EAPP REVIEWER

● Stand - viewpoint

● Claims - these are statements that support the author’s stand; ARGUMENT

● Evidences - these are proofs or evidences to strengthen the author’s claim

● Fallacy - an error in reasoning which weakens an argument

● Counterclaims – arguments opposing a stand

What are these logical fallacies? Why is there a need for you to be familiar with it? LOGICAL FALLACIES are
ERRORS IN REASONING that INVALIDATE AN ARGUMENT. As a critical thinker you have to identify and examine
fallacies and manipulative language. It is therefore important that you know some of the common fallacies.

False Dilemma Occurs when an arguer presents his/her argument as one of only two options despite the
presence of multiple possibilities

Either you fully devote yourself to company or you quit.

Appeal to Ignorance

Occurs when something is instantly concluded to be true just because it is not proven to be false, and vice versa
The writer does not talk about the connection between the victim’s killer and his sister, so there must be none.

Slippery Slope

Occurs when a series of increasingly superficial and unacceptable consequences is drawn

If we ban computer shops, then students will not be able to do research. And if they do not have tools for
research, these students will fail their subjects.

Complex Question

Occurs when two or more points are rolled into one and the reader is expected to accept or reject both at the
same time, when one point may be satisfactory while the other is not

“Have you stopped cheating on exams?”

Appeal to Force

Occurs when a threat, instead of reasoning is used to argue

Appeal to Pity

Occurs when the element of pity is used instead of logical reasoning

Please do not fire me for being absent all month; I have a sick mother and a special child to support.

Appeal to Consequences

Occurs when unpleasant consequences of believing something are pointed out to show that the belief is false

You can’t believe that colonialism is bad, because if it were, then we would not be civilized.

Bandwagon

Occurs when an argument is considered to be valid because it is what the majority thinks

Most Filipinas want to have fair skin because they think they look beautiful. Therefore, having fair skin must be
the real standard of beauty.

Attacking the Person

Occurs when someone tries to refute an argument by attacking the character of a person instead of attacking
the ideas of the argument

I cannot accept your argument because, unlike me, you were not educated at Harvard University.

Appeal to Authority

Occurs when the argument quotes an expert who’s not qualified in the particular subject matter

Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft, recommends the effective fabric softening properties of Downy fabric
softener.

Anonymous Authority

The authority in question is not mentioned or named

Experts claim that eating peanuts causes pimples.

Occurs when a sample is not significant enough to support a generalization about a population

Martha, the foreigner from France is very impolite. French people are mean and rude.

False Analogy

Occurs when a writer assumes that two concepts that are similar in some ways are also similar in other ways
Drugs are like massages: they make you feel good.

Accident

Occurs when a general rule is applied to a situation, even when it should be an exception

Jaywalking is not allowed, so you should not have done that even when you were being chased by terrorists.

Post Hoc

It is an informal fallacy that states:

“Since event A followed event B, event A must have been caused by event B.” Dina saw cat when they went
home. Along the way, they crashed into a tree.

The black cat must be the reason why they met an accident.

Wrong Direction

Occurs when the direction between cause and effect is reversed

Liver damage leads to alcoholism.

Complex Cause

Occurs when the explanation for an event is reduced to one thing when there are other factors which also
contributed to the event

We were not able to solve the problem because of limited time, even if all the other groups were able to do so.
Irrelevant Conclusion

Occurs when an argument which is supposed to prove something concludes something else instead

We must support the fight for gender equality between men and women. Women have suffered enough violence
at home. Violence against women must be stopped.

Straw Man

Occurs when the position of the opposition is twisted so that it is easier to refute between men and women.
Women have suffered enough violence at home.

Violence against women must be stopped. Opponent: We should relax the law governing the allowed smoking
areas in the city. Fallacy: We should not do so, because the number of smokers might increase.

Affirming Consequent

the Any argument of the form: If A is true then B is true; If B is true therefore A is true

If you are drinking wine, you have a problem. Therefore, if you have a problem, you are drinking wine.

Denying Antecedent

the Any argument of the form: If A is true then B id true; If A is not true then B is not true

Inconsistency

Occurs when arguments contradict one another

If you are drinking wine, you have a problem. Therefore, if you are not drinking wine, you do not have a problem.
Frank is older than Jake, Jake is older than Noli and Noli is older than Frank.

1. Relevance of the Source

● How well does the source support your stand?

● You can check the title, table of contents, summary, introduction or headings of the text to have a sense of its
content.
2. Authority/Author’s Qualifications

● Is the author’s name identified?

● Is the author’s background, education or training related to the topic?

● If the source does not have an author, think twice before using it.

● Legitimate academic texts must include citations. Citations demonstrate that the writer has thoroughly
researched the topic and is not plagiarizing the material.

3. Currency/Date of Publication

● What is the date of the publication?

● In most fields, the data from the older publications may no longer be valid. As much as possible, the date pf
publication should be at most five years earlier.

4. Contents/Accuracy of Information

● Does the author have a lot of citations in his or her text and/or bibliography or works cited section?

5. Location of Sources

● You do not want to use source that is disputable, so make sure to verify your findings with multiple sources.

● Where was the source published? Was it published digitally or in print?

● Is it a book, an academic journal or a reputable news source as www.nytimes.com or www.economist.com?

● Does it provide complete publication information such as author/s, editor/s, title, date of publication and
publisher?

● What is the URL of the website?

● Avoid using blogs or personal homepage and wiki sites (Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Wikiquotes)

● If the URL includes the top-level domain .edu, then that means that it has been published by an academic
institution such as university

● Common URLs include .gov (government), .org (organizations), .com (commercial sites) and .net (network
infrastructures). In academic writing, reputable sites are those with .edu, .gov, .net and .org in URL.

MANIFESTO- manifesto is a public declaration of principles, beliefs, and intentions, usually issued by an
individual, group, organization
It often serves as a call to action, outlining advocating for goals and specific changes in society, politics,
education, or other areas

POLITICAL

ARTISTIC

CREED

EDUCATIONAL

SCIENTIFIC & TECHONOLOGICAL

PROFESSIONAL

PERSONAL

POSITION PAPER- to assert an argument

parts of a postion paper

title

introduction

arguments

counterargument/rebutalls

conclusion

reference

RESEACH REPORT

A research report is a document that systematically presents the findings of a research project, including the
methodology, results, and conclusions, aiming to communicate research effectively to a specific audience.
Introduction is as important as the main parts of a research report. It contextualizes and sets the tone and
direction of research writing. It is like a road map that guides you in your research journey.

A research title has to get the attention of the readers. In other words, it must be “catchy.” Being catchy does
not mean sacrificing the main message or idea of your report.

A research abstract is a vital component of a report as it provides the readers with a snap view of what you will
expect from it.

The abstract gives a synopsis of the objectives and results of the report to be described in detailed from in the
body of the report.

1. research problem

2. significance and value of the problem

3. data and methods utilized

4. main findings

5. implication in the light of another research

A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to find their way through the
different parts of the report.

The Review of Related Literature (RRL) provides study background and environment.The intention of the RRL is
to locate the study in its area of discipline and reveal its relevance and significance in the environment.

The RRL would indicate if your topic is building on previous researchers or if it is a new area of inquiry. The RRL
should make one realize that a study is worth pursuing or not.

Research Methodology

In research, the research process is as important as the research content.

Thus, a research report must also contain a description of the research strategy.

The readers will be interested in finding how you arrived at a particular study result.

Writing Your Data

The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected through your research. There are two
important areas of consideration in the writing up of the data, namely, data analysis, and data presentation.

1. “be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and contrast”

2. “be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanations for the findings”
WRITING YOUR CONLCLUSION

How do you characterize conclusions? Conclusion are inferences, deductions,

abstraction, implications, interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations

based on findings.

WRITING THE RECOMMENDATIONS

The research recommendation is a part of the paper where you make suggestions about some resolutions as a
response to the research problem. It must be consistent part of the conclusion.

It proposes specific solutions connected with the findings and must be supported by relevant data and specific
data from the findings.