basic building blocks of the
advances in technology today especially in electrical and electronic aspect.

 The following lessons will be discussed in this module:

LESSON 1 - Introduction to AC
LESSON 2 - AC Loads, Reactance and Impedance
LESSON 3 - Resonance

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss competently the concepts on AC circuits.
2. Demonstrate these concepts by solving problems using step by step methods.
3. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
4. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO AC

 Recall that there are two kinds of current, direct (DC) and alternating (AC). Let
us take a closer look at the main characteristics of these currents.

1. Direct Current (DC)

 is a form of electrical current that flows around an electrical circuit in one
direction only, making it a “Uni-directional” current.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 59

  is produced from power supplies, batteries, dynamos and solar cells to name a
few and has a fixed magnitude value and a definite direction associated with it.

Figure 6.1 shows an example of a simple DC circuit and its waveform.

Fig. 6.1

 Current direction is determined by the orientation of the battery source as shown

in the diagram, which is out from the + terminal and into the – terminal, called
the conventional flow of current.

2. ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

- is a current that varies in both magnitude and direction or polarity.
- it is also called Sinusoidal current since it basically generates or produces
sine waves.
 Alternating voltages and currents can not be stored in batteries or cells like
direct current (DC) can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these
quantities using alternators or waveform generators when they are needed.
 AC Sinusoidal Waveforms are created by rotating a coil within a magnetic field.
When an electric current flows through a wire or conductor, a circular magnetic
field is created around the wire and whose strength is related to the current
value.

Fig. 6.2 shows an example of an AC waveform, which is a SINE WAVE,

created from an alternator.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 60

 Fig. 6.2

 An AC generator uses the principle of Faraday’s electromagnetic

induction to convert a mechanical energy such as rotation, into electrical
energy, represented by a Sinusoidal Waveform.
• A simple generator consists of a pair of permanent magnets
producing a fixed magnetic field between a north and a south
pole. Inside this magnetic field is a single rectangular loop of
wire that can be rotated around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the
magnetic flux at various angles as shown in Fig.
6.2.
• We have taken generators from our previous topic on
electromagnetic induction. Remember that:
 The three (3) important factors so that AC will be produced or
generated are:
1. Presence of conductors
2. Presence of magnetic flux (from the magnet poles as shown in the Fig. 6.1)
3. Motion of the conductors cutting the flux

 The main characteristics of an AC Waveform are as follows:

1. Period (T)
- is the length of time in seconds to complete one cycle as shown in Fig.
6.3.

T = time/cycle

- its basic unit is second (s)

2. Frequency (ƒ)

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 - is the number of cycles per one second time

ƒ = cycles/time

- the unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz)

 Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, and is given by the
formula:

ƒ = 1/T or T = 1/ ƒ

3. Amplitude (A)
- is the maximum or peak value of the signal waveform measured in volts
or amps.

Figure 6.3 shows an example of a simple AC circuit and its waveform.

Fig. 6.3

 Alternating current can have the following values:

1. Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective value

- This is the equivalent value for an alternating current that provides the
same amount of electrical power to a load as a DC equivalent circuit
- It is symbolized by capital letters I for current and V for voltage, just like
the DC values

2. Maximum value
- Is the amplitude also called the peak values represented
by Im or Vm  RMS and Maximum values are related by
the equation below:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 62

 Im = 𝑰√𝟐 and Vm = 𝑽√𝟐
 Consequently,

I = 𝑰𝒎/√𝟐 and V = 𝑽𝒎/√𝟐

3. Instantaneous value
- This value represents the values of voltage and current at any instant of
time as illustrated in Fig. 6.2
- the instantaneous values for current (Ii) and voltage (Vi) are given by the
following equations: i = Im sin v = Vm sin
- If the coil rotates with a frequency and angular speed, then the
instantaneous values are given by:
i = Im sint = Im sin2ft
v = Vm sint =Vm sin2ft

Where:
 - is the angle in degrees
f – is the frequency in hertz or cycles per second
t – is the time in seconds
 - is the angular velocity in radian/sec,
 = 2f

 We can convert degrees to radian using these conversion

factors: 180 =  = 3.1416 radian
EXAMPLES:
1. A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is flowing through a resistance of 40Ω
when connected to a 60 hz AC source. Calculate the RMS voltage and the peak
voltage of the supply. What will be the instantaneous value of current after a
time of 0.005 second.

Given: I = 6 A , this is considered as the RMS value of current since it was not
specified as either maximum or instantaneous value
R = 40
Solution:

a) Using Ohm’s Law: V = IR = (6)(40) = 240 volts

b) Vm = 𝑽√𝟐 = 240(√𝟐) = 339.41 volts

c) After a time of 0.005 sec, the instantaneous current will be,
Ii = Im sint = Im sin2ft

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 2(60)(.005) = 0.6 rad x 180°/ = 108
Where, Im = 6(√2) = 8.485 A and t =

therefore, Ii = 8.485 (sin 108) = 8.07 A

 Note that the angular speed’s unit is rad/sec, thus there is a need to convert it to
degree unit after multiplying it with time, before taking the sine function of t

2. The maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage in an alternator is 10V. a) At

what angle will the voltage be -6V?, and +6V? b) Convert these angles to radian.

Given: Vm = 10V
Solution:
a) At vi = -6V, the angle  is

 = sin−1(−0.6) = -36.87
vi = Vm sin, -6 = 10 sin,
Thus,

At V = +6V, the angle  is

V = Vm sin, 6 = 10 sin,
Thus,  = sin (0.6) = +36.87
−1

 So that, the angle at V = -6 is -36.87, and the angle at V = 6V is

+36.87

b) Converting -36.87 to radian: - 0.64 rad

Converting 36.87 to radian: 36.87 x = 0.64
rad 180

ACTIVITY 6.1
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. From example number 2(a), what is the significance of the negative angle? Where is
this angle located in the sine wave? (illustrate your answer by drawing a sine wave)
(10 points)

2. A voltmeter reads 80 V when it is connected across the terminals of an AC source

whose frequency is 1000 Hz. a) What is the maximum voltage? b) What is its
instantaneous voltage after a time of 0.01 second? (5 points each)

3. A 40 resistor is connected across a 15V variable frequency AC source. Find the
current through the resistor after a time of 0.05 sec when the frequency is a) 100
hz, and b)25 hz. ( 5 points each)

A Self-regulated Learning Module 64

LESSON 2: AC LOADS, REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE

 Electrical and electronic circuits consist of connecting together many different

components to form a complete and closed circuit. The three main components
used in any circuit are the: Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor. All three
of these components have one thing in common, they limit the flow of electrical
current through a circuit but in very different ways. Let us take up each
component’s characteristics one by one in relation to the voltage and current.

A. The following are the different types of components/loads in an AC circuits.

1. Resistor (R) circuit

𝑉
I=
𝑅

P = IV

Fig. 6.4

EXAMPLE:
An AC voltage source of Vi = 60V sin120t is applied across a
20 resistor. A) What is the frequency of the source? B) How much current
flows through the resistor?

Given: from the instantaneous voltage equation, Vi = Vm sin2ft, we can say

that,
Vm = 60V
R = 20
Solution:

A) From the formula of angular speed,  = 2f, we have  = 120 in the

given, thus
 120
f= 60 hz

2

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 B) I =𝑉 , but V = = 42.43 V, so that
𝑅

I= 2.12 A
2. Inductor (L) circuit

�
𝑋
� I = , where XL
𝐿 is the
Inductive
Reactance
which is the opposition of a coil to current flow, and is
given by,
XL = 2fL
Where: f – frequency in hz
Fig 6.5 L – inductance in Henry
XL – inductive reactance in Ohms ()
 The average power taken by an inductor is equal to zero, thus
P=0.

EXAMPLE:
A 120 V AC voltage source is connected across an inductor of 0.7H.
Find the current through the inductor if the frequency of the source is 120 hz.
What is the power loss in the inductor?
Given: V = 120V, L = 0.7H, f = 120hz
Solution:
a) Before we can solve for the current, solve first for the
inductive reactance,
XL = 2fL = 2(120)(0.7) = 527.79 , we can now solve
for the current,
I= 0.23 A
b) Power loss in the inductor is zero, P=0

3. Capacitor (C) circuit

I = 𝑋�
�
,
𝐶 where XC is
the
Capacitive
Reactance

A Self-regulated Learning Module 66

 which is the opposition of a capacitor to current flow,
and is given by,

XC
Where: f – frequency in hz
C – capacitance in Farad
Fig. 6.6 XC – capacitive reactance in Ohms ()
 The average power taken by a capacitor is equal to zero, thus
P=0.
EXAMPLE:
A 120 V AC voltage source is connected across capacitor with
capacitance of 2F. Find the current through the capacitor if the frequency of
the source is 120 hz. What is the power loss in the capacitor?
Given: V = 120V, C = 2F = 2x10-6 F, f = 120hz
Solution:

a) Before we can solve for the current, solve first for the
capacitive reactance,

XC = , we can now solve for the

current,
I= A
b) Power loss in the inductor is zero, P=0

4. Resistor-Inductor (RL) circuit

I= , where Z is the Impedance,

which is the total opposition to current flow in AC, and is equal to,

Z= √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
Fig. 6.7
Where: Z – impedance in ohms
R – resistance in ohms
XL – inductive reactance in ohms

 P = IV cos , this is the general power formula in AC circuits,

Where: P – power in watts
I – current in ampere
V – voltage in volts

A Self-regulated Learning Module 67

  - is the phase angle which is the angle
between current and voltage
 We can use several equations to determine the phase angle, , as shown:
; 
; 
; 

EXAMPLE:
A coil having inductance of 0.14 and a resistance of 12 is connected
across a 110V, 25Hz AC source. Find the, a) current, b) phase angle, and c)
power.

Given: Using Fig. 6.7, we have R = 12, L= 0.14H, V = 110V, f = 25 Hz

Solution:
a) Solve first for XL = 2fL = 2(25)(0.14) = 21.99 , Then, solve for
the impedance of the circuit,
Z= = 25.05 
Thus, I = 4.39 A
b) The phase angle,  
c) The power taken by the circuit is,
P = IV cos = 4.39(110)(cos 61.38) = 231.31 watts

5. Resistor-capacitor (RC)

𝑉
I = , where Z is the Impedance, which is the total
𝑍
opposition to current flow in AC, and is equal to,
Z= √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2

Where: Z – impedance in ohms

Fig. 6.8 R – resistance in ohms
XC – capacitive reactance in ohms

 P = IV cos , this is the general power formula in AC circuits,

Where: P – power in watts

A Self-regulated Learning Module 68

 I – current in ampere
V – voltage in volts
 - is the phase angle which is the angle
between current and voltage
 We can use several equations to determine the phase angle, , as shown:
; 
; 
; 
EXAMPLE:
A capacitor is in series with a resistance of 30 and then connected across a
220V AC source. If the capacitive reactance is 40, find the a) current, b)
phase angle, and c) power in the circuit.

Given: Using Fig. 6.9, we have, R = 30, XC = 40, V = 220V

Solution:

a) Since the capacitive reactance is already given, we can solve

directly for the impedance which is, Z=

Thus, current is, I = 4.4 A
b) The phase angle,  
c) The power taken by the circuit is,
P = IV cos = 4.4(220)(cos 53.13) = 580.8 watts

6. Resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) circuit

I= , where Z is the Impedance, which is the

total
opposition to current flow in AC, and is equal to,
Z= √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑒𝑞2

Where: Z – impedance in ohms

R – resistance in ohms

A Self-regulated Learning Module 69

 Fig. 6.9 Xeq – equivalent reactance in ohms, equal to:
Xeq = XL – XC , if XL is greater than XC
Xeq = XC -XL , if XC is greater than XL

 Power is computed either using the formula for RL or RC

circuit depending on which reactance is higher. EXAMPLE:
A 100 resistance is in series with a 0.1H inductance and a 20 F capacitance. This
combination is then placed across a 110-V, 60 Hz AC power supply. Find the
following: a) Current in the circuit
b) Phase angle between current and source voltage
c) Power loss in the circuit
d) Voltage drop across each component

Given: Refer to the circuit diagram of an RLC circuit in Fig. 6.9

R = 100
L = 0.1 H ; XL = 2fL = 2(60)(0.1) = 37.70 

thus, 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = XC-XL = 132.63-37.70 =

C = 20 x 10-6 F ; XC ) = 132.63 
f = 60 hz
94.93 
V = 110V

Solution:
a) Solve for the impedance first, Z=


Now we can solve for the current, I 0.8 A
b)  
c) P = IV cos = 0.8 (110)(cos 43.51) = 63.82 watts = I2R
d) The voltage drop across each component can be solved using Ohm’s Law.
Thus,
VR = IR = 0.8(100) = 80 V
VL = IXL = 0.8(37.70) = 30.16 V
VC = IXC = 0.8(132.63) = 106.104 V
 Try adding the three voltage drops, is it equal to the voltage
source? Just by looking at the values, they are not equal to the
voltage source when added, why do you think is the reason???
Vt= ; Vxeq= 106.104-30.16 = 75.944V

ACTIVITY 6.2
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

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 1. A 120 V, 60 Hz power source is connected across an 800  resistance in series
with an unknown capacitor. The voltage drop across the resistor is 102 V. Find
the, a) current of the circuit, b) impedance of the circuit, c) Capacitive
reactance, and d) capacitance value. (5 pts each unknown)

2. A coil of negligible resistance is connected in series with a 90-  resistor. This

combination is then connected to an AC source of 120 V and 50 Hz frequency. If
the voltage drop across the resistance is 36 V, find the, a) current of the circuit,
b) impedance, c) inductive reactance, and d) inductance of the coil. ( 5 points
for each unknown)

LESSON 3: RESONANCE

 Resonance occurs in an RLC circuit when the supply frequency causes the
voltages across L and C to be equal and opposite in phase.
 Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are
opposite and equal cancel each other out as XL = XC.
 Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored energy is passed from
the inductor to the capacitor.

 Characteristics of a Resonant circuit include:

1. The equivalent reactance is equal to zero, X eq = 0, thus, XL =XC.

2. Impedance is minimum, since Xeq = 0, making Z = R.
3. Phase angle is zero,  = 0.
4. Current and Power are maximum
5. The frequency of the circuit is given by,

fR

EXAMPLE:

1. A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of

2uF and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage of 9 volts at all frequencies. Calculate, a) the resonant frequency,
b) the impedance, current and power at resonance, and c) the voltage
across the resistor, inductor and capacitor at resonance.
Given:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 71

Solution:

a) fR = 795.77 Hz

b) since Xeq = 0, we can write, Z= 

thus, Z =R = 30
Current therefore is, I = or I = 0.3 A
Power is equal to , P = IV cos = 0.3(9)cos0 = 2.7 watts
c) VR = IR = 0.3(30) = 9 V
VL = IXL = I2fL = 0.3A(2)(795.77Hz)(20x10-3H) = 30 V

VC = IXC = 0.3/2(795.77)(2x10-6) = 30V

 Thus, we can also say that in a resonant circuit, the voltage drops
across the reactances are equal and the voltage across the
resistor is equal to the source voltage.

2. A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4Ω, an inductance of 500mH and

a variable capacitance connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
the, a) capacitance require to produce a series resonance condition, and
b) the voltages generated across both the inductor and the capacitor at
the point of resonance.

Given: Using the same circuit in example 1, we have

R=4
L = 500mH V =
100 V
f = 50 Hz
Solution:
a) At resonance, XL=XC, so that the value of capacitive reactance will
depend on the value of XL in this problem, thus solving for X L,
XL = 2fL = 2(50)(500x10-3) = 157.08 
Therefore, XC = 157.08 ,

But, XC , from this equation we can derive a formula for the

capacitance,

C= = 20.26 F

A Self-regulated Learning Module 72

 b) Solve for the current first, I = = 100/4 = 25 A, then solve for VC and
VL

VL = IXL = 25(157.08) = 3,927 V

VC = IXC = 25(157.08) = 3,927 V

 The equal values of the voltage drops across the reactances

proves that our solution is correct.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. A 10  resistor, 10 mH inductor, and 100 F capacitor are connected in series to

a 50 V, ac source. Solve for, a) resonant frequency, b) Current, c) Power, and d)
phase angle. ( 5 points each)

2. A series circuit containing a resistance of 11 , an inductive reactance of 120 ,

and a capacitive reactance of 120 , are connected across a 110 V, 60 Hz power
source. Solve for, a) impedance, b) current, and c) voltage drop across the
resistor, inductor and capacitor. (5 points each)

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

1. Direct Current or D.C. as it is more commonly called, is a form of current that

flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it “Uni-
directional”, while an alternating current or A.C. is defined as one that varies in
both magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to
time making it “Bi-directional”.

2. Sine waves are the basic type of AC waveforms generated, which are
characterized by frequency, period and amplitude.

3. A generator is a machine that produces AC by converting mechanical rotation to

electricity.

4. AC voltage could either be generated or induced and can be read as maximum,

effective or RMS and instantaneous values.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 73

5. In a pure resistance circuit, the current and voltage are both “in-phase” as there
is no phase difference between them.

6. Impedance, Z, is the total opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that

contains both Resistance and Reactance. Impedance also has the units of Ohms,
Ω. Impedance depends upon the frequency, ω of the circuit as this affects the
circuits reactive components.

7. In a pure Inductance circuit, the voltage and current are both “out-of-phase” with
the current lagging the voltage by 90o.

8. Inductive reactance, XL, is the opposition of an inductance to current flow, and

has the unit ohm.

9. In a pure Capacitance circuit, the voltage and current are both “out-of-phase”
with the current leading the voltage by 90 o.

10.Capacitive reactance, Xc, is the opposition of a capacitor to current flow, and has
the unit ohm.

11.In a series RLC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor the
source voltage E is the phasor sum made up of three components, ER, EL and EC
with the current common to all three.

12.The impedance of the circuit is the total opposition to the flow of current. The
voltage drop across the resistance is equal to IR, the voltage across the two
reactances is IXeq = I(XL – Xc)=I(Xc - XL), while the source voltage is equal to IZ.
The angle between E and I will be the phase angle, θ.

ASSESSMENT

A Self-regulated Learning Module 74

  In this module, we will study the basic concepts of light. Many phenomena in our
everyday life depend on the properties of light. The dual nature of light, which are
reflection and refraction, will be discussed briefly, as well as, explore the wave
nature of light on optics.

 The following are the lessons we will be taking up in this module:

LESSON 1 - Reflection of Light

LESSON 2 - Refraction of Light

Interference and Diffraction of
LESSON 3 - Light

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define and discuss the basic concepts of light and optics
2. Apply these concepts by solving examples using step by step methods.
3. Solve problems correctly and confidently.

LESSON 1: REFLECTION OF LIGHT

 Light is basic to almost all life on Earth. It is the principal means by which we are
able to transmit and receive information to and from objects around us and
throughout the Universe.
 Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and represents energy transfer from the
source to the observer.
 When light is emitted or absorbed by the atoms of a system, these processes occur
as if the radiant energy is in the form of minute, localized, well-directed blasts; that
is, as if light is a stream of particles.
 Optics, on the other hand, is the branch of physics that studies the behavior and
properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of
instruments that use or detect it. It usually describes the behavior of visible,

A Self-regulated Learning Module 75

 ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms
of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit
similar properties

 Let us take a look at the one behavior of light which is REFLECTION.

A. What is reflection of Light?

- It is simply the bouncing back of light as it hits a surface.
- These figures show the behavior of light as it hits a reflective surface, like
mirrors.

B. Laws of Reflection

1. “The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.”

 The normal line, as shown in the diagram is drawn
perpendicular (vertical line) to the mirror surface.
 The reference of the angles of incidence and reflection
is the normal line.

 If
i
is

the angle of incidence and r is the angle of

reflection, then we can write the relationship of the
angles of incidence and reflection as:

A Self-regulated Learning Module 76

 i = r

2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal line lie on the same surface, as
shown in the figures.

C. Plane and Spherical Mirrors

 Mirrors are smooth surfaces that reflects light at specific angles, forming an
image of the person or object in front of it.

1. Plane Mirror
- Are mirrors that form images which are virtual, upright, of the same size as the
object and as far behind the reflecting surface as the object is in front of it.
- Virtual images are images that are formed in locations where light does not
actually reach. Light does not actually pass through the location on the other
side of the mirror; it only appears to an observer as though the light is coming
from this location. Whenever a mirror creates an image that is virtual, it will be
located behind the mirror where light does not really come from.

- Observe the candle in the figure as it is place in front of a plane mirror:

The image of a candle as

viewed in a plane mirror. The image
has the same dimensions as the
object and is the same distance
behind the mirror as the object is in
front of the mirror.

2. Spherical or Curved Mirrors

- A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the shape of a piece cut out of a
spherical surface.
- There are two types of spherical mirrors: concave and convex mirror.

 The following are basic terminologies that one needs to know while studying
spherical mirrors:
a. Center of Curvature

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- The point in the center of the mirror that passes through the curve of the
mirror and has the same tangent and curvature at that point.
b. Radius of Curvature
- It’s the linear distance between Pole and the Center of curvature. c.
Principal axis
- The imaginary line passing through the optical center and the center of
curvature of any lens or a spherical mirror.
d. Pole
- The midpoint of the spherical mirror. e. Aperture
- An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of light
actually happens. It also gives the size of the mirror.
f. Principal Focus (real focus)
- Principal Focus can also be called Focal Point. It’s on the axis of a mirror or
lens wherein rays of light parallel to the axis converge after getting
reflected from the mirror.

I. CONCAVE Mirror
 Are spherical mirrors that form inverted real images of objects placed
beyond the principal focus.

II. CONVEX Mirror

 Are spherical mirrors that produce upright virtual images of objects
placed in front of them and appear smaller in size.

III. The mirror equation expresses the quantitative relationship between

the object distance (do), the image distance (di), and the focal length
(f). The equation is stated as follows:

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 IV. The magnification equation (M) relates the ratio of the image
distance and object distance to the ratio of the image height (hi) and
object height (ho). The magnification equation is stated as follows:

M=

Example:
A 4-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a concave
mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance (di)
and the image size (hi).
Given: ho = 4 cm
do = 45.7 cm
f = 15.2 cm
Solution:

Solving for di, ; 0.0658 = 0.0219 +

= 0.0658 – 0.0219 = 0.0439

Thus, di = 22.779 cm

Solving for hi,

Thus hi = 4( 1.994 cm
 The negative value for image height indicates that the image is
an inverted image.

 Watch the video link below to understand better the concepts on spherical
mirrors.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aV5X9Ee7Rnc

ACTIVITY 7.1
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and
show your complete and neat solutions/answers. No erasures allowed.

1. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5.00-cm tall object placed
45.0 cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.0 cm. (10 points)
2. What is the focal length of a convex spherical mirror which produces an image
one-sixth of an object located 12 cm from the mirror?
3. A ray of light makes an angle of 25 with the normal to a plane mirror. If the
mirror is turned through 6, making the angle of incidence 31, through what
angle is the reflected ray rotated?

A Self-regulated Learning Module 79

LESSON 2: REFRACTION of
LIGHT

- Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to

another.
- A medium could be in the form of solid, liquid or air.
- The figure below shows the directions of the incident and refracted rays.

A. Speed of Light (c)

- The bending of light is caused by the change in speed experienced by a
wave when it changes medium.
- The value of the speed of light in a vacuum is, c = 2.9972458 × 108 m/s
≈ 3.00 × 108 m/s

B. Index of refraction ()

- We define the index of refraction  of a material to be the ratio of the
speed of light in a vacuum to that in the material, given as


Where: v - speed of light in the material

 Since the speed of light is always less than c in matter and equals c only
in a vacuum, the index of refraction is always greater than or equal to
one.

C. Snell’s Law
- This law gives the relationship between the angles of incidence and
refraction and the indices of refraction of the two media and is given by,

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 n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

where: n1, n2 = are the indexes of refraction of the two media

1, 2 = are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively

EXAMPLES:

1. What is the speed of light in water (n=1.333)? In glycerine (n=1.473)?

Solution:

𝑐
8
/1.333 = 2.2506 x 108 m/s speed of
light (v) for water = = 3 x 10


𝑐
8
/1.473 = 2.0367 x 108 m/s
speed of light (v) for glycerine = = 3 x 10 

2. A layer of oil (n=1.45) floats on water (n=1.33). A ray of light shines onto
the oil with an incidence angle of 40. Find the angle the ray makes in the
water.

Given:

Solution:

 In the 1st equation, the noil sinoil is equated with the 2nd equation , giving the
3rd

A Self-regulated Learning Module 81

 equation being nair sin 40 = nwater sin water.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Problem solving: Copy the questions in your formatted short bond papers and show
your complete and neat solutions. No erasures allowed.

1. Find the speed of light in a) flint glass, b) water, and c) cubic zirconia.
2. A ray of light travels from air into another medium, making an angle of45 with
the normal line. Find the angle of refraction if the 2 nd medium is water.

LESSON 3: INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION of LIGHT

A. Diffraction
- is the bending or spreading of a light wave around an obstacle or through
an opening.
- The figure below is an example of light waves under diffraction

DIFFRACTION THROUGH OPENINGS DIFFRACTION THROUGH OBSTACLES

 A shadow is a region behind an obstacle into which a wave does not easily
diffract.
 Umbra: a region of total shadow; the source of the wave is completely
obscured.
 Penumbra: a region of partial shadow; the source of the wave is partially
obscured.
 Light sources cast noticeable shadows.

B. Interference

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 - interference is a phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while
traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the
medium to take on a shape that results from the net effect of the two
individual waves upon the particles of the medium. Wave interference can
be constructive or destructive in nature.

- Constructive interference occurs at any location along the medium

where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the same
direction while Destructive interference occurs at any location along
the medium where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the
opposite direction. Refer to the figure below:

SUMMARY
Let us now summarize the topics that we have learned from this module:

1. Reflection is the bouncing back of light waves while refraction is the bending of light
waves.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 83

 2. Plane mirrors produce images with a number of distinguishable characteristics.
Images formed by plane mirrors are virtual, upright, left-right reversed, the same
distance from the mirror as the object's distance, and the same size as the object.
3. The Law of Reflection states that “the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence”.
4. Spherical mirrors are classified as concave and convex mirrors.
5. The changing of a light ray’s direction when it passes through variations in matter is
called refraction.
6. Snell’s law, the Law of Refraction, is stated in equation form as n1 sin θ1 = n2 sinθ2.
7. Diffraction is the bending or spreading of a light wave around an obstacle or through
an opening.
8. Interference is a phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling
along the same medium.

ASSESSMENT

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7activestudio (Director). (2014, April 7). Shperical Mirrors [Video file]. Retrieved July 26,
2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aV5X9Ee7Rnc

Admin. (2020, January 09). Spherical Mirror- Structure, Types & Terminologies. Retrieved
July 25,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/concave-and-convex-mirrors-spherical-mirrors/

Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Physics. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/ac-circuits/

Bozeman Science (Director). (2015, January 5). Electromagnetic Induction [Video file].
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Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). Electrical Power, Equivalent Resistance; Simple Circuits,
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Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). First Law of Thermodynamics. In Schaum's outline of
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Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). Forces in Magnetic Fields, Sources of Magnetic Fields. In
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McGraw-Hill.

Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). Induce EMF; Magnetic Flux, Electric Generator and Motors
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Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). Potential;Capacitance, Inductance. In Schaum's outline

of theory and problems of college physics (p. 252, 253, 255, 321,323,327,328). New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Bueche, F. J., & Hecht, E. (1997). Reflection and Refraction of Light, Interference and
Diffraction of Light. In Schaum's outline of theory and problems of college physics
(p. 338-352, 366-367)). New York: McGraw-Hill.

CamQue, R. (2016, November 03). IGCSE PHYSICS: Electromagnetic Effects. Retrieved July
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effects

Chrvoje engineering (Director). (2020, January 20). Working Principle of DC Generator

[Electric Machine #1] [Video file]. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from
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https://www.circuit-diagram.org/editor/

Dionesioable Follow. (2013, August 25). Module 14 thermodynamics. Retrieved July 13,
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Elearnin (Director). (2013, January 15). Physics - Understanding Electromagnetic

induction (EMI) and electromagnetic force (EMF) - Physics [Video file]. Retrieved July
23, 2020, from •
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Please answer the following questions objectively.

a. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?

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 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

b. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

c. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

d. What topics do I find least important?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

e. What possible topics should have been included?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

THANK YOU VERY MUCH!!! KEEP GOING AND GOD BLESS YOU ON YOUR NEXT
ENDEAVOR 😊

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A Self-regulated Learning Module 91