24.

2: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

 WHAT THE ...?

The red-tipped organisms in Figure 24.2.1 were discovered in 1977.

Called tube worms, they live on the deep ocean floor, thousands of
meters below the water’s surface. They cluster around hydrothermal
vents that spew out hot mineral water. The environment around the
vents would be deadly for most other organisms. Minerals in the vent
water are toxic, the weight of ocean water above creates tremendous
pressure, and it’s always very cold and completely dark. Without
sunlight, photosynthesis isn’t even possible. Yet the vents support
thriving communities of diverse species, many of which live Figure 24.2.2: An important role of ecology is identifying, and forging
nowhere else on Earth. Besides tube worms, they include equally plans to protect, endangered species, like the Madagascar lemur pictured
strange ghost fish and crabs with eyes on their back. How have these here. Ecological assessments have determined that of all the world's
endangered animals, Madagascar’s lemurs are among the species that are
organisms adapted to living in the harsh environment around
closest to extinction. Knowledge such as this is a necessary first step in
hydrothermal vents? How do they obtain energy without sunlight and preventing the extinction of these primates.
photosynthesis? How do the various vent species interact? Finding The environment of an organism includes two types of factors: biotic and
answers to questions such as these is the domain of ecology. abiotic.
Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They consist
of other organisms, including members of the same and different
species.
Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They
include factors such as sunlight, soil, temperature, and water.
Consider as an example the relationship between leafhoppers and ants
(Figure 24.2.3). Ants “herd” leafhoppers and use their excretions for
food, much as a dairy farmer herds cows and uses their milk. Leafhoppers
suck sap from plants and excrete excess liquid as a sugary fluid called
Figure 24.2.1: Photo of one of the largest concentrations of Riftia honeydew. As the honeydew passes out of a leafhopper’s anus, the
pachyptila observed, with anemones and mussels colonizing in close
ant “farmer” feeds on the fluid.
proximity.

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and
with their environment. Although it is a science in its own right, ecology
has areas of overlap with many other sciences, including biology,
geography, geology, and climatology. It is also closely related to
genetics and ethology (the study of animal behavior). In addition,
evolutionary concepts of adaptation and natural selection are the
cornerstones of modern ecological theory. Figure 24.2.3: The ant and leafhopper in this photo have a mutually
Some of the phenomena that ecologists study include the interactions of beneficial relationship.
organisms, the flow of energy and recycling of matter through living The leafhoppers in the “herd” also benefit from their relationship with the
“ant.” The ant protects the leafhoppers from potential predators such as
things, and the biodiversity and distribution of organisms relative to the
environment. There are many practical applications of ecology. Among wasps. The amount of shade in the environment, which is an abiotic
others, they include the conservation of endangered species (Figure factor, is an important influence on the leafhoppers and ants.
24.2.2), natural resource management, urban planning, and human health. Environments with at least 50 percent shade are more densely populated
by ants and leafhoppers than sunnier environments. Some species of
LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT “herder” ants even construct shelters to provide shade for their “herds.”
Despite their tremendous diversity, all organisms have the same basic
needs: energy and matter. These must be obtained from the environment. ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY
Therefore, organisms are not closed systems. They depend on and are Studying all living things and their environments would be a huge
influenced by their environment. undertaking. Generally, the study of ecology is made more manageable by
organizing the biological world into a nested hierarchy.
 example, depending on an ecologist’s research focus, a lake could be
considered an ecosystem, but so could a dead log, like the one in Figure
24.2.5. Both the lake and the log contain a variety of species that interact
with each other and with abiotic factors.

Figure 24.2.5: Dead logs like this one are called “nurse logs” because
they provide a suitable site for the growth of mosses, small plants, and
many other kinds of organisms. The organisms that live in and on the log
are part of the same ecosystem.
Figure 24.2.4: This figure shows levels of organization in nature, from the
When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need constant
individual organism to the biosphere. Many individuals make up a inputs of energy. Most ecosystems get energy from sunlight. A small
population. Many populations make up a community. A community and
its environment make up the ecosystem. Ecosystems are part of a biome. minority, including hydrothermal vent ecosystems, get energy from
All the biomes on earth make up the biosphere. chemical compounds. Unlike energy, the matter is not constantly added
Ecology typically focuses on the living world at and above the level of the to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elements such as carbon
individual organism. These levels are illustrated in Figure 24.2.4 and and nitrogen are used over and over again.
defined as follows:
NICHE
A population consists of all the individual organisms of the same
One of the most important concepts associated with ecosystems is the
species that live and interact in the same area. For example, all of the niche. A niche refers to the role of a species in its ecosystem. It includes
angelfish living in the same area of the ocean make up the angelfish all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic factors of
population. the ecosystem. Two important aspects of any species’ niche are its sources
A community refers to all of the populations of different species that of energy and nutrients and how it obtains them. For example, the
live and interact in the same area. The aquatic community that jumping spider in Figure 24.2.6 is a carnivore (meat eater) that obtains
includes the angelfish also includes the populations of other species of food by preying on insects such as flies.
fish, corals, and many other organisms.
An ecosystem includes all the living things in a given area, together
with the nonliving environment. The nonliving environment includes
abiotic factors such as water, minerals, and sunlight.
A biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general type
of physical environment anywhere in the world. Terrestrial biomes are
generally delineated by climate and major types of vegetation.
Examples of terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests and deserts.
Aquatic biomes are generally defined by the distance from shore and
the depth of water. Examples of aquatic biomes include the shallow
water near shore (littoral zone) and the deepest water at the bottom of
a body of water (benthic zone).
Figure 24.2.6: This jumping spider has captured and is consuming a long-
The biosphere includes every part of Earth where life exists, legged green fly. What the spider eats and how it obtains it are important
including all the land, water, and air where living things can be found. aspects of its ecological niche.
The biosphere is the largest ecological category and consists of many
different biomes.
HABITAT
Another fundamental aspect of a species’ niche is its habitat. The habitat
BASIC IDEAS IN ECOLOGY is the natural environment in which a species lives and to which it is
A number of concepts and principles are basic to the study of ecology. adapted. A species’ habitat includes any factors of the environment —
They include the ecosystem, niche, habitat, and competitive exclusion including both biotic and abiotic factors — that are related directly or
principle. indirectly to the use of the environment by the species.
Species may have general or specific habitat requirements. For example,
ECOSYSTEM small white butterflies in the species Pieris rapae (Figure 24.2.7; on the
The ecosystem is one of the most important concepts in ecology and often left) are found on all continents of the world except Antarctica. Their
the focus of ecological studies. It consists of all the biotic and abiotic larvae can feed on many different plant species, and the butterflies
factors in an area and their interactions. While an ecosystem is a real themselves thrive in any open location. In contrast, large blue butterflies
system in nature, it is often artificially delineated by researchers. For in the species Phengaris arion (Figure 24.2.7; on the right) are found
only in certain types of grassland areas. Their larvae can feed only on 4. Describe the nested hierarchy by which ecologists organize the
species in the plant genus Thymus. In addition, because of their complex biological world.
life cycle, the butterflies can live only in areas in which certain ant 5. What is the biosphere?
species also reside. 6. Define ecosystem.
7. Describe the niche concept in ecology.
8. How is the habitat of a species defined?
9. State the competitive exclusion principle.
10. Compare and contrast the roles of energy and matter in an ecosystem.
11. Which of the following can contain more than one species for an
extended period of time? Explain your answer.
A. A niche
B. A community
C. A population
D. An ecosystem
12. Do you think there can be an ecosystem in an urban environment, such
as a city? Why or why not?
13. True or False. The jumping spider and its prey occupy the same niche.
14. True or False. The same type of biome can exist in different locations
on the planet.
15. Why is the study of climate-related to the study of ecology?

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Figure 24.2.7: (right) Pieris rapae butterflies have general habitat

ATTRIBUTIONS
requirements, so they can live in many different ecosystems. (left) 1. Riftia tube worm colony Galapagos 2011, NOAA Photo Library,
Phengaris arion butterflies have very specific habitat requirements, so public domain via Wikimedia Commons
they can live only in a limited number of ecosystems.
2. Milne-Edwards' Sportive Lemur, Ankarafantsika, Madagascar by
COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE Frank Vassen, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons
A given area may contain many different species, but each species must 3. Common jassid nymph and ant by Fir0002/Flagstaffotos, CC BY-NC
have a different niche. Two different species cannot occupy the 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
same niche in the same place for very long. This is known as the 4. Ecological levels by Christopher Auyeung via CK-12 licensed CC
competitive exclusion principle. If two species were to occupy the BY-NC 3.0
same niche, what would happen? The two species would compete with 5. Nurse log by Nicholas A. Tonelli, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
one another for the same food or other limiting resources in the Commons
environment. Eventually, one species might outcompete and replace the 6. Jumping spider by James Niland, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
other. Alternatively, one species might evolve somewhat different 7. Pieris rapae adult by Christian Bauer, CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia
adaptations to a similar but different niche so they could continue to Commons
live in the same area. Silver Studded Blue by Pengannel, licensed CC BY 2.0 via Flickr
8. Text adapted from Human Biology by CK-12 licensed CC BY-NC
REVIEW 3.0
1. Define ecology.
2. Why are individual organisms not closed systems? This page titled 24.2: Introduction to Ecology is shared under a CK-12 license and
3. Compare and contrast biotic and abiotic environmental factors, and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal via
give examples of each type of factor. source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform.