Psychological

Statistics
Sampling Techniques

Dhon Jheriko B. Enrico

Instructor, CAS
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Source: McCombes, S. (2022). Sampling Methods | Types and Techniques

Explained. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

- It is how we select members from the population to be in the study.

- If a sample isn't randomly selected, it will probably be biased in some way
and the data may not be representative of the population.

DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

1. Convenience Sample
2. Simple Random Sample
3. Systematic Random Sample
4. Stratified Random Sample
5. Cluster Random Sample
Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan
Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

1. Convenience Sample - the researcher chooses a sample that is readily

available in some non-random way.

For Example,
A researcher polls people as they walk by on the street.

Problem: The location and time of day and other factors may produce a biased
sample of people.

Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan

Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
2. Simple Random Sample - every member and set of
members has an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
For Example,
A Teacher puts students' names in a hat and chooses
without looking to get a sample of students.

Advantage: Random samples are usually fairly

representative since they don't favor certain members.
Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan
Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
3. Systematic Random Sample - Members of
the population are put in some order. A starting
point is selected at random, and every nth
member is selected to be in the sample.

For Example,
A principal takes an alphabetized list of student
names and picks a random starting point. Every
20th student is selected to take a survey.

Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan

Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
4. Stratified Random Sample - The population is first
split into groups. The overall sample consists of some
members from every group. The members from each
group are chosen randomly.
For Example,
A student council surveys 100 students by getting
random samples of 25 freshmen, 25 sophomores, 25
juniors, and 25 seniors
Advantage: A stratified sample guarantees that
members from each group will be represented in the
sample, so this sampling method is good when we want Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan
some members from every group. Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
5. Cluster Random Sample - The population is first
split into groups. The overall sample consists of every
member from some of the groups. The groups are
selected at random.
For Example,
An airline company wants to survey its customers
one day, so they randomly select 5 flights that day
and survey every passenger on those flights.
Advantage: A cluster sample gets every member
from some of the groups, so it's good when each
group reflects the population as a whole. Source: Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan
Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-
probability/designing-studies/sampling-methods-
stats/a/sampling-methods-review
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
SUMMARY:

Source: McCombes, S. (2022). Sampling Methods | Types and Techniques

Explained. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/
Psychological
Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency

Dhon Jheriko B. Enrico

Instructor, CAS
OVERVIEW
● THE MEAN
● THE MEDIAN
● THE MODE
● SELECTING A MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
● CENTRAL TENDENCY AND THE SHAPE OF DISTRIBUTION
THE MEAN
THE MEAN
Definition of the Mean:

The mean for a distribution is the sum of the scores divided by the
number of scores.

Formula:

Population Mean Sample Mean

THE MEAN
Alternative Definition:
The mean is the amount each individual receives when the total is
divided equally among all of the individuals (N)in the distribution.

For example:
THE MEAN
Alternative Definition:
The mean as the balance point for the distribution.

For example:

= 25 / 5 = 5

= 25
N=5
From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
THE MEAN
Alternative Definition:
The mean as the balance point for the distribution

For example:

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
THE MEAN
Alternative Definition:
The mean as the balance point for the distribution

For example:

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
THE MEAN
Characteristics of The Mean:

1. Changing the value of any score changes the mean.

For example,
Quiz scores of biology students: 9, 8, 7, 5, 1

Now try to change X=1 to X=8: 9, 8, 7, 5, 8

THE MEAN
Characteristics of The Mean:

2. Adding or removing an existing score usually changes the mean,

except if it is equal to the mean.

For example,
3, 6, 6, 9, 11 = 35 / 5 = 7

3, 6, 6, 9, 11, 13 = 48 / 6 = 8
THE MEAN
Characteristics of The Mean:

3. If a constant value is added or subtracted to every score in a

distribution, the same constant is added or subtracted to the mean.
For example,

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013).

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
THE MEAN
Characteristics of The Mean:

3. If a constant value is added or subtracted to every score in a

distribution, the same constant is added or subtracted to the mean.
For example,

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013).

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
THE MEAN
Characteristics of The Mean:

4. If every score in a distribution is multiplied by or divided by a

constant value, the mean changes in the same way.
For example,

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013).

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
THE MEDIAN
THE MEDIAN
Definition of The Median:
● The median is the point on the measurement scale below which
50% of the scores in the distribution are located.

● The median can be equal to a score in the list or it can be a point

between two scores.
THE MEDIAN
Definition of The Median:

The median can be equal to a score in the list or it can be a point

between two scores.

For example,

5, 10, 3, 11, 8
3, 5, 8, 10, 11 (arrange the scores in ascending order)
3, 5, 8, 10, 11 (since it’s an odd number of scores, simply select the middle score that divides the distribution)

MEDIAN = 8
THE MEDIAN
Definition of The Median:

The median can be equal to a score in the list or it can be a point

between two scores.

For example,

4, 5, 1, 7, 1, 8
1, 1, 4, 5, 7, 8 (arrange the scores in ascending order)
1, 1, 4, 5, 7, 8 (since it’s an even number of scores, find the point between the two scores)
THE MODE
THE MODE
Definition of The Mode:
● The mode is the score or category that has the greatest
frequency.

● It is the most common observation among a group of scores.

● The definition of mode is the same for a population and sample

distribution.

● It can be used to determine the typical or average value for any

scale of measurement, including a nominal scale.
THE MODE
Definition of The Mode:
For Example,

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for

the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
THE MODE
Different Types of Mode:

1. Bimodal - a distribution with two modes.

2. Multimodal - a distribution with more than two modes.

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
SELECTING A MEASURE
OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
The mean is considered to be the best of the three measures of
central tendency, but, there are specific situations in which it is
impossible to compute a mean or in which the mean is not
particularly representative.

WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:

1. Extreme scores are existing in the distribution.
2. Undetermined Values
3. Open-Ended Distributions
4. Ordinal Scale
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Extreme scores are existing in the distribution.
- few extreme values have a large influence and cause the
mean to be displaced.

For example,
10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12,
12, 12, 13

= 103 / 9 = 11.444
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Extreme scores are existing in the distribution.
- few extreme values have a large influence and cause the
mean to be displaced.

For example,
10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12,
12, 12, 13, 100

= 203 / 10 = 20.3
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Extreme scores are existing in the distribution.
- few extreme values have a large influence and cause the
mean to be displaced.
- the median is not easily affected by extreme scores.

For example,
10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12,
12, 12, 13, 100

= 203 / 10 = 20.3

Median = (11+12) / 2 =11.5

SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Undetermined Values - a situation in which an individual has an
unknown/undetermined score.

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics

for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Undetermined Values - a situation in which an individual has an
unknown/undetermined score.

Median = 12.5

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics

for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Ordinal Scale - the mean is defined in terms of distances, and because
ordinal scales do not measure distance, it is not appropriate to
compute a mean for scores from an ordinal scale.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Open-Ended Distributions - when a distribution has no upper limit (or
lower limit) for one of the categories.

For example,

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics

for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MEDIAN:
Open-Ended Distributions - when a distribution has no upper limit (or
lower limit) for one of the categories.

For example,

0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,5

Median = (1+2) = 1.5

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics

for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed).
Cengage Learning.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
The mean is considered to be the best of the three measures of
central tendency, but, there are specific situations in which it is
impossible to compute a mean or in which the mean is not
particularly representative.

WHEN TO USE THE MODE:

1. Nominal scale is used.
2. Discrete Variables
3. Describing the shape of the distribution.
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MODE:

Nominal scale - the primary advantage of mode is that it can be used

to measure and describe central tendency for data on nominal scale.

Discrete Variable - in most situations, people are comfortable using a

realistic, whole-number values produced by the mode.

For example, the statement: “the typical, or modal, family has 2

children and a house with 5 rooms,” is much preferred than “the
average family has 2.4 children and a house
with 5.33 rooms.”
SELECTING A CENTRAL TENDENCY
WHEN TO USE THE MODE:
Describing the shape of the distribution - the mode may also be a
supplementary measure along with the mean and median, as it locates
in the distribution the location of the peak.
THE SHAPE OF THE
DISTRIBUTION
THE SHAPE OF THE DISTRIBUTION
SYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION
All three measures of central tendency have the same value.

ROUGHLY SYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION

The measures of central tendency cluster together around the center.

BIMODAL DISTRIBUTION
The mean and median are in the center, while the modes are on each
side of the distribution.

RECTANGULAR DISTRIBUTION
The mean and median are still in the center even though there is no
mode.
THE SHAPE OF THE DISTRIBUTION

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
THE SHAPE OF THE DISTRIBUTION
SKEWED DISTRIBUTION:
There is a strong tendency for the mean, median, and mode
to be located in predictably different positions.

From Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.
REVIEW: GROUPED
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION TABLE
GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

CLASS INTERVAL
CLASS WIDTH: (H.S. -L.S) / C.I.
CLASS MIDPOINT: (Upper Limit + Lower Limit) / 2
CLASS BOUNDARIES: Used to separate classes without gaps; the main
purpose is to make a histogram
RELATIVE FREQUENCY: p = f / n
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY: adds sequential classes together.

Source: Professor Leonard. (2011, December). Statistics

Lecture 2.2: Creating Frequency Distribution and
Histograms [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbHn39y8eUo&list=P
L5102DFDC6790F3D0&index=6
GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Construct a grouped frequency distribution table

with a class interval of 9.

> Highest Score = 81

> Lowest Score = 20
> Class Width =
Highest Score – Lowest Score
Class Interval
= 81 – 20
9
= 6.78 or 7
GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
Class
Class Interval f X fX cf
Boundaries
19.5 – 26.5 20 – 26 3 23 69 3

26.5 – 33.5 27 – 33 3 30 90 6

33.5 – 40.5 34 – 40 4 37 148 10

40.5 – 47.5 41 – 47 5 44 220 15

47.5 – 54.5 48 – 54 6 51 306 21

54.5 – 61.5 55 – 61 3 58 174 24

61.5 – 68.5 62 – 68 3 65 195 27

68.5 – 75.5 69 – 75 2 72 144 29

75.5 – 82.5 76 – 82 1 79 79 30
 GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Class Class MEAN

f X fX cf
Boundaries Interval
19.5 – 26.5 20 – 26 3 23 69 3
σ 𝑓𝑥
𝑥ҧ ≈
𝑛
26.5 – 33.5 27 – 33 3 30 90 6
1425
33.5 – 40.5 34 – 40 4 37 148 10 ≈
30
40.5 – 47.5 41 – 47 5 44 220 15
≈ 47.5
47.5 – 54.5 48 – 54 6 51 306 21
54.5 – 61.5 55 – 61 3 58 174 24
61.5 – 68.5 62 – 68 3 65 195 27
68.5 – 75.5 69 – 75 2 72 144 29
75.5 – 82.5 76 – 82 1 79 79 30
෍ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟓
 GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Class Class MEDIAN

f X fX cf
Boundaries Interval
𝑛
19.5 – 26.5 20 – 26 3 23 69 3 −< 𝐶𝑓
𝑥෤ ≈ 𝐿 + 2 𝐶𝑤
26.5 – 33.5 27 – 33 3 30 90 6 𝑓𝑚
33.5 – 40.5 34 – 40 4 37 148 10 15 − 10
≈ 40.5 + 7
40.5 – 47.5 41 – 47 5 44 220 15 5
47.5 – 54.5 48 – 54 6 51 306 21 5
≈ 40.5 + 7
54.5 – 61.5 55 – 61 3 58 174 24 5
61.5 – 68.5 62 – 68 3 65 195 27
≈ 40.5 + 1 7
68.5 – 75.5 69 – 75 2 72 144 29
≈ 40.5 + 7
75.5 – 82.5 76 – 82 1 79 79 30
≈ 47.5
 GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Class Class MODE

f X fX cf
Boundaries Interval
19.5 – 26.5 20 – 26 3 23 69 3 𝐷1 𝐷1 = 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑏 = 6 – 5 = 1
𝑥ො ≈ 𝐿 + 𝐶𝑤
𝐷1 + 𝐷2 𝐷2 = 𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑎 = 6 − 3 = 3
26.5 – 33.5 27 – 33 3 30 90 6
33.5 – 40.5 34 – 40 4 37 148 10 1
≈ 47.5 + 7
40.5 – 47.5 41 – 47 5 44 220 15 1+3

47.5 – 54.5 48 – 54 6 51 306 21

1
≈ 47.5 + 7
4
54.5 – 61.5 55 – 61 3 58 174 24
61.5 – 68.5 62 – 68 3 65 195 27 ≈ 47.5 + 1.75
68.5 – 75.5 69 – 75 2 72 144 29 ≈ 49.25
75.5 – 82.5 76 – 82 1 79 79 30
 references:
TEXTBOOK:
Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (9th ed). Cengage Learning.

WEBSITE:

McCombes, S. (2022). Sampling Methods | Types and Techniques Explained. Scribbr.

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/

Sampling methods review. (n.d.). Khan Academy. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/designing-studies/samplingmethods-stats/a/sampling-methods-
review

VIDEO:
Professor Leonard. (2011, December). Statistics Lecture 2.2: Creating Frequency Distribution and Histograms [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbHn39y8eUo&list=PL5102DFDC6790F3D0&index=6