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 Blockchain and IoT

This book offers a detailed exploration of the transformative potential of the

Internet of Things (IoT) and blockchain in reshaping industries. Through a
combination of theoretical foundations, practical case studies, and
innovative applications, it highlights how these cutting-edge technologies
can revolutionize business models, enhance operational efficiency, and
foster innovation. This book is a helpful guide for scholars, researchers, and
professionals engaged in research on the Internet of Things, artificial
intelligence, machine learning, blockchain, and their applications at the
industry level.

Explains how IoT devices can leverage blockchain technology to enhance security,
transparency, and efficiency in data management and transactions.
Explores the security challenges faced by IoT devices and how blockchain can address these
challenges by providing a decentralized and tamper-resistant platform for data exchange and
storage.
Investigates the potential of cloud-based IoT platforms, analytics, protocols, and business
models to revamp the workforce.
Discusses how companies can leverage the data generated by IoT devices securely through
blockchain-based data marketplaces.
Provides real-world examples and case studies of successful implementations of IoT and
blockchain technologies across different industries such as healthcare, manufacturing,
logistics, and energy.

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Chapman & Hall/CRC Internet of
Things: Data-Centric Intelligent
Computing, Informatics, and
Communication

The role of adaptation, machine learning, computational Intelligence, and

data analytics in the field of IoT Systems is becoming increasingly essential
and intertwined. The capability of an intelligent system is growing
depending upon various self-decision-making algorithms in IoT Devices.
IoT based smart systems generate a large amount of data that cannot be
processed by traditional data processing algorithms and applications.
Hence, this book series involves different computational methods
incorporated within the system with the help of Analytics Reasoning,
learning methods, Artificial intelligence, and Sense-making in Big Data,
which is most concerned in IoT-enabled environment.

This series focuses to attract researchers and practitioners who are working
in Information Technology and Computer Science in the field of intelligent
computing paradigm, Big Data, machine learning, Sensor data, Internet of
Things, and data sciences. The main aim of the series is to make available a
range of books on all aspects of learning, analytics and advanced intelligent
systems and related technologies. This series will cover the theory, research,
development, and applications of learning, computational analytics, data
processing, machine learning algorithms, as embedded in the fields of
engineering, computer science, and Information Technology.

Series Editors:
Data Science for Effective Healthcare Systems
Hari Singh, Ravindara Bhatt, Prateek Thakral and Dinesh Chander Verma

Internet of Things and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and

Healthcare Applications
Ankan Bhattacharya, Bappadittya Roy, Samarendra Nath Sur, Saurav
Mallik and Subhasis Dasgupta

Energy Harvesting: Enabling IoT Transformations

Deepti Agarwal, Kimmi Verma and Shabana Urooj

SDN-Supported Edge-Cloud Interplay for Next Generation Internet of

Things
Kshira Sagar Sahoo, Arun Solanki, Sambit Kumar Mishra, Bibhudatta
Sahoo and Anand Nayyar

Internet of Things: Applications for Sustainable Development

Niranjan Lal, Shamimul Qamar, Sanyam Agarwal, Ambuj Kumar Agarwal
and Sourabh Singh Verma

Artificial Intelligence for Cognitive Modeling: Theory and Practice

Pijush Dutta, Souvik Pal, Asok Kumar and Korhan Cengiz

Cognitive Predictive Maintenance Tools in Brain Diseases: Design and

Analysis
Shweta Gupta

Cognitive Computing for Smart Automotive Transportation:

Technology and Applications
By G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Archana Naganathan, Niresh Jayarajan
and Sheldon S. Williamson

Blockchain and IoT: Foundations, Applications and Case Studies

By R Anandan, D Akila and Souvik Pal

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 Blockchain and IoT
Foundations, Applications and Case Studies

Edited by
R Anandan, D Akila, and Souvik Pal

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Designed cover image: ShutterStock
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2025 selection and editorial matter, R Anandan, D Akila, and Souvik Pal; individual chapters, the
contributors

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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-54626-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-55070-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-42888-6 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886
Typeset in Times
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

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Contents

Preface
Editors
Contributors
SECTION–I Foundations in Block Chain

Chapter 1 Architecture, Security, and Privacy for Blockchain

Using Enabling Technologies
Priyadarsini K, Karthik S, R Anitha, Jean
Shilpa V, Anusooya S, Jeba Sonia J, and
Charanjeet K

Chapter 2 Internet of Things and Industrial Internet of Things

Powered by Blockchain: A Study on Unleashing
Potential
S Sandhya, M Senthil Kumar, B
Chidhambararajan, and S K Susee

Chapter 3 Utilizing Blockchain and Interplanetary File System

for Enhanced User Privacy in Secure Data Sharing
K Balamurugan, M Azhagiri, P A Harsha
Vardhini, Edwin Jijo, and Latha Parthiban

SECTION–II Industrial and societal implications using blockchain

and IoT

Chapter 4 Exploration and Review of Blockchain Technology

Used in Industrial Solutions
 Maxraj J and VijayAnanth Suyamburajan

Chapter 5 Harnessing IoT for Effective Smart Farming: A

Comparative Analysis of Farming Condition
Monitoring
Anwer Basha H

Chapter 6 Blockchain-Based Parking System Using IoT

S Sahunthala, Latha Parthiban, and R
Parthiban

Chapter 7 Blockchain-Based Online Attendance Management

System
Latha Parthiban, S Sahunthala, and R
Parthiban

SECTION–III Blockchain Security in Healthcare

Chapter 8 Blockchain and AI in eHealth

K P Revathi and T Manikandan

Chapter 9 Blockchain-Driven Solutions for IoT Data Security

in Healthcare
P K Jawahar, S Mubeena, V Jean Shilpa, R
Anitha, and S Anusooya

Chapter 10 Integrating Blockchain in Healthcare to Secure

Data
Selvakumarasamy, Latha Parthiban, B.
Hariharan, and R Parthiban

Index

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Preface

We take great pleasure in presenting this book, Blockchain and IoT, aimed
at advancing knowledge and sharing recent applications and case studies in
areas such as the Internet of Things (IoT), robotic and intelligent systems,
web-based applications, and blockchain technology among working
professionals and those engaged in education and research across various
technical disciplines.
The objective of this book is to enable students to delve into IoT
knowledge, which necessitates new security frameworks aligned with
emerging technical standards. Consequently, the design of the book aims to
address the need for new security paradigms for IoT based on these
standards. Security, encompassing both physical devices and management
applications, is paramount for the successful operation of IoT systems. The
advantages of incorporating IoT in industrial automation include heightened
efficiency, increased accuracy, cost-effectiveness, accelerated process
completion, reduced power consumption, minimized errors, and enhanced
control. Forward-thinking entrepreneurs aspire to automate their office
processes to align with the latest technological advancements. However, it’s
important to acknowledge the challenges associated with automating
industrial processes. In subsequent sections, we explore the potential
synergy between blockchain and IoT technologies, investigating how they
can complement each other effectively. The convergence of IoT and
blockchain has the potential to reshape industries, redefining how we
interact with technology, manage data, and conduct transactions. At its core,
IoT empowers devices and sensors to communicate and exchange data
seamlessly, creating a network of interconnected systems that gather real-
time insights and drive efficiency. On the other hand, blockchain, renowned
for its decentralized and immutable ledger technology, ensures
transparency, security, and trust in data transactions, eliminating
intermediaries and enabling peer-to-peer interactions. In recent years, the
synergy between IoT and blockchain has gained significant attention,
promising transformative solutions across various sectors, including
healthcare, supply chain management, finance, energy, agriculture, and
beyond. From optimizing supply chains and tracking assets to enabling
secure micropayments and ensuring data integrity, the applications are
diverse and profound.
This book serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the
dynamics, applications, and implications of integrating IoT and blockchain
in industry. Through a blend of theoretical frameworks, practical case
studies, and insightful analyses, we delve into the intricacies of this
burgeoning field, exploring its potential to revolutionize business models,
enhance operational efficiency, and drive innovation. Whether you are a
seasoned professional, a curious enthusiast, or an industry leader navigating
the digital transformation journey, this book provides valuable insights and
practical guidance to harness the power of IoT and blockchain synergies.
Join us as we explore the transformative potential of these technologies and
embark on a journey toward a more connected, efficient, and transparent
future.

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Editors

R Anandan completed
his UG, PG, doctorate and post-doctoral degree (DSc) in computer science
and engineering in Mexico. He is an IBMS/390 Mainframe professional and
is recognized as a chartered engineer by the Institution of Engineers in
India. He currently works as a professor, Department of CSE, School of
Engineering; and is director of the Innovation and Incubation, Vels Institute
of Science, Technology & Advanced Studies (VISTAS), Chennai, India. He
has vast experience in corporate and all levels of academics in computer
Science and engineering. He is currently supervising 8 PhD research
scholars and 16 research scholars have been awarded PhD’s under his
guidance.
He is a member of many reputed international and national societies. He
serves as an editorial board member, technical Committee member, or
reviewer of several international journals. He has published more than 140
research papers in various international journals. He has presented 92
papers at various international conferences. He has received 18 awards from
national and international agencies. He has authored and edited 28 books,
including 10 international books, and published 30 chapters in various
books. He has filed 18 patents of which 4 patents and 3 copyrights have
been granted.

D Akila completed her post-

doctoral fellow in computer science at Lincoln University College,
Malaysia; and her PhD in computer science at Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, India. She received an MCA from Bharathiar University,
MPhil from Bharathidasan University, and an ME in computer science and
engineering from Vinayaka Mission University. She is currently a professor
in the Department of Computer Applications, Saveetha College of Liberal
Arts and Sciences, SIMATS Deemed University, Chennai, India. She has 15
years of teaching experience at both the undergraduate and postgraduate
level. Her research interests include data mining, big data analytics, cloud
computing, image processing, knowledge-based systems, and web
information exploration. She has supervised two MPhil scholars and eight
PhD scholars.
She is an active member of several professional bodies, including the
IEEE, International Association of Engineers (IAENG) Hong Kong,
Computer Science Teacher Association (CSTA) New York, Internet Society,
International Society for Research and Development, and the World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology (WASET). She serves as
editorial board member, technical Committee member, or reviewer of many
international journals. She has published more than 100 research papers in
journals and has authored 7 Books.
She received a Life Time Achievement Award 2018–2019 for
outstanding contribution in Education from the National IT Cyber Security
Research Association, Government of India; the Achiever Award 2019 for
outstanding contribution in the field of education from the Feminine
Foundation; and from the Uyir Thalir Research and Resource Organization,
A Excellence Teacher in Information Technology, Global Outreach
Education Award 2019, New Delhi.
 Souvik Pal is an professor in
the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Sister Nivedita
University (Techno India Group), Kolkata, India. Prior to that, he was
associated with Global Institute of Management and Technology; Brainware
University, Kolkata; JIS College of Engineering, Nadia; Elitte College of
Engineering, Kolkata; and Nalanda Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar,
India. Pal received his MTech and PhDin the field of computer science and
engineering from KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India. He has more than a
decade of academic experience. He is the author or coeditor of more than
15 books from reputed publishers and holds three patents. He serves as a
series editor for Advances in Learning Analytics for Intelligent Cloud-IoT
Systems (Scopus-indexed); the Internet of Things: Data-Centric Intelligent
Computing, Informatics, and Communication, published by CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group, USA; and the Conference Proceedings Series on
Intelligent Systems, Data Engineering, and Optimization, published by
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA. Pal has published a number of
research papers listed in Scopus/SCI/SCIE journals and conferences. He
was the organizing chair of RICE 2019, Vietnam; RICE 2020 Vietnam; and
ICICIT 2019, Tunisia. He was invited as a keynote speaker at ICICCT
2019, Turkey, and ICTIDS 2019 and 2021 Malaysia. He also served as
Proceedings Editor of ICICCT 2019, 2020; ICMMCS 2020, 2021; and
ICWSNUCA 2021, India. His professional activities include roles as
associate editor, guest editor, and editorial board member for more than 100
international journals and conferences . His research area includes cloud
computing, big data, Internet of Things, wireless sensor networks, and data
analytics. He is a member of many professional organizations, including
MIEEE; MCSI; MCSTA/ACM, USA; MIAENG, Hong Kong; MIRED,
USA; MACEEE, New Delhi; MIACSIT, Singapore; and MAASCIT, USA.

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Contributors

B Chidhambararajan
SRM Valliammai Engineering College
Kanchipuram, India

Hariharan B
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Anwer Basha H
Saveetha College of Liberal Arts and Sciences
Chennai, India

Jeba Sonia J
SRM Institute of Science & Technology
Chennai, India

Maxraj J
VELS Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies
Chennai, India

Edwin Jijo
Military Technological College
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Charanjeet K
SRM Institute of Science & Technology
Chennai, India

Revathi K P
Easwari Engineering College
Chennai, India

Balamurugan K
SRM Madurai College for Engineering and Technology
Pottapalayam, India

Priyadarsini K
SRM Institute of Science & Technology
Chennai, India

Senthil Kumar M
SRM Valliammai Engineering College
Kattankulathur, India

Azhagiri M
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Harsha Vardhini P A
Vignan Institute of Technology and Science,
Telangana, India

Jawahar P K
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Latha Parthiban
Pondicherry University Community College
Puducherry, India

Anitha R
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Parthiban R
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering
Kalavakkam, India

Selvakumarasamy
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Shenbagavadivu
SRM Valliammai Engineering College
Chennai, India

Anusooya S
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Karthik S
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Mubeena S
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

Sandhya S
SRM Valliammai Engineering College
Kattankulathur, India

Susee S K
SRM Madurai College for Engineering and Technology
Madurai, India

Sahunthala S
Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology
Chennai, India

Selvakumarasamy Subramaniyam
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Nagar, India
VijayAnanth Suyamburajan
Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies
Chennai, India

Manikandan T
Rajalakshmi Engineering College
Chennai, India

Jean Shilpa V
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India

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Section–I Foundations in Block Chain

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1 Architecture, Security, and
Privacy for Blockchain Using
Enabling Technologies
Priyadarsini K, Karthik S, R Anitha, Jean Shilpa V,
Anusooya S, Jeba Sonia J, and Charanjeet K
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-2

INTRODUCTION
In 2009 Nakamoto Satoshi developed blockchain to make Bitcoins more
secure. As of January 2018, the capital fee of Bitcoin was $180 billion.
Blockchain is a multidisciplinary topic that involves mathematics,
computation, big data, IoT, and cloud computing. Blockchain isn’t always a
product, however, it is an alternative as it is also used as the primary
software of Bitcoin. A block is part of the blockchain that consists of a
block header, which in turn is divided into fundamental block hash, block
model, timestamp, nonce value, simple records, information, and Merkel
root hash. The block also includes interactive records, input, and output. In
general, it is an interconnected time series of information with cryptography
and a dispensed shared ledger. It performs unusual operations by using
consensus, smart contracts, preferred ledger, and cross-chain generation.
Each block is connected to different blocks (nodes) and knows the previous
and subsequent hashes in a peer-to-peer network. Blocks cannot be deleted
or changed by blockchain users. It has a verification facility by which
individual blocks have to be completely verified. Blocks have the traits of
decentralization, persistency, anonymity, independence, openness,
immutability, safety and agreement, collective renovation, programmability,
transparency, unforgeability, and auditability [5] (Figure 1.1).
 FIGURE 1.1 Block structure.

A Bitcoin transaction is a public ledger in the form of a list of

instructions or information recorded in blocks as the Bitcoins are exchanged
among users. Customers in transactions participate through Bitcoin
addresses [16, 29] and they’re controlled by using wallets. A user is not
limited to one address; they can access several Bitcoin addresses in their
wallets. These addresses are mapped to unique non-public/public key pairs
through transformation characteristics [18]. A transaction among addresses,
say, a and b, is expressed as follows:

(ab) = {source, BTC, b, Sig ska (source, BTC, b)}

where Sig ska is the signature with the aid of a private key and BTC is the
Bitcoin amount to be transferred. There are a few shadow addresses that are
mechanically created when transactions change values. A transaction CS (P,
C, d, t, s) among P and C is carried out and there may be a CS. Devote, CS.
Open, and CS. Nice stages denoting successful execution, starting, and
aborting the transaction. If the transaction is completed successfully by
secret key s, the Bitcoin price d is assigned to the receiver. There are several
types of metadata: text, which uses many textual content messages; hash, a
code that specifies the possession of files in the blockchain; financial
document, a file of virtual payments or property; copyright, which allows
manufacturers to promote and display the file; script, the many languages
used for blockchain; photo, photos are sometimes also present in a
blockchain; and archive, records saved in the compact form (Figure 1.2).
 FIGURE 1.2 Chain of blocks.⏎

The authority is the centralized authority in a centralized device who has

all the rights to update the database without needing third-party permission.
In a blockchain, the advantage is that the consent of anybody might be
required to perform an operation. It minimizes the monopoly of the relevant
authority [24, 28, 46]. There are numerous varieties of blockchain: private
for a private enterprise of small range; public or all, which has a wider
range; and consortium for a group of organizations. They may be analyzed
on the basis of the following parameters.

1. Only a few private nodes can perform the validation process of

consensus determination.
2. Only a consortium or organization has the power to decide whether
information will be public or private.
3. Immutability: Blockchains are difficult for outsiders to tamper, while
the consortium or organization is authorized to alter with the blocks.
4. Efficiency: The fewer the number of operations, the better the
efficiency.
5. Centralized: It is controlled by one organization.
6. Consensus process: Only certified nodes are able to join the consensus
process.

Many cryptocurrencies have been launched (Table 1.1). Some isolated

cryptocurrencies, i.e., zero coin and zero cash based on zero knowledge
proof, have been proposed [26, 30].

TABLE 1.1 Different Cryptocurrencies⏎

Cryptocurrency Year ofLaunch Hashing Mining
Cryptocurrency Year ofLaunch Hashing Mining
Bitcoin 2008 SHA-256 Agreed PoW is done on all nonces
Litecoin 2011 S crypt Same as Bitcoin PoW
Peercoin 2012 SHA-256d PoW and proof of stake
Primecoin 2012 Cunningham Chain PoW
Ripple 2014 Digital Signature Consensus based
Ethereum 2014 Ethash PoW
Permacoin 2014 Floating Digital Proof of retrievability
Signature
BlackCoin 2014 S crypt Proof of stake
Auroracoin 2014 S crypt PoW
Darkcoin 2014 X11 PoW
Namecoin 2015 SHA-256d PoW

The articles selected for this chapter are from 2009 to 2021 (Figure 1.3).
 FIGURE 1.3 Year-wise paper selection.⏎

Architecture of Blockchain
The blockchain architecture is a collection of layers showing the functions
and protocols supported by each layer [1, 2, 7, 32, 33, 34]:

i. Data layer: It creates the blocks and has its own information,
verification, timestamp, block numbers, hash values of its
predecessor, and successor nodes.
ii. Network layer: It makes a complete network of nodes via a peer-to-
peer network with no fixed topology. Nodes can verify, transmit, and
route for interactions.
iii. Consensus layer: It is used to store accurate information by nodes in
the shared ledger. It exhibits a higher satisfaction level in consensus
efficiency. In a peer-to-peer network, all nodes work together to reach
a consensus by Byzantine consensus. There could also be an oral or
written consensus. After a block miner signs the blocks and
broadcasts them, the receiver signs a new block after verification. The
algorithm works on a majority of 51%. There are four types of
consensus mechanisms: POW (proof of work) (Figure 1.4), proof of
stake (POS), practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT), and
delegated proof of stake (DoPOS). Some other mechanisms are proof
of authority (POA), proof of bandwidth, proof of elapsed time
(POET).
iv. Contract layer: It is the lowest layer to make a blockchain
operational via sophisticated programming. Examples are Ethereum
and Definity. There are vulnerabilities in contracts, e.g., errors in
encoding, cryptography, misaligned incentives, transaction ordering,
timestamp dependence, mishandled exceptions, reentrancy, and data
feed.
v. Service layer: It provides the services to the upper layer by software
and hardware.
vi. Application layer: It offers services and platforms to applications like
IoT, smart city, and VANET (Figure 1.5).
 FIGURE 1.4 PoW consensus mechanism.⏎

FIGURE 1.5 Bitcoin architecture.⏎

Numerous styles of modeling are proposed for Bitcoin transactions. In

the primarily graph-based approach, four types of transactions—namely,
cash transfers, smart contract creation, smart contract invocation, and those
not conducted through graph construction—are identfied and analyzed
using graph evaluation techniques. The last transactions are labeled as a
money drift graph, smart contract creation graph, and settlement invocation
graph. The stochastic model is created to view the converting dynamics and
behavior of the gadget. In the queuing version, each time nodes are
introduced or mined they are queued up in a blockchain [23, 27].
Blockchain Mining
Consensus or mining is needed to test the trustworthiness of nodes. These
nodes can talk to different nodes without involving a third party. All nodes
are linked to a database. As mentioned, there are several mining techniques
or algorithms, including proof of work, proof of stake, proof of area,
evidence of significance, degree of trust, minimum block hash, and
practical Byzantine fault tolerance. Proof of stake calls for less computing
strength for mining than the proof of work.

SELFISH MINING
Blocks are brought to the blockchain and mined via block miners. There are
miners with their own mining powers, mi, such that ∑I = n mi. To check the
validity of a block, hard crypto puzzles are solved by miners. Sometimes
puzzles are too hard for one miner to solve, therefore, miners will pool
together to collect enough computing strength. Miners get their rewards in
Bitcoins once they solve the puzzle.

FIGURE 1.6 Forking of blockchain.⏎

Extra computing energy will increase the rewards and the possibility of
solving the crypto puzzles. Mining pools result in two types of companies:
honest and egocentric [21, 35].
Egocentric miners convince the genuine miners to fix stale blocks with
the aid of a forking blockchain, creating a copy of the blockchain (Figure
1.6). As a result, they waste their computing energy in futile efforts. Mining
should be sincere and incentive-free. If a couple of block is introduced
through miners, they create a fork into branches of a tree referred to as
Merkel tree, which can be difficult or smooth depending on the basis of old
and new regulations.

i. Two types of nodes: (1) Byzantine nodes, which behave arbitrarily or

misbehave, and their mining strength is 25% less than the total
computing power of all nodes and (2) honest nodes behave virtually.
Consensus protocols are measured [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21–22, 37,
45] by means of the following parameters to evaluate the performance
and examine them.
ii. Consensus delay: It is the time that a system takes to reach an
agreement.
iii. Fairness: Optimally the fairness ratio is 1, meaning the largest and
smallest miners earn rewards based on their mining powers.
iv. Mining power utilization: It is the percentage of the power used to
secure the mining power.
v. Subjective time to prune: Because of its probabilistic nature,
Nakamoto consensus is not sufficient to identify the pruned branches
in Bitcoins.
vi. Time to win: The ratio of the first time to assume that node is never
pruned to when that node was pruned.
vii. Node identity: It is an identity that is needed to select a primary
miner.
viii. Energy saving: Hashing requires energy, so algorithms that do not
use hashing can save the energy, such as the ripple miner.
ix. Tolerated power of adversaries: It is 51% of the hash power.
x. Efficiency: It is measured by the propagation of time and inactivity.
Both are desired to be minimum.
xi. Centralized: Public blockchains are decentralized, consortiums are
semi-centralized, and private blockchains are fully centralized.
xii. Consensus process: In a public blockchain, anybody can participate.
In a consortium, a certificate is needed to participate in a consensus
process (Table 1.2).
 TABLE 1.2 Analysis of Consensus Algorithms⏎
Consensus Performance Need of Maximum Type Attacks Special
Protocol Token Malicious Nodes Hardware
PoW High Yes 51% Public Yes No
PoS High Yes 51% Public Yes No
DPoS High Yes 51% Public Yes No
PBFT High No 33% Consortium No No

Bitcoin Wallets
There are many Bitcoin wallets, including TREZOR, MultiBit Core,
Coinbase, Blockchain, Exodus, MyCelium, Bitcoin middle, MultiBit HD,
Electrum, Copay, Amory. For security and privacy, Coinbase, MyCelium,
Bitcoin middle Blockchain, TREZOR, Exodus, MultiBit middle, MultiBit
HD are desirable, whereas Electrum, Copay, and Amory are not. They’re
unbiased wallets, except Coinbase. In large experience, Bitcoin wallets are
classified into types 0, 1, and 2, on the basis of the capacities of logistic
assets they require [31] (Figure 1.7).

FIGURE 1.7 Wallet classification.⏎

Key Enabling Blockchain Applications

The proposed technologies fintech, IoT, cloud, governance, and corda have
helped in the development of Bitcoin [2, 10, 32].

Fintech
Since operations of Bitcoins are unforgeable, accurate, and untraceable,
through the smart contract agreement with the regulations, blockchain has
increased the confidence of the financial industry. It provides security to the
upper layer and multi-signature scheme messages are encrypted to improve
the verification and anonymity.

Internet of Things (IoT)

For high protection, a blockchain can utilize the IoT infrastructure. There
are challenges in IoTs: system design (centralization bottleneck, lightweight
design), facts management (processing tool renovation service management
payment and discovery services), and protection (privacy, counterfeit,
authentication, secure communique, and counterfeit hardware). Blockchain
usage in IoT involves too much overhead and scalability issues.
Consequently to reduce the overhead and to beautify the authentication and
authorization of factors, a three-layered modeling approach is proposed in
[42, 43–44]. In layer 1, there may be a cluster head of IoT devices and
security offerings presented via local cluster heads. The cluster head is
supposed to perform registration of the latest node, consultation key and
conversation control, and secure communique. In the second layer, cluster
heads function under a base station and they gather and forward the data to
the higher layer. Layer 3 collects the bottom stations to prepare the owner to
control the tool to supply the statistics in the cloud server. IoT answers the
challenges of hardware, records analytics, maintenance, mobility, safety,
and logistics. IoT to IoT peer, IoT peer to blockchain, and hybrid
architectures are proposed. There are many problems to the mixing of
blockchain with artificial intelligence for sharing, securing, transactions,
deposit, and aid control programs.

Supply and Chain Management

It has many events of logistics, capital flow, and information flow; there
must be collaboration between entities to keep supply intact via blockchain.
Various encryption and decryption e.g. symmetric and asymmetric, DES,
AES, RC, RSA, Elliptic curve, Diffie-Hellman, MD, SHA, Merkle tree, etc.

Cloud
A cloud is a network of blocks and a database of nodes of a blockchain is
considered big data. Therefore, a blockchain would require a cloud to store
and manage the database because of its size, volume, veracity, and velocity.

Governance
It is desired to increase the digital transmission of financial institutions,
digitization of important government records, land registries, patients’
records, and so on. Currently, flexible regulations may need to be
standardized and regulated to cope with attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities.

Corda
Corda is a public digital ledger technology, not a blockchain, because it
creates a network by which messages and other information flow. It is more
reliable, transparent, immutable, reduces risk, flexible, and regulated. It
controls financial transactions by recording financial agreements, validating
transactions between two parties, and providing the perfect flow of
information in a regulated and supervised manner. Corda automatically
produces legal document models representing individuals’ legal rights.
Corda uses PoA, is permissioned, and is not suitable for use-case. A
drawback is the generation of millions of long-lasting threads [38].
Permissions of the blockchain are not like the regular ones because it is not
more secure. It can connect to any node, which can add blocks to the
blockchain.
Applications
FIGURE 1.8 Layers applicable to traditional
blockchain.⏎
 FIGURE 1.9 Layers in data management in blockchain.⏎

In the economic sense, traditional Bitcoins need built-in incentives or

rewards, a centralized and decentralized Bitcoin economic system, currency
exchanges, mixers, digital wallet services, and mining pools (Figure 1.8 and
Figure 1.9). There are intermediaries that helped in the development of
Bitcoin [14]:

i. Currency exchanges: Like most traditional currencies, it charges from

0.2% to 2%.
ii. Digital wallet services: Wallets contain account information,
private/public information, and recorded transactions. Some users use
private wallets that offer a wide range of services. The files are shared
through web servers or mobiles.
 iii. Mixers: The transactions are mixed in random order so as to prevent
any guess or tracking of transactions.
iv. Mining Pools: Bitcoins are permitted by the miners after solving the
puzzle (need high computational power). So instead of having only
one miner, miners are kept in a row to speed up the process.

Open Source Blockchain Implementation

Bitcoin miners need cryptographic strategies, consensus methods, smart
contracts, and peer-to-peer networks. There are diverse styles of proof
strategies, including PoW, PoS, PBFT, and DpoS. The cryptography virtual
signature algorithm is used for authentication. For public key encryption
gadgets there are RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and elliptic curve cryptography. A
collection of nodes without any centralized controller in which each node
acts as a router, verifier, or miner of the blocks and wallets is called a peer-
to-peer community. All nodes in a collaborative community are created on a
public ledger and are visible and verified by way of all nodes inside the
community. Smart contracts are better than the traditional ones considering
the feel of pace and guidelines. Transactions continue executing until some
predicted consequences are determined. When no expected outcomes are
visible in the allotted time, the transaction is aborted [39]. The open-source
implementations Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Hyperledger are described next [1,
10, 11, 25] (Table 3.1 and Figure 1.10). Xblock-ETH, Xblock-EOS, Bockci,
Blockbench, NodeFinedr, and network simulator facts set framework of
Blockchain are described in the literature [40].

i. Bitcoin: It uses POW mining and no smart contract. They are more
popular and good for scalability for a number of nodes, but it is
expensive computationally and time consuming.
ii. Ethereum: It uses the smart contract, POW, and POS mining. It is
scalable and it does not require any computation for mining, but it is
costly.
iii. Hyperledger: It requires a smart contract and PBFT, and it is the
fastest to detect the validity of the transactions. It records transactions
and it is accessible to all nodes. It cannot be added, deleted, or
modified, meaning it is fully protected from attacks.
 iv. Blockchain APIs and development platforms: Chain.info consists
of APIs with wallets to perform payments and other operations [13].
v. Multichain, Hydrachain, Bigchain, Openchain, Quorm, Chaincore:
They are privately permissioned and they are developed in Java and
Python. They are used in financial operations, banking, land registries,
and ID verification (Table 1.3).

TABLE 1.3 Open-Source Bitcoin Implementation⏎

Chain Interface for total blockchain nodes to know activities done by address, i.e., balance,
notifications to node where queries are made by address.
Stellar It is an API development environment for developing semi-centralized public ledger. Block.io, Gem, and block
ciphers are associated to this.
Block It contains APIs of a multi-signature wallet.
cipher
IPFS It is a global file system that suggests decentralize secure file serving and sharing. BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer file
project sharing. It is similar to Filecoin.
Internet To store the blockchain along with ledger.
archive

FIGURE 1.10 Open-source Bitcoin services.⏎

Bitcoin transaction contain a version number, in-counter for the number

of inputs, out-counter for the number of outputs, previous transaction,
previous out-index, in-script, sequence numbers, the value to be transferred,
out-script length, out-script, and lock time to lock the transaction. A stack-
based language script has a limited cryptographic and logical operations for
embedding data in transactions [36] (Table 1.4).

TABLE 1.4 Scripting Commands⏎

OP_CHECKSIG Opcode
OP_CHECKSIG Opcode
Sig Signature
in-script:sig Pay to public key: this is used to verify the signature by pushing sig on top of stack, then
out-script:pubKeyOP_ CHECKSIG pushing pub Key, and finally OP_CHECKSIG.
in-script: sigpubKey Pay to public key hash: This is same as above except here double hashing of public key is
out-script: OP_DUP_ HASH 160 used.
pubKeyHash
OP_ EQUQLVERIFY OP_
CHECKSIG
in-script:OP_0sig1⋯sigM Multi-Signature: It does the multi-signature verification.
out-script:MpubKey1⋯pubKeyNN
OP_CHECKMULTISIG
in-script: v1⋯vNbitstring Pay to script hash: It is used to make sure that bitstring is equal to hash.
out-script: OP_HASH160
hashOP_EQUAL
out-script: OP_RETURN bit string It removes false values from the set.

Issues and Challenges

Since Bitcoin is a growing technology, it has limitations, including
technical, business model, government regulation, and privacy challenges
for personal data. Blockchains have the following issues and challenges.
Bitcoin size is limited to 1 MB. It is mined every ten minutes and can
handle seven transactions per second; therefore, it requires a larger storage
and lower propagation delay. It has no ownership, which results in a
management issue. Other challenges are resource sharing including energy,
authentication, verification, cross-lock chain, and decentralized storage.
Some of the crucial challenges are as follows:

i. Throughput or scalability: A maximum seven transactions per second

is possible while some systems like VISA and Twitter allow 2000 to
5000 transactions per second, respectively [12, 41]. Efforts to increase
scalability include storage optimization and redesigning the
blockchain.
ii. Bandwidth, computing power, and size: The size of blockchain is
increasing year by year, so to process it requires more bandwidth and
size. Electricity current consumption is 2.55 GW and the average
electricity consumption per transaction is 300 KWH and more power
is expected for the future.
 iii. Latency: To complete a transaction takes around ten minutes.
Contemporary systems like VISA take only a few seconds.
iv. Resource wastage: There a lot of resource wastage because of the
proof-of-work process.
v. Privacy leakage: Though it is quite safe, many people can still
generate many addresses due to information leakage. Bitcoins can be
leaked to reveal their information. Therefore, anonymity methods are
proposed like mixing. A small blockchain created by a small network
has the 51% probability of being attacked [6].
Blockchains are analyzed by a transaction graph T (T, L), where T is the transactions set
and L is the input–output relations.
Address graph A (A, L’), where A is the address of Bitcoins and L’ is the directed
assignments of connecting addresses.
Entity graph: It merges the addresses of the same users and it is represented by ℇ (E,
L”), where E is the set of entities.
Ownership: Mapping of addresses to destinations. This causes the analysis of using
multiple addresses by the same user for multi-entry transactions; transactions with
change, curious, or malicious mixing services; blockchain peer-to-peer network privacy;
and web payments.

vi. Selfish mining: Some nodes do not broadcast their share and cheat,
even if they have less than 51% hashing power for transmission.
vii. Usage: The development of API is challenging. An easy-to-use
Bitcoin API is needed.

Privacy, Security, and Risk

Bitcoin supports consistency, integrity, availability, tampering resistance,
resistance to double-spending, pseudonymity, consensus algorithms, and
signature verification public key as pseudonyms [48, 49, 50, 51–52]. They
are supposed to incorporate unlinkability, confidentiality, resistance to
majority consensus attack mixing, and anonymous signatures. With Bitcoin
privacy quantification [1, 17], an adversary is not allowed to link two
addresses or two transactions of a user, known as activity unlinkability.
Profile indistinguishability refers to the inability of adversaries to
reconstruct a user’s profile (set of addresses or set of transactions of Bitcoin
users) in a public ledger (Figure 1.11).
 FIGURE 1.11 Privacy preserving terminology.⏎

Techniques to Enhance the Privacy and Anonymity of Bitcoins

i. Coinbase: Transactions require multi-signatures. Anonymity level

varies.
ii. Coin shuffle: It is used for coordinating Coinbase transactions via
cryptographic protocols and lower anonymity levels.
iii. Xim: Multiround partnering mixing at a higher mixing rate.
iv. Coin Shuffle and DiceMix: Optimal mixing is done to improve the
anonymity of cryptocurrency and DdoS may occur. It does not use a
third party and less risky, but it is less resistant to DoS attacks.
v. Value Shuffle: Coin Shuffle-based to achieve unlinkability and better
privacy.
vi. Dandelion: Policy to avoid the deanonymization of Bitcoin.
vii. Secure Coin: It is secure for anonymization and unlinking.
viii. CoinParty: It helps to understand the advantages of centralized and
decentralized mixing, and also suspected coin theft.
ix. Mix Coin: Mixing is done by a third party. Partial theft resistance and
unlinkability.
x. Blind Coin: Blind signatures are used for anonymity and provide
partial theft protection.
 xi. Tumble Bit: Payments conducted via untrusted intermediaries and
require double back-to-back transactions.

Security
Security means providing the access control, confidentiality, integrity,
authentication, availability, and non-repudiation of services. Miners whose
computing power is below 25% of the network’s total power are
incentivized. Therefore, they are lured to use small blocks and extend the
longest and heaviest chains. The honest users follow the heaviest chain
while shellfish users may follow any chain. To increase their revenue,
miners prefer to follow the longest blockchain fork. Bitcoins are more
flexible in network optimal conditions, stating zero attacks in zero latency.
Secure multiparty computation, attribute-based mechanisms, and non-
interactive Bitcoins are more flexible in zero-knowledge proof. Blockchain
provides very good authentication for access control with the help of
hashing [47]. Some of the security issues are as follows:
Wallet security: Wallets need to be protected from the attacks to get the private key.
Censorship resistance: To limit the power of the lead miner to a single epoch.
Resilience to mining power variation: They are adjustable to different mining power
variations.
Forks: Making of other blockchains, which wastes the efforts of honest nodes.
Double-spending: Nodes try to transfer the same Bitcoin amount to more than one node.

Classification of Attacks
Attacks compromise the security of the system. Attacks are classified into
several different categories depending on where they pose the threats [4,
20]: identity based (replay, impersonation, and Sybil), manipulation
(Eclipse, transaction malleability, time jacking, quantum, reputation),
vulnerability in service (race, DdoS, double-spending, finney, vector76,
collusion; malware), application vulnerability (use case design flow, coding
vector) [8].

A. Bitcoin and proof of work attacks based on consensus protocol:

i. Selfish mining attack: Cheating to increase rewards.
ii. DAO attack: It is exploited by re-reentering the contaminated smart
contracts.
iii. BGP hijacking attack: Intercepts the miners and reroutes the
cryptocurrency so it can be stolen.
iv. Eclipse attack: It is used to separate the victim from the rest of the
network.
v. Balance attack: It disrupts the communication of low-power miners.
vi. Double-spending or race attack: The seller or merchant is targeted,
and the same Bitcoins are sent in rapid succession. They are countered
by putting observers in between them.
vii. Finney attack: Sellers and merchants are affected. A faulty miner
sends a pre-mined block for double-spending. It can be countered by
multiple confirmations.
viii. Brute force attack: To secretly mine a blockchain and it is
controlled by using the observers.
ix. Vector 76 or one confirmation attack: It is a fusion of double-
spending and finney attacks and again it can be avoided by using an
observer.
x. More than 50% hash power or gold finger attack: It manages
adversaries with up to more than 50% hash rate and it can also be
controlled by inserting observers.
xi. Block discarding or selfish mining: It misuses the fork feature to
unfairly gain rewards. It can be controlled by the zero block technique
and timestamp base mechanisms.
xii. Block withholding: It mines only PpoW. It can be avoided by
involving only known and trusted miners.
xiii. Fork and withholding attack: It corrects the bad effects of block
withholding and selfish mining. It is a node fence, therefore it is more
dangerous.
B. Misbehavior attacks targeting Bitcoins are as follows:
i. Bribery attacks: Some nodes bribe to get advantages for mining, and
they affect the seller and merchant. It can be countered by increasing
the reward of honest miners.
ii. Refund attack: It is a refund method that is exploited by adversaries
for payments, and they can be managed by publicly verifiable
evidence.
 iii. Punitive and feather attacks: A miner blacklists transactions of other
miners. They affect the users and are difficult to control.
iv. Transaction malleability: An attacker changes the ID of a
transaction.
v. Time jacking: An attacker speeds up the miner’s clock. It can be
prevented by restricting acceptance time ranges.
vi. DdoS: An attack in groups to exhaust the network resources, and it
can be countered by authorization protocols.
vii. Sybil: Multiple identities are used by the attacker. It can be countered
by mutual mixing protocols.
viii. Eclipse or net split: The attacker monopolizes network connections.
Here attackers try to isolate the target from the network. It can be
controlled by disabling the connections.
ix. Tampering: A delay is caused in transactions. It is managed by
improving the block request management.
x. Routing attacks: Some nodes are skipped from the network. It is
controlled by increasing the diversity connections.
xi. Deanonymization: Wallets are linked with IP addresses. It affects
users only. It can be countered by mixing the Coin Join and Coin
Shuffle services.

Solutions to Bitcoin Attacks

These are some solutions to prevent the attacks:

i. Double-spending attack: Confirmations are received from observers.

The methods exist like listening period, inserting observers, and
forwarding double-spending attempts. For detecting the attacks, non-
equivocation contracts are employed to lock the Bitcoins in deposit
with the payee. When a payee double-spends, cryptographic methods
reveal it and penalize the malicious payer.
ii. Forking and pooling: This is a backward compatible means when a
miner gets many forks of the same length, and will forward them to
all other peers to select any one fork randomly. Other techniques use
timestamps to check the recency.
iii. Securing wallets: A wallet contains the private and public keys for
each account, which is encrypted by AES, CBC, SHA, elliptic curve
 digital signature methods, etc. Another wallet called a cold wallet is
kept unconnected to the network as a standby, and some Bitcoins are
transferred to this cold wallet. Therefore, the bank cannot access this
wallet.
iv. Securing Bitcoin networks: It helps to secure networks from DdoS
attacks, refund attacks, and transmission malleability.
v. Defense against anonymity, peer-to-peer network: Certificateless
authentication, convergence encryption, counterresistance to attacks,
and blockchain-based distributed key management architecture are
proposed to be employed.

Risks to Blockchains
Various dangers or threats to Bitcoins are considered here [3] (Table 1.5).
They are vulnerable to 51% attacks. It results in many attacks such as
opposite transactions, reverse ordering, hampering of mining transactions,
and confirmation of ordinary transactions. Private key security, referred to
as identification, is dealt with by a third party. Some criminal activities can
be managed like ransomware, underground marketplace, money laundering,
and double-spending. Transactions are traceable and their order of
execution needs to be recorded in a defensive storage. Transaction privacy
is not secure and criminals can conduct malicious activities through smart
contracts risking information leakage. The fee of operations is judged by the
execution time, bandwidth, computing, and resources. In under-priced
operations, the attacker launches attacks that consume a lot of resources.
Marketplace risk is due to the versions inside the foreign exchange quotes.
In shallow marketplace problems, a few parties hesitate to obtain or pay the
high amount because of the low quantity of Bitcoins.

TABLE 1.5 Bitcoin Risks⏎

Risk Cause Range ofInfluence
51% vulnerability Consensus mechanism Blockchain 1.0, 2.0
Private key security Public-key encryption
Criminal activity Cryptocurrency application
Double-spending Transaction verification method
Transaction privacy leakage Transaction design flaw
Risk Cause Range ofInfluence
Criminal smart contracts Smart contract application Blockchain 2.0
Vulnerabilities in smart contract Program design flaw
Under-optimized smart contract Program writing flaw
Under-priced operations EVM design flaw

Sustainability and Potential Failures

Foreign money is safe from the authorities’ regulations for business and
purchasers. However, still there are some gray areas concerning restrictions
using Bitcoin because of its decentralization coverage and technical
failures. Some countries have regulated Bitcoin by way of recognizing or
no longer backing it. Many federal governments have a monopoly on
issuing currencies. A few nations do let states issue local currencies. Some
currencies are recognized with the aid of governments. This section
analyses some concerns surrounding Bitcoin [19]:

i. Iraqi Swiss Dinar: This currency was neither recognized by the

government nor a commodity, but never collapsed.
ii. Confidence: Many people are afraid of investing in Bitcoins because
of technical and legal issues like improper use of discretionary
authority, superior and competent currency, government crackdown,
and deflationary spiral.
iii. Anonymity failure authentication problem: Since transactions are
in public and online, there can be account identification issues and
breaking of the anonymity. It will degrade the performance of
Bitcoins as well as the authenticity of the blockchain.
iv. Theft: Since it is in the form of digital currency, it is possible that it
can be lost or stolen.
v. Denial of service: Some malicious nodes have enormous computing
power and can disrupt transaction processing.
vi. Integrated cost and hesitancy: To maintain a blockchain, a lot of
computing resources are required. Because of some legal and
economic risks, there exists some hesitance in using blockchain
publicly for public transactions.
 vii. Fraud: Many consumers want fraud protection. Bitcoins are stolen
because they are digital virtual cryptocurrencies.

Blockchain Applications
Some of the main applications of blockchains are as follows (also see
Figure 1.12):

i. Finance: Financial services, P2P financial market, risk management,

enterprise transformation, financial transactions.
ii. Internet of Things: Safety and privacy in applications [9].
iii. Public and social services: It is useful in land registration, education,
insurance, freedom of expression, and energy where parties can share
identities and control data privately and securely.
iv. Health: Doctors use the validated correct block appended to the
blockchain to preserve the privacy of the patient. Health professionals
share electronic health records (HERs) to diagnose and treat patients.
Some measures such as access control should be provided since health
data is highly private. There should be the option to automatically
remove data after certain uses or time. The size of healthcare data is
also very large and needs separate off-chain storage strategies. For
these issues, a Healthcare Gateway (HDG) is proposed. Table 1.6 lists
blockchain uses in healthcare.
v. Reputation system: Measures trustworthiness of users.
vi. Socio-technical security: This perspective acknowledges that
effective blockchain security relies not only on cryptographic
protocols and technical safeguards but also on understanding human
behavior, user interactions, governance structures, and the socio-
economic context in which the technology operates.
vii. Security and privacy: Privacy protection and security enhancement.
viii. Data management and AI: Bitcoins are useful to manage big data
on IoT and they are also helpful in applications involving artificial
intelligence (AI).
ix. Supply chain management: Blockchain technology manages the
distributed ledger, and the ordering of goods with transparency,
reliability, traceability, and security. The supply chain of any
 organization often involves the raw material supply, wholesaler,
manufacturer, distributor, retailers, and end users.

TABLE 1.6 Blockchain

in Healthcare⏎
Study Year of Launch Hashing Mining
HDG 2016 Nothing Nothing
MedRec 2016 Ethash PoW
PSN 2016 Nothing Nothing
BBDS 2017 SHA-256 PoW

FIGURE 1.12 Some Bitcoin applications.⏎

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Blockchain is the modern era for safe transactions concerning finance,
privacy, IoT, agreements, and public social offerings. Its features include a
decentralized mechanism to validate the recorded transactions within the
public ledger. Its protocols are evolving, however, they need a lot of
security and privacy. In many nations, they are free from government
oversight. There are a few flaws that breach the security of Bitcoins. This
chapter describes blockchain generation, blockchain structure, consensus or
mining mechanisms and their evaluation, problems and challenges, assaults,
and packages. Protocols are very well described, compared, and analyzed
(Figure 1.13).

FIGURE 1.13 Subject-wise paper distribution.⏎

CONCLUSIONS
Blockchain is an integration of information technology, IoT, and machine-
to-machine (M2M) interactions. It has scope for digital artificial
intelligence (smart contracts), IoT, and consensus mechanisms based on
collaboration for resolutions. There are unique elements, for example,
safety and privacy, threats, attacks, and their implementation through open
sources. Bitcoin is useful because of its security, trust, public validity
checking, and its restricted guidelines. It’s one of the safest and maximally
secure foreign money in the arena. Worldwide, people are preferring
shopping for and doing commercial enterprise in cryptocurrencies. This
chapter covered its safety, methodologies, processing, designing, mining,
and validating mechanisms. It also reviewed the developments regarding
key control (privateness and protection), identity control, solving difficult
crypto puzzles, caching of records, and mobility.

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2 Internet of Things and Industrial
Internet of Things Powered by
Blockchain

A Study on Unleashing Potential

S Sandhya, M Senthil Kumar, B Chidhambararajan,
and S K Susee
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-3

INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things (IoT) is an effective internet and managerial setting
that works together to create a world that is intelligently interconnected [1].
IoT users can broadcast the data that they place on the server where it can
be used intelligently. At present, IoT is being used in many contexts, such as
corporations, industries, environmental engineering, mobile devices, and
governance. IoT also helps the transportation, healthcare, agriculture,
energy, and environmental management industries. Additionally, IoT
supports many commercial initiatives in the fields of services,
manufacturing, logistics, and food production. Academics and businesses
have paid a lot of attention to Industrial IoT (IIoT), which could be very
important in the upcoming conversion of industrial schemes. IoT plays a
vital role in Industry 4.0, and it is also one of the most important topics in
academics and politics. The major difference between IIoT and IoT is that
whereas IIoT is frequently applied in applications like smart factories and
smart manufacturing, IoT environments frequently feature a variety of
automation equipment and industrial devices.
IIoT provides intelligence and connectivity to industrial systems through
the help of drives, sensing devices, a pervasive network, and processing
power. Implementing IIoT is intended to increase manufacturing efficiency
and business productivity, lessen device downtime, and raise the caliber of
the final output. Specifically, IIoT features the following characteristics:
decentralization of IIoT systems, a variety of IIoT-based applications,
schemes, heterogeneity of IIoT-based information, and network strain [2].
Advancements in blockchain technology increase the chances of solving
IIoT difficulties. Bitcoin’s core technology is blockchain. Blockchain makes
it possible for computer programs to send and receive messages or keep
transactions in a widely accepted (peer-to-peer) fashion. Blockchain is
swiftly gaining popularity and is mostly used for distributed storage, smart
contract applications, and digital assets [3]. Applications that use the
blockchain for IIoT include storage attributes (such as temperature,
humidity, or location deviations) and creating block challenge ledgers that
are understandable only by certain users, like particular contributors of the
supply chain. Blockchain technology has transmuted from an unworkable
approach to a reliable approach to problem-solving.
Smart contracts (SCs) have been used in digital economics based on
blockchain 2.0 in an automatic way, whereas blockchain 1.0 is generally
associated with cryptocurrencies and overhead (for example, Bitcoin). The
focus of more recent blockchain 3.0 is on meeting the demands of the
digital world, such as Industry 4.0’s concerns with smart cities. IoT
continuously energizes Industry 4.0. Industry 4.0 is associated with IIoT.
Though one may regard IIoT as an improvement of IoT, it also involves a
further focus on IoT use in industry. Additionally, Industry 4.0 is frequently
associated with ethical manufacturing workplace groups.
The blockchain’s internal secular and spatial data can be found and
verified via traceability. Additionally, each data block stored within a
blockchain has a suitable timestamp added to it, ensuring data discovery.
With IIoT equipment and physical equipment, interoperability may
exchange data. Building an overlay P2P network on top with persistent
access across many IIoT methods will enable interoperability within the
blockchain composite layer.
 The potential for IIoT to cooperate without the interference of a trusted
third party (TTP) is discussed in autonomous interactions. Blockchains
enable smart contracts to attain this autonomy. Particularly, contract clauses
encircled by smart contracts will be habitually enforced after a specific
circumstance is met.

Motive
Cloud-based manufacturing (CBM) is a new phenomenon in the most
recommended pattern for production. An isolated group of flexible
resources for production can be quickly given with a minimum of service
provider administrative effort or contact thanks to CBM’s constant, suitable,
whenever-needed network connectivity. A decentralized, peer-to-peer IIoT
system called BIIoT is suggested. A central CBM operator, the BIIoT
system improves the usefulness of older CBM systems, especially when
integrating outdated floor equipment in cloud environments. Additionally,
resources that are meant for production are enabled by CBM on an on-
demand basis, necessitating the usage of trustworthy distributors in
transactions between users unable to contract for production services.
Though BIIoT stands as an approval to IIoT, a number of problems need
to be overcome before it can be successfully implemented and its potential
fully realized. As a result, the purpose of this chapter is to offer a thorough
overview of the architecture that reports difficulties and explores BIIoT-
related research issues.

Contributions and Comparison with the Survey

The pairing of blockchain with IIoT is discussed in a number of published
articles. For instance, Wen et al. describe a blockchain-based information
distribution system for supply chain (SC) networks using IIoT. The system
connects IIoT nodes to the blockchain, monitors IIoT nodes, and uses smart
contracts to store concurrent data within the network. In addition, a
blockchain-based supply chain design is suggested. They suggested a
design that proposes supply chain collaboration options that link various
commodities. An information system for fine-grained distribution is
proposed inside this supply chain concept.
 Li et al. suggested a consortium blockchain-based energy blockchain
secure power business model [5]. This kind of blockchain is often used in
international peer-to-peer (P2P) power purchase agreements since it
removes the middleman. Additionally, it decreases the effects of contract
restriction caused by delays during the verification of contracts on the
energy blockchain. Many researchers have proposed a credit-based pricing
structure to encourage continuous and short-term power purchase
agreements. The list of blockchain platforms used in IIoT is provided by
Teslya et al. [6]. The most common consensus techniques are examined,
together with the unique traits of public blockchain and private blockchain.
Through the analysis of prior work, one aims to:

1.Present a conceptual preamble on IoT, IIoT, and blockchain.

2.Permit the examination of the viability of integrating IIoT into
blockchains.
3.Create a facility of consultations in a perceptive way on how to address
technological challenges while implementing BIIoT.
Here is a quick summary of the contributions:
4.An outline of the key elements of IoT was given in the introduction.
Additionally, a summary of IoT difficulties is provided.
5.In addition, a concise overview of IIoT is given, along with a list of its
main properties.

In addition, the IIoT research problems are listed.

IOT: AN OVERVIEW
The term “Internet of Things (IoT)” refers to a collection of “things” that
are comprised of software, electronics, actuators, and sensors and connected
via the web in order to exchange information. IoT nodes are made up of
processing power and sensor devices, which are common in numerous
industries. Figure 2.1 shows the devices that are connected through IoT. IoT
home automation refers to the capacity to automate household appliances
using digitally controlled, network-connected systems to uphold the safety
of the populace. An IoT system can monitor and control anything remotely,
including lights, through the component known as a smart grid [7].
 FIGURE 2.1 IoT connectivity.⏎

As a result of severe weather and earthquakes, electricity influxes like

traffic signs, traffic congestion, parking, and predictions of things are
affected. IoT devices with sensors are used to track the whereabouts in real
time of medical equipment like wheelchairs, oxygen concentrators,
defibrillators, and other security tools. Forecasting is one of automotive
IoT’s most promising applications. The technology gathers performance
information from the connected car’s chips and sensors, which can then be
analyzed in the cloud and predicted before repair is needed [4].
According to 2013 research from the International Data Corporation
(IDC), the market for IoT equipment is expected to grow quickly to 41
billion units by 2020 and reach a value of $8.9 trillion. The absence of
human responsibility distinguishes the Internet of Things from traditional
internet usage. IoT nodes can generate data on a person’s activity, analyze
it, and choose the best course of action. IoT services have made it possible
to increase human quality of life. However, during the extraction of human–
interface data via IoT devices and sensors, confidentiality and data
protection are of the utmost importance.

IOT OBSTACLES
Battery life and streamlined computational needs are the two criteria that
IoT devices must meet above all else.

DURATION OF A BATTERY
Many IoT nodes are positioned in remote areas without access to power.
The nodes only have a limited amount of power to carry out the intended
function and necessary safety commands, which often deplete the node’s
battery power. There are three practical strategies to resolve the battery life
issue [8]. The most crucial strategy is to use the minimal amount of security
requirements on the node, which is not advised, especially during the
handling of sensitive information. The second strategy involves increasing
the battery’s capacity. The majority of IoT nodes are planned and
constructed to be lightweight and with less volume, which leaves less room
for a larger battery. The last strategy utilizes natural sources (such as heat,
light, wind, and vibration) to generate a sufficient amount of power.

THE DIFFICULTY OF CONFIDENTIALITY

AND SAFETY
Although the safety solutions now being utilized on the web are deemed to
be gainful and viable, applying them to IoT will not provide the desired
results for the following purposes:

Nodes typically lack the computing power needed to carry out complex security measures.
Nodes used in many IoT systems might not be physically protected, leaving them open to
malicious users.
It may not always be possible to join via a node. For instance, a node might be in “sleep
mode” to conserve power, or it might be mobile and not accessible at the moment.

THE SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGE

Conventional processing nodes can be improved or modified by customers,
but it is not suitable when it comes to IoT devices like cars, ovens, or
fridges. Update cycles of IoT, however, raise concerns regarding the
durability of such nodes in a linked society. For example, will the nodes
upgrade their operating system over time, or will this result in a fragmented
network with insecure hardware?
When installing IoT instances, a node can also be a part of advanced
communication systems or a remote installation node that takes the place of
labor-intensive, expensive, or impractical techniques. While building a
bridge over a river, for instance, temperature and earthquake sensors with
fire alarms as well as pollution finding sensors are commonly installed.

THE DIFFICULTY OF THE TRUST

APPROACH
The improved communication opportunities between the virtual and real
worlds are maybe the most important improvement brought forth by IoT.
IoT has been conceptualized to include common machines as nodes, which
will greatly alter the course of our lives. A reliable technique is sought to
enable successful and fruitful communication between these nodes with
little or no interference from individuals. The system must take into account
valid sensor and actuator performances, which occasionally occur during
severe crashes. Communication should be permitted as well with the help of
reward–responsibility-based techniques [9].

IIOT DIFFICULTIES
IIoT ensures the connectivity of diverse things by using a variety of
actuators. Sensors and software systems are installed to detect and gather
data from the actual environment, and those devices should generate the
actions in a subsequent manner. The unique features of IIoT provide a
chance to study a number of examination issues. Information and
communication technology (ICT) advancements in recent years have made
it possible to overcome some of the fundamental limitations of IIoT. For
example, interactions with ambient backscatter can help IIoT devices and
increase power. Additionally, by shifting the process-intensive tasks to edge
servers, mobile edge computing can increase the functionality of the IIoT
device. Additionally, current advancements in blockchain technologies
bring difficulties, including inadequate interoperability, safety, and
confidentiality vulnerabilities.

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: AN
OVERVIEW
Blockchain
A distributed ledger that spreads throughout an entire distributed system is
referred to as a blockchain. With decentralized permission, blockchains can
enable contracts to take place and validate collectively distributed things.
Blockchains can, therefore, perform decentralized contract confirmation,
leading to lower costs and traffic operation in the centralized organization.
Additionally, as every node in the network keeps a record of the completed
transactions inside the blockchain, all transactions saved in blockchains are
impenetrable. Meanwhile, cryptographic techniques ensure the data block’s
integrity inside the blockchain. As a result, blockchains can ensure that
communications are not lost [10]. All contracts can also be tracked thanks
to the significant timestamp that was assigned. A blockchain is made up of
neatly organized parts called blocks that have headers with transaction
information. By using a predecessor’s hash, the predecessor reflects the
header and metadata-related information. Within the initial block, known as
the genesis block, which has no old model or method, the first position is
encoded in a hard sense. Merkle trees are used for hashing the transactions
that are based on Ethereum and Bitcoin. A blockchain instance with blocks
and repeated chains is depicted. With the help of the parent block hash
value, every block in a blockchain points to its immediately previous block
(referred to as the parent block). For instance, block i contains the block i –
1 hash.

1. Block version: The validation rules to be followed.

2. Hash of parent block: represents the 256-bit hash value of the
first block.
 3. Merkle tree root hash: Holds the hash values for each
transaction contained within the block.
4. Nonce: A 4-byte value that typically starts with 0 and rises for
all hash calculations.
5. Timestamp: Starts on January 1, 1970, and has time in seconds
in UTC.
6. A true block hash point threshold is nBits.

Consensus Algorithms
The one major advantage of blockchain techniques is the ability to verify
the constancy of the block in decentralized, despondent settings that need
the authorization of a trusted third party. However, a consensus is required
in distributed contexts. The agreement may also be biased in favor of good
devices, therefore, it must be obtained on a newly constructed block.
Consensus methods are often used to attain this level of reliability in
decentralized systems. Practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT), proof of
stake (PoS), and proof of work (PoW) are common consensus algorithms.
Consensus algorithms are an essential piece of the puzzle for effective
blockchain operating rules since they safely update duplicated distributed
conditions.

Workflow of Blockchains
The following shows a functional instance of the blockchain. The method of
money transfer is as follows:
Step 1: Transfer cash from person A to person B.
Step 2: A Bitcoin wallet is used to begin the contract at a system. The transaction comprises
the recipient’s address, the sender’s wallet, and the total amount of currency.
Step 3: A block represents the online transaction. The block is then advertised to every node
in the network using the next three steps.
Step 4: Network members confirm the transaction’s validity.
Step 5: After that, a verified transaction is added to the top of the contact’s chain, creating a
new block inside the blockchain.
Step 6: The money is transferred from person A to person B.
SMART CONTRACT
Blockchain-based smart contracts are programmable programs that control
transactions under certain conditions. Smart contracts are created based on
blockchain technology, which raises great interest among the stakeholders
and several enterprises. Due to this interest, it has become a technology that
is welcomed in enabling the automation of digital processes among the
parties to be verifiable and enforceable.
Smart contracts have their own blockchain accounts and addresses,
which is why they are sometimes referred to as “independent agents”.
In order to complete the predetermined criteria, the contract may gain
ownership of tokenized assets while designating the contributor as the
employee. IoT and financial services are just two of the many areas that the
smart contract has the potential to change. Smart contracts are frequently
used on a blockchain network to carry out and advance aims, such as:

1. Allowing transactions to be initiated automatically by specific

actions. This function can take many different forms, such as
automatic transmissions at regular intervals or transmissions in
response to earlier transmissions.
2. They permit so-called multisignature transactions, in which a
transaction is only released when specified or most participants
confirm that they have signed it.
3. Allowing storage of specific application data, such as
membership records, Boolean values, or list statuses.
4. They make other people’s smart contracts useful.

For instance, inheritances are frequently included in Ethereum's smart

contracts, where a single contract can refer to the goals specified therein.

BLOCKCHAIN SYSTEM TAXONOMY

The three categories of blockchains are public, private, and consortium .
With permissionless public blockchains, everyone can participate in the
distribution of new blocks and use of blockchain data. Public blockchains
are described as decentralized since everyone can keep a copy of the
blockchain by working together to confirm new blocks. All nodes in the
network are a part of permissioned blockchains, known as private
blockchains. Private blockchains are approved by a single company and
accessed by a coordinated person or team, and the distributed database
holds data exchanges between different people or departments. Blockchains
used by consortiums resemble private blockchains. It is a network with
permissions. Consortium networks connect many different organizations
and allow the participants to communicate clearly.

INTEGRATING BLOCKCHAIN WITH IIOT

IIoT systems must overcome a number of obstacles, including poor
interoperability, heterogeneity, resource limitations, confidentiality
concerns, and security flaws. Blockchain technologies can balance IIoT
systems by enhancing confidentiality and safety while also enhancing
interoperability. Blockchains can also make the IIoT system more
dependable and quantifiable. BIIoT is the name given to the result of
combining blockchain and IIoT.

BIIOT ARCHITECTURE
The blockchain composite layer is used in this design as a distributor
between IoT and industrial applications. This design offers the following
two important advantages: user access to blockchain-based services and an
idea from the IIoT’s fundamental layers. The blockchain composite layer is
used to provide heterogeneity to the lower layers and sufficient API in order
to support industrial demands. Therefore, the concept made possible by the
blockchain composite layer can help reduce the difficulty of creating
industrial applications. The five sublayers of the blockchain composite
layer’s descriptions are also displayed. In a typical IoT architecture and
framework, the subscheme layer concept from bottom to top is used.
The perception layer allows various IoT devices to sense and collect data
from their immediate ambiances. These devices include actuators, sensors,
RFID tags, controllers, and smart meters.
The communication layer helps to build an industrial network. Many IoT
devices can connect by using the WAP–Wi-Fi Access Point, Base Station
(BS), Macro BS, and gateways for IoT. Several communication protocols,
including Near Field Communications (NFC), Bluetooth, Wireless Highway
Addressable Remote Transducer (WirelessHART), and Low Power Wide
Area Networks (LPWAN) techniques with LoRa, Sigfox, industrial
Ethernet, and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT), are capable of connecting IoT
sensors.
A variety of industrial applications can be broadly maintained by using
IoT. The food sector, manufacturing, smart grid, and supply chain are
among the common industrial applications.

Deployment of BIIoT
It is difficult to save the whole blockchain at IIoT nodes due to imitation
IIoT nodes. The real BIIoT distribution is of maximum importance. There
are two types of storage: partial storage and complete storage. With partial
storage, just a portion of the information blocks are locally kept.
Lightweight nodes is another name for partial storage nodes. Complete
storage saves the entire blockchain. Complete nodes refer to entire storage
nodes (such as edge servers and cloud servers). Since storing many
complete blockchains requires a lot of storage space and current processing
power to overcome consensus problems, a complete node has enough
processing power. Alternatively, IoT devices with limited resources are
small devices that guarantee transaction faithfulness without extracting.
IIoT devices perform the swap of partial blockchain information through
D2D connections, and it is referred to as direct communication with the
IIoT devices. Also, the IIoT devices can transfer the blockchain-based
information that is stored in the edge servers with the help of MBS and
IIoT-based gateways, and this type of communication is referred to as direct
communication among blockchain and IIoT. Hybrid communication
between edge servers and blockchain [11]

Applications for BIIoT

The fusion of IIoT and blockchain is a new, rapidly expanding trend. This
chapter provides an overview of BIIoT applications because blockchain
technology can help with overcoming IIoT problems. Blockchains have a
wider range of applications than other technologies. This study is mostly
about industrial applications.

Food Sector
BIIoT makes a commodity’s life cycle more visible, especially in the food
sector. Food product traceability (FPT) is essential for ensuring that the
food is protected. The entire food supply chain is guaranteed by FPT along
with IoT. For instance, a company that manufactures food might be
recommended by several suppliers. The entire food manufacturing business
must therefore digitize information from sources. Blockchain technology
can ensure the food’s provenance and tracking capabilities through this
process. An RFID and blockchain-based supply chain platform in China
connects farmers and food producers. The purpose of this system is to make
sure that the food supply chain’s data can be tracked.
Further, blockchain technology can help increase food protection by
making trackable food production more accessible. It demonstrates how
integrating blockchain into the food supply chain can enable clients to trace
the entire process of food production. Researchers have offered a
blockchain application case for the industry of natural coffee in Colombia.
It provides a facility to track the food protection system that is supported by
blockchain technology and electronic product code (EPC) IoT tags.
Through smart contracts, this technology can specifically stop the
interception and disclosure of confidential information. To demonstrate its
effectiveness, a model of the proposed architecture has been put into action.

Smart Manufacturing
The manufacturing sector is moving from mechanical to smart techniques.
Big data analytics is crucial to this advancement in the manufacturing
industry. A huge amount of information is produced during each stage of a
commodity’s life cycle, including the procurement of raw materials,
designing, sharing, manufacturing, after-sales repair, and selling of
manufactured goods. However, information aggregation and analytics are
required due to the fragmented nature of the production data. The
interoperability problem is solved by BIIoT by integrating the IIoT-based
systems through P2P networks, which facilitates the sharing of information
among the various industrial sectors. For example, several distributed
blockchains, with each supporting a distinct industry, are commonly
constructed to support diverse industries. Through BIIoT, security in smart
manufacturing can be enhanced [12].
The majority of enhanced firmware is physically installed at IIoT nodes
after being physically imported from a central server. The firmware updates
must be organized in a distributed IIoT, which is expensive and time-
consuming. The work offers a standard firmware upgrade option that uses
blockchain technology and smart contracts. The entire industrial network is
organized around smart contracts that handle firmware improvement
strategies. Smart contracts are implemented by design and can be used by
nodes to install and import firmware hashes. A decentralized blockchain-
based autonomous manufacturing solution was put up to offer stronger
security than the typical centralized architecture. In addition, blockchain
was used to develop a mobile-based crowd-sensing system to address the
issue of information in smart manufacturing.

Healthcare Sector
The rapid development in the field of digital technology plays an important
role in the progress of healthcare services, which has the potential to free
clinical data and offer a more practical means of enhancing healthcare
outcomes and processes. Because hospitals have limited resources,
healthcare services currently face new obstacles. The probability of
developing remote healthcare services is increased by recent developments
in wearable medical technology and big data analytics in healthcare
information. As a result, hospital resources are regularly and effectively
released. For instance, elderly people who live in their homes wear medical
devices on their bodies. These gadgets continuously measure and collect
health data, including blood pressure, heart rate, and sugar level.
Through healthcare networks, medical teams and lab assistants can
access medical information at any time and from any location. However,
using medical data raises concerns about security, privacy, and
confidentiality. Healthcare information confidentiality and safety are
challenged by network heterogeneity and vulnerabilities prevalent in
medical technology. Blockchain-based healthcare network integration can
successfully address issues with healthcare data security and confidentiality.
For instance, blockchain technology might be used to protect healthcare
data stored on cloud servers. Notably, to support real-time patient
observation, the healthcare data generated by medical sensors is on a
routine basis, and based on the smart contract, it is broadcast to the system.
Using blockchains, confidentiality is typically maintained throughout the
entire process.
Digital signatures can identify the owner of healthcare information and
verify the validity of the information. This system can also safeguard the
owner’s right to privacy when it comes to medical information. In order to
offer confidentiality and secrecy, the present effort combines blockchain-
based mobile edge computing with IoT to establish a framework for
controlling in-home therapy. It also provides traceability and possibilities
for patients who have contracted contagious viruses such as COVID-19,
Middle East respiratory syndrome, and severe acute respiratory syndrome.
Notably, patients using IIoT technology can be consecutively tracked in a
manner akin to quarantine while maintaining patient confidentiality.

Automotive Industry
Industry 4.0 refers to the post-digitalization stage that suffers from
cyberattacks and several issues related to safety and operability. Due to
advancements like IIoT integration along with IoT connected to electric,
hybrid, and self-driving smart cars, the automotive industry is one of the
most technologically advanced sectors. These issues have just been
approved for dissemination to the many different parties who participated in
the vehicle’s lifespan. The utilization of enormous sensors and information
technology is made possible by Industry 4.0, which benefits from
developments in several fields, including the expansion of cutting-edge
technologies and the rise in connectivity and computational power.
Multiple services and features are made possible by the expanding
capacities offered by complex diverse linked and autonomous networked
organisms. They do, however, exist due to the danger of malicious assaults
or other dangers, which call for more effective cybersecurity. Furthermore,
open protection is promised when the restricted organisms are based on
vehicle-associated systems, making strong cybersecurity an absolute
necessity. The automotive sector may make use of BIIoT technologies to
alleviate this problem.

Fuel Sectors: Oil and Gas

In the upcoming 20 to 30 years, the global energy market will be dominated
by fuels like oil and gas. Due to the importance of oil and gas resources to
the energy sector, cutting-edge drilling techniques, digital platforms for the
marine industry, and intelligent oil and gas fields have all benefited from
the industry’s recent quick embrace of technology. The oil and gas business
frequently integrates automation, digitalization, and intellectualization. It
stands out due to its limited effectiveness, high cost, significant risk,
prolonged duration, and outdated organizational structure.
Based on the segmentation of the market, the fuel industry is classified
into three types: downstream, midstream, and upstream. While downstream
and midstream alludes to sales and storage of energy sources, upstream
describes the creation and examination of oil and gas.
Regarding the mentioned problems, the oil and gas sector needs to adopt
a new style of management. The oil and gas business has big potential for
using blockchain. The debut of Bitcoin in 2008 created a great impact and
influence in the advancement of the blockchain technology. The oil and gas
sector has adopted a wait-and-see attitude in the interim.

Trade Supply Chain Industry (TSCI)

The final step in the trade supply chain is the distribution of the goods to the
client. The trading technique includes a valid combined contract between
the buyer and the seller that outlines all of the conditions necessary for a
successful trade. These scenarios, for instance, could determine the best
method of product transport. The trading process is usually examined by a
third party. The main responsibility of this organization is to make sure that
each party complies with the terms of the contract. If a dispute arises
between a buyer and a seller, it will be resolved by the regulatory body.
Customers who use the Amazon trade platform, for instance, can alert the
platform’s management in case they get goods that do not satisfy the
merchants’ advertised descriptions.

Open Research Issues in BIIoT

Blockchain and IIoT together offer a variety of chances to advance the
sector. Before the capability of BIIoT is regularly and fully employed,
numerous problems need to be overcome. Numerous key obstacles to IIoT
integration into the blockchain are examined in the following sections.

Privacy Leakage
There are many protection layers built into blockchain technologies to
prevent unauthorized access to transaction-based reports maintained in
blockchains. Bitcoin transactions are made using IP addresses rather than
actual customer identities, which ensures personal confidentiality. Even
though these protection measures are inconsistent and insufficient, one-time
accounts (OTAs) can be created under Bitcoin to help users maintain their
anonymity. For instance, it has been found that consumer pseudonyms are
regularly broken by inferring from and learning about the various
transactions connected to a single general user. In addition, the entire
blockchain’s transaction data storage space can still have an impact on the
possibility of confidentiality leakage, as noted.

Security Vulnerability
IIoT can increase security through encryption and signature creation by
blockchains. BIIoT continues to work actively on protection due to the
weaknesses of both blockchain and IIoT systems. Building wireless
networks in industrial contexts is becoming more popular since wireless
communication organizations can be measured and are practical. Security
breaches like jamming, submissive overhearing, and recurrent attacks are
caused due to the open wireless channel. Additionally, due to the resource
restraints of IIoT nodes, conventional extreme weighted encryption
methods might not be applicable in the IIoT. In dispersed locations, it can
be difficult to keep an eye on the keys as well.
Resource Constraints
Numerous IIoT nodes with constrained resources are present. RFID tags,
sensors, and smart meters, for instance, have lessened network link ability,
constrained storage, and decreased computational power. Additionally, the
decentralized consensus techniques employed by blockchains typically
consume more energy and need more computational power. For instance, it
has been proven that Bitcoin’s PoW uses a significant amount of electricity.
Therefore, the consensus technique, which necessitates a large power
expenditure, may not be practical for low-energy IIoT nodes. On the other
hand, the sheer volume of blockchain data makes it impractical to
implement blockchains completely across the IIoT. For instance, the size of
blockchain-based Bitcoin had crossed 185 GB by the end of September
2018. An IIoT node cannot fully save the entire blockchain.

Scalability
Scalability limits the usage of the blockchain in the context of extensive
IIoT. It is common practice to measure the quantity of concurrent
workloads, the size of the IIoT nodes, and the throughput of transactions per
second. Failure transaction issues have disappointed many blockchain
initiatives. For instance, Bitcoin’s evolution to seven transactions per
second is demonstrated. PayPal can process 170 transactions per second,
and VISA can produce close to 2000 transactions per second. Due to weak
measurability, the Bitcoin blockchain may not be appropriate for IIoT. As a
result, applications like IIoT that require a high rate of transactions may not
be suitable for current blockchain platforms.

CONCLUSION
The Industrial Internet of Things is now facing many difficulties, such as
inadequate interoperability, heterogeneity, security and confidentiality
flaws, and resource constraints. IIoT challenges can be solved by utilizing
current blockchain technologies, which improve privacy, interoperability,
trackability, safety, and dependability. In order to undertake the
investigation described in this chapter, blockchain and IIoT were combined.
The term “BIIoT” refers to such a marriage of blockchain and IIoT, and this
study conducts a thorough survey of the literature published in this area.
The main topics that have been studied and presented include the Industrial
Internet of Things, blockchain technology, and the Internet of Things. The
chapter also assesses the applications of BIIoT and illustrates BIIoT
architecture. Detailed illustrations of BIIoT-capable applications have been
provided, along with a list of BIIoT open research issues. Due to their high
centralization and single point of failure, IIoT security systems, as they
currently exist, are inefficient. However, IIoT that is based on blockchain is
particularly resistant to external hacking and other threats. The same data is
kept on each blockchain node, so there is no chance of data loss. Future
work will put the BIIoT system into practice and demonstrate it for practical
solutions like on-demand manufacturing and device self-service.

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OceanofPDF.com
3 Utilizing Blockchain and
Interplanetary File System for
Enhanced User Privacy in Secure
Data Sharing
K Balamurugan, M Azhagiri, P A Harsha Vardhini,
Edwin Jijo, and Latha Parthiban
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-4

INTRODUCTION
In the current digital era, the proliferation of data sharing across various
platforms and applications has raised significant concerns about user
privacy and data security. Sensitive data integrity and confidentiality are
jeopardized by hacking, data breaches, and unauthorized access of
centralized traditional data storage systems. In response to these challenges,
innovative technologies such as blockchain and the InterPlanetary File
System (IPFS) have emerged as promising solutions for enhancing user
privacy and security in data-sharing environments [1].
Blockchain technology was initially developed as the base infrastructure
for virtual currencies like Bitcoin but has now expanded its range to serve a
variety of purposes, including safe data sharing. In essence, blockchain can
transparently and impenetrably record transactions which is immutable.
Blockchain eliminates the need for intermediates and guarantees data
integrity by spreading data among a network of nodes and using
cryptographic techniques to encrypt transactions. This lowers the possibility
of unauthorized access and manipulation [2].
 Complementing blockchain technology, IPFS offers a decentralized
approach to the sharing of files and their storage. As opposed to
conventional file systems, which depend on centralized servers, IPFS
utilizes a peer-to-peer network to distribute and retrieve content in a
distributed manner. Files stored on IPFS are identified by their unique
content hashes, allowing users to access and share data directly from the
network without relying on centralized servers. This decentralized
architecture enhances data availability, resilience, and privacy because there
isn’t a single control or point of failure [3].
By bringing together blockchain with IPFS, organizations can create an
impeccable and privacy-enhancing framework for data sharing. The
combination of blockchain’s tamper-proof ledger and IPFS’s decentralized
file storage provides a robust infrastructure for storing, sharing, and
accessing sensitive data while preserving user privacy. Blockchain
technology ensures the integrity of data transactions, whereas IPFS
facilitates secure and efficient content distribution across the network [4].
Automating access control procedures on the blockchain can further
improve user privacy. Smart contracts are contracts embedded into the
blockchain with preset rules and conditions. Organizations can edit
sensitive information for data sharing [5].
The probability of cyberattacks is lowered by the decentralized structure
of IPFS and blockchain. Because blockchain and IPFS disperse data over a
network of nodes rather than centralized servers, which are vulnerable to
hacking and data breaches, it is far more difficult for malicious activity to
take place. Additionally, using techniques related to cryptography as
encryption and digital signatures enhances the security of data transactions,
further mitigating the risk of unauthorized access [6].
In addition to enhancing user privacy and security, the combination of
blockchain and IPFS offers other benefits for data-sharing environments.
For example, the transparent and immutable ledger of blockchain provides a
verifiable record of data transactions, enhancing accountability and
auditability. Meanwhile, IPFS’s distributed file storage improves data
availability and resilience, ensuring that files can be accessed even in the
event of network disruptions or failures [7].
The Internet of Things (IoT) is quickly changing the industry and
enabling previously unheard-of levels of automation, data analysis, and
collecting by linking gadgets, sensors, and machines to the internet. But as
IoT networks grow in stature and complexity, scalability, security, and
privacy issues confront traditional centralized designs. Blockchain
technology has come in as a potential solution for these issues, improving
the security, privacy, and effectiveness of IoT networks [8].
Originally intended to serve as the foundational technology that
facilitates safe transactions among a network of dispersed nodes,
blockchain reduces the danger by ensuring data integrity and doing away
with the need for intermediaries by recording transactions in an immutable
and tamper-proof manner. Blockchain technology, when combined with IoT
devices, can offer a decentralized and safe architecture for controlling
access control, data transfers, and device IDs in IoT networks [9].
Updated and upgraded security is an important advantage of using
blockchain with IoT. As opposed to systems that store data centrally, which
often collect and monetize user data for targeted advertising or other
purposes, blockchain and IPFS enable users to retain data control. By data
storage on a decentralized network and employing encryption techniques,
blockchain, and IPFS make sure that private and inaccessible information
stays out of the reach of unauthorized people. Conventional IoT designs are
vulnerable to cyberattacks and single points of failure since they frequently
rely on centralized servers for data processing and storing. On the flip side,
blockchain technology uses decentralized data that is dispersed over a
network of nodes, which increases the difficulty of systemic compromise by
malicious actors. Additionally, by guaranteeing that only authorized access
and editing are available on data stored on the blockchain, blockchain’s
cryptographic algorithms and consensus methods improve data security
[10].
Blockchain offers an open and auditable record of data exchanges, and it
strengthens data integrity and trust in IoT networks. Each transaction
recorded on the blockchain is timestamped and cryptographically secured,
making it tamper-proof and verifiable. This transparency and immutability
of data transactions improve accountability and enable stakeholders to trace
the origin and history of data in IoT ecosystems, fostering trust and
reliability [11].
The other key benefit of integrating blockchain with IoT is improved
privacy and data ownership. Traditional IoT architectures often raise
concerns about data privacy, as centralized servers have access to huge
amounts of sensitive information collected from connected devices. By
contrast, blockchain enables users to retain control over their data by
storing it on a decentralized and permissioned network. This gives
assurance that sensitive data are kept private and inaccessible to
unauthorized parties, enhancing user privacy [12].
Blockchain enhances the efficiency and reliability of IoT networks by
enabling automated execution of smart contracts with preset terms and
conditions. By deploying smart contracts in IoT ecosystems, organizations
can automate various processes, such as device provisioning, data sharing,
and payments, thereby reducing manual intervention, minimizing errors,
and improving operational efficiency [13].
Blockchain-based systems have a significant hurdle in transaction and
contract execution performance prohibiting them from competing on a wide
scale with present applications. Evaluation of the performance of
blockchain technology and the metrics linked with it have been the subject
of a significant amount of research. A system’s performance is assessed
using a procedure known as performance evaluation. Many performance
evaluations are based on determining how a change in a dependent variable
affects performance.
The layer-based IoT operation is currently classified into three different
taxonomies: three-, four-, or five-layered architectures. A closer look at all
the taxonomies shows that three layers are the most frequently adopted in
most IoT applications. Therefore, the proposed system considers choosing a
three-layered architecture [14].
The three-layer architecture is shown in Figure 3.1. The application
layer, which defines all IoT applications, is frequently impacted by several
types of infiltration, such as malicious codes and cross-scripting assaults. It
is contingent upon the application’s sensitivity, though. All of the data
received from the IoT device is forwarded using the network layer, which is
also utilized for transmission. This layer hosts the majority of the
communication protocol. There are several ways for interruptions to occur
in these layers, including exploitation and storage. The perception layer is
responsible for extracting the raw sensory data and transmitting it to the
network layer. This layer is typically vulnerable to node capture and
eavesdropping replay attacks. Since the goal of the proposed study is to
create a secure communication scheme, the network and application layers
take care of this [15].

FIGURE 3.1 Three-layered architecture of IoT.⏎

In addition to security, privacy, and efficiency benefits, integrating

blockchain with IoT can enable new business models. Blockchain enables
the tokenization of assets, enabling IoT devices to exchange value and
transact autonomously without the necessity of intermediaries. This creates
more opportunities for new monetization models, such as micropayments
for data sharing, peer-to-peer energy trading in smart grids, and automated
leasing of IoT devices [16].
 Blockchain enables interoperability and data sharing across
heterogeneous IoT platforms and ecosystems. By facilitating a common and
decentralized infrastructure for data exchange, blockchain facilitates error-
free integration and collaboration among diverse IoT devices and platforms.
This interoperability promotes an innovation method and increases the
development of new IoT applications and services by enabling data sharing
and collaboration across different industries and use cases [17].
In supply chains enabled by the Internet of Things, blockchain improves
traceability and transparency. By keeping a record of the movement and
transfer of goods on a transparent and absolute ledger, blockchain enables
stakeholders to trace the source and histories of the product along the whole
supply chain, reducing counterfeiting, fraud, and unauthorized tampering
[18].
To sum up, there are numerous advantages to combining blockchain
technology with IoT, such as improved security, privacy, efficiency,
interoperability, and the creation of new business models. By applying the
decentralized, tamper-proof ledger of blockchain technology, IoT
ecosystems can solve traditional challenges related to security, privacy, and
data ownership, making it possible for IoT applications to be widely
adopted and deployed across a range of industries and use cases [19].
Overall, blockchain integration and IPFS provide a compelling solution
for enhancing user privacy in data-sharing environments. By leveraging
blockchain’s tamper-proof ledger and IPFS’s decentralized file storage,
organizations can create a secure and privacy-enhancing infrastructure for
storing, sharing, and accessing sensitive data. With concerns about data
privacy and security on the rise, blockchain, and IPFS offer a promising
framework for addressing these challenges and empowering users to retain
control over their personal information [20].
The functionality of blockchain technology extends beyond the simple
management of digital currencies. Several kinds of distributed ledgers are
available, and each can meet specific requirements regarding the degree of
centralization and the type of access control used [21, 22, 23, 24–25].
Blockchains are distinguished according to the degree of centralization:
Public (permissionless): Blockchains are not controlled since the
consensus process behind them is open to all participants and entirely
decentralized, and blockchains allow anybody to submit data to the
distributed ledger. Public blockchains include well-known cryptocurrencies
such as Bitcoin and Ethereum.
Private (permissioned): An access control mechanism in blockchains
determines who may participate in the network. Since the other nodes have
verified every node, their identities are also known. There may be one or
many owners of a permissioned blockchain, and only they have the
authority to create and validate its data. Nodes that manage the construction
of blocks might execute a consensus method or a set of specified nodes.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The hybridization of blockchain with IoT has massive opportunities for
promoting different businesses by enabling secure, autonomous, and data
exchange among interconnected devices. However, many challenges get
delayed for the broad acceptance and successful application of blockchain-
enabled IoT solutions.

Scalability: The exponential growth of IoT devices created essential concerns about
blockchain networks’ scalability. It is difficult for traditional blockchain systems like
Ethereum and Bitcoin to handle large numbers of transactions quickly and cost-effectively. For
blockchain-enabled IoT applications, requiring real-time data processing and transaction
validation to serve a variety of use cases like supply chain management, industrial automation,
and smart cities, this scalability issue presents a major difficulty.
Security and privacy: Although blockchain has inherent security advantages such as
immutability and cryptographic algorithms, IoT devices are susceptible to cyberattacks due to
their limited computing resources and lack of built-in security features. Securing IoT devices
against malware is essential to preserving the security of data in blockchain-powered IoT
network ecosystems. Additionally, preserving user privacy and ensuring compliance with data
protection regulations remain important challenges, especially in applications involving
sensitive personal or industrial data.
Interoperability: The interoperability of blockchain networks and IoT devices is another
critical challenge that controls or stops the various platforms and ecosystems. Increasing the
number of diverse IoT devices targeted in achieving interoperability between blockchain
networks and IoT devices is a difficult task. To deliver common protocols that promote
interoperability and smooth integration of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions across various
industries and use cases, standardization efforts are crucial.
Energy consumption: Blockchain networks require a lot of techniques to secure the network
and validate transactions, especially when using consensus methods based on proof of work
(PoW). This high energy consumption is not sustainable, especially in IoT deployments where
 energy-efficient operation is crucial for battery-powered devices and remote sensors.
Addressing the energy consumption of blockchain networks is essential to mitigate
environmental impacts and ensure the feasibility of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions in
resource-constrained environments.
Regulatory compliance: Compliance with regulatory requirements and legal frameworks
poses a significant challenge for blockchain-enabled IoT deployments, particularly in domains
like supply chain management, healthcare, and finance. Regulatory uncertainties regarding
data ownership, liability, and data protection laws obstruct the adoption of blockchain
technology in IoT applications. Clarifying regulatory guidelines and establishing industry-
specific standards are essential to address legal and compliance challenges and have
blockchain-enabled IoT solutions.

In conclusion, while integrating blockchain technology with IoT has great

potential to transform several industries, obstacles need to be overcome to
fully achieve this potential. Scalability, security, privacy, interoperability,
energy consumption, and regulatory compliance are among the key
challenges that need to be overcome to facilitate the widespread adoption
and effective implementation of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions.
Technology developers, legislators, and industry stakeholders must come to
work together to develop blockchain-enabled IoT systems that are
interoperable, scalable, and secure to fulfill the changing needs of various
industries and use cases.

MOTIVATION
Blockchain technology and IoT integration have the capacity to completely
transform several industries and tackle important privacy issues. The
motivation behind exploring this convergence stems from several key
factors:
Enhanced security: Traditional centralized architectures for IoT data management are
vulnerable to cyberattacks and prone to single points of failure. By leveraging the
decentralized and tamper-proof ledger of blockchains, IoT ecosystems can enhance data
security by guaranteeing the confidentiality and integrity of data transactions. The idea to
integrate blockchain with IoT lies in modifying security risks and preserving stakeholder trust
by offering an absolute and transparent record of transactions of devices.
Improved privacy: With the proliferation of IoT devices collecting sensitive personal and
industrial data, concerns about data privacy and ownership have become paramount.
Blockchain technology enables users to control their data by providing secure and transparent
 access control mechanisms. The idea to integrate blockchain with IoT lies in empowering
individuals and organizations to uphold data ownership.

Seamless interoperability: The interoperability of blockchain networks

and IoT devices is important to making collaboration and data exchange
seamless among heterogeneous platforms and ecosystems. To provide
common frameworks and protocols, standardization initiatives are relevant
that enable interoperability and seamless integration of blockchain-enabled
IoT solutions across different industries and use cases. The idea to integrate
blockchain with IoT lies in fostering innovation and accelerating the
development of new IoT applications and services by enabling data sharing
and collaboration across diverse platforms and ecosystems.

Autonomous transactions: Through the use of smart contracts, blockchain provides safe,
autonomous transactions between Internet of Things devices without the need for
intermediaries. This removes the requirement for centralized authorities, streamlines
processes, and reduces transaction costs associated with traditional payment systems. The idea
to integrate blockchain with IoT lies in enabling new use cases, business models, and
opportunities for innovation by enabling autonomous transactions and value exchange among
interconnected devices.
Environmental sustainability: To ensure the viability of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions, it
is imperative to access energy requirements, especially in resource-constrained environments.
The idea to integrate blockchain with IoT lies in developing energy-efficient blockchain
consensus mechanisms and protocols that mitigate environmental impacts and enable
sustainable IoT deployments.

In summary, the motivation behind exploring the integration of blockchain

with IoT stems from the need to enhance security, privacy, interoperability,
and autonomy in IoT ecosystems while addressing critical challenges and
unlocking new opportunities for innovation in various industries and use
cases.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
To investigate the feasibility and scalability of integrating blockchain technology with the IoT
to conjure data security and privacy in diverse use cases, including smart cities, healthcare,
and industrial automation.
To assess the effectiveness of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions in mitigating security risks and
ensuring data integrity, confidentiality, and availability in IoT ecosystems, with a focus on
 identifying vulnerabilities and potential attack vectors.
To evaluate blockchain technology’s impact on enhancing user privacy and data ownership in
IoT deployments, including the implementation of decentralized access control mechanisms
and adherence to laws governing data privacy, like the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR).
To explore strategies to improve blockchain and IoT devices interoperability, protocols, and
platforms to facilitate collaboration across heterogeneous environments and ecosystems.
To investigate energy-efficient blockchain consensus mechanisms and protocols suitable for
IoT deployments to minimize energy consumption and environmental impacts while ensuring
the reliability of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions.
To assess the controlling system governing blockchain-enabled IoT deployments, including
liability, and compliance with industry-specific regulations and standards.
To develop and evaluate prototype blockchain-enabled IoT solutions for specific use cases,
demonstrating the possibility, effectiveness, and feasible benefits of integrating IoT and
blockchain.
To identify challenges, limitations, and best practices associated with the integration of
blockchain with IoT and offer suggestions for resolving these issues and optimizing the
advantages of blockchain-enabled IoT systems.
To explore opportunities for innovation and value creation enabled by blockchain-enabled IoT
solutions, including new business models, revenue streams, and opportunities for collaboration
and partnership across industries and sectors.
To provide insights and recommendations for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and
technology innovators on the adoption, implementation, and optimization of blockchain-
enabled IoT solutions to address critical challenges and unlock new opportunities for
innovation and growth.

BLOCKCHAIN IN IOT
Blockchain’s primary innovation is the ability to achieve consensus among
participants without reliance on a central authority. Blockchain technology
makes use of advanced cryptography to provide extra characteristics such
as decentralization, immutability, consensus processes, and smart contracts.
The primary focus of advanced cryptography is the protection of data and
communications. The combination of cryptography and blockchain
technology provides a higher level of security and trust, in addition to
opening new opportunities for a wide range of applications.
Blockchain technology is being used for a variety of purposes, and
although advanced encryption is an essential component, blockchain also
provides a number of other benefits that are entirely unique. Poor network
visibility in an IoT environment is the next security concern. As the number
of devices in IoT is rising exponentially, providing generalized security for
every device is becoming increasingly challenging.
Because of the many IoT devices and dynamic factors, traditional
information technology security approaches require accounting for every
component linked to the network, which is not practical in IoT. There is still
a problem with the link between mobility and security. Figure 3.2 lists the
many types of IoT security vulnerabilities. Another critical security
vulnerability in the IoT context is ignorance among users. It would not be
prudent to assume that users are aware of every possible method of attack
and weak spots in the user environment. Users are less concerned about
security vulnerabilities related to IoT device use and more focused on how
convenient the devices are to use.
 FIGURE 3.2 IoT security issues.⏎

Another factor contributing to IoT security problems is the way an IoT

component uses the communication channel. Currently, several protocols
are employed in an IoT communication system that have already been the
subject of security incidents and are known to adversely affect the whole
networking system. Although there are many different kinds of assaults in
an IoT context, some of the most frequent ones are as follows:
Physical tampering: When devices are operated in an environment that is inaccessible to
humans, there is a risk of unapproved tampering with the physical components of the device.
Denial-of-service: Denial-of-service assaults are among the most common in cloud and IoT
environments. They cause the entire network and servers to go down, making it simpler for
intruders to get onto the system or carry out other harmful goals.
Firmware jacking: If the system is attacked, firmware updates may also be affected. When a
compromised firmware update gets into devices, it affects the devices as well because
authentication of the firmware update’s origination point is unsuccessful.
Injection of malicious node: The attacker manually inserts the harmful nodes into the typical,
everyday IoT gadgets. The malicious nodes are capable of illicit data sniffing and other types
of unlawful network control.
Brute-force password attack: In susceptible IoT systems, these kinds of assaults are also
used to get access to devices.
Eavesdropping: The attacker node can breach and intercept the weak communication channel.
There are various weak points in the communication route where the attacker can obtain all the
confidential information.
Physical escalation: An attacker may use a variety of operating systems, hardware, and
software weaknesses to gain unauthorized access to Internet of Things resources.

Existing Security Approaches in an IoT

Al Hwaitat et al. [13] present a procedure for a secure and computable IoT
data exchange system that guarantees that users may benefit from the
computing ease of the cloud while also allowing users to verify that the
cipher text computation results are accurate. When it comes to fine-granted
IoT, data sharing and data access policies are uploaded to the blockchain
through attribute-based encryption (ABE), which enables any client to
check if their characteristics satisfy the accessibility policy from time to
time. At present, the IoT security solutions are highly specific to layers of
the IoT protocol stack (Figure 3.3).
 FIGURE 3.3 IoT protocol suite.⏎

A detailed study is required to examine the existing security solution.

The result shows that they are more inclined toward strengthening privacy
and less toward data integrity, service availability, and maintainability.

Adoption of Blockchain for Enhanced Security

At present, blockchain technology is seen as the long-term security
approach in IoT for multiple reasons. Blockchain induces information
bound in the form of a block and is connected using cryptography. A chain
of blocks is made. Blockchain is characterized by integrity, security, and
faster processing. However, there are variously reported limitations of
blockchain, and the concept is still in the initial stage of development.
 Enhanced data security: The decentralized nature of blockchain
technology and the application of cryptographic techniques make it possible
to store medical information in a way that is both secure and difficult to
alter. Due to the distributed nature of blockchain design, it is exceedingly
difficult for malicious actors to alter or manipulate the data.
Interoperability and data exchange: The use of blockchain technology
provides a framework that is standardized for data interchange between the
many different healthcare organizations, systems, and platforms. It makes
seamless interoperability feasible, assures accurate and consistent data
exchange across all parties, avoids unnecessary duplication, and improves
the coordination of healthcare.
Data integrity and immutability: A chronological and permanent
record of every transaction and input is kept by the blockchain, which
results in an audit trail that cannot be altered in any way. This function
ensures that the data included in medical records are accurate and prevents
unauthorized changes from being made. As a result, the electronic health
record (EHR) system becomes more trustworthy and reliable.
Efficient and accurate auditing: Due to the immutability and
transparency of blockchain technology, auditing may be conducted more
efficiently. The capacity for healthcare practitioners, authorities, and
auditors to readily trace and verify the origin, access, and change histories
of health information improves accountability and compliance.
Disaster recovery and resilience: The distributed design of a
blockchain makes it feasible to implement disaster recovery and resilience
strategies.

Secure Blockchain-Based IoT Information Storage and

Retrieval
Blockchain suffers from space constraints when storing large files as every
node maintains complete network data. IPFS provides a promising solution
to the present issue. In IPFS, the hashed value of the raw data is embedded
in the chain transaction. Unless private information is stored, IPFS doesn’t
permit preselected nodes to store the data. IPFS uses an access control list
for distributing hashed data among listed communicating parties. Smart
contracts are employed in the Ethereum blockchain to provide the access
control policy to the requester. Smart contracts are verified before file
uploading and retrieving.
The IPFS is a peer-to-peer network protocol for storing data among
obtainable distributed file systems. The content addressing scheme uniquely
identifies each file in this distributed system. The content is stored as a
distributed hash table (DHT) and any node upon request can retrieve the
content data in the form of a hash. The data is uploaded as a 256 kilobyte
file that is hashed further and identified with a content identifier. Without a
server connection, the host can easily download the hash content from its
peer nodes. For efficient storing and retrieving of a file, the full file is
connected with a Merkle directed acyclic graph (DAG). The DAG
additionally helps to connect a node with its specific identifier. Therefore a
node uses DHT to retrieve IPFS data.
Figure 3.4 has three layers: perception layer, blockchain network layer,
and application layer. The crude drug information created by a QR code
scanner at the collecting site is provided by the perception layer.
 FIGURE 3.4 Blockchain architecture with IPFS.⏎

Generation of raw pharmaceutical data (D) at the manufacturing site is

done using a QR code scanner. AES is faster in encrypting both small and
large files as compared to RSA. The AES key distribution is troublesome.
Hence AES is used to encrypt the data and RSA is used to transfer
encrypted AES key over the communication. Symmetric key K is encrypted
with the public key of the retailer (R), supplier (S), consumer (C), admin
(Ad), data manager (DM), and patient (P) to produce the cipher key in
Equations 3.1–3.8.

CKR = RSA(K, P KR)

CKS = RSA(K, P Ks) (3.1)

 (3.2)
CKD = RSA(K, P KD)

CKC = RSA(K, P KC ) (3.3)

CKAd = RSA(K, P KAd) (3.4)
CKDM = RSA(K, P KDM ) (3.5)
CKP = RSA(K, P KP ) (3.6)
CKR = RSA(K, P KR) (3.7)
k = Decrypt − RSA(P RP (CKP )) (3.8)
Originaldata(D) = Decrypt − AES(K(CD)) (3.9)

Design of Smart Contracts (3.10)

The smart contract is generated by the data manager node.
Figure 3.5 describes the smart contract function executed in terms of
transaction and execution costs for encryption, digital signature, uploading,
and sending data to IPFS in the IPFS smart contract.

FIGURE 3.5 Smart contract IPFS.⏎

 Figure 3.6 describes the smart contract function executed in terms of
transaction and execution cost for node deployment, node registration, data
request, and data response operations in the blockchain node deployment
smart contract.

FIGURE 3.6 Smart contract blockchain node function.⏎

Figure 3.7 describes the smart contract function executed in terms of

transaction and execution cost for user enrollment, user exit, applying
regulation scheme, reclamation of user data, and user rejection functions in
the smart contract access control policy scheme.
 FIGURE 3.7 Smart contract access control policy
function.⏎

Challenges and Issues

Scalability: The integration of blockchain with the IoT poses scalability
challenges, particularly in handling the increasing volume of transactions
generated by IoT devices. Traditional blockchain platforms, such as Bitcoin
and Ethereum, may struggle to process a large number of transactions in a
timely and cost-effective manner, leading to delays and increased
transaction fees.
Latency: Delays in transaction confirmation may impact the
responsiveness of IoT devices, particularly in applications that require low-
latency communication, such as industrial automation and autonomous
vehicles.
Energy consumption: Blockchain networks need to validate
transactions and secure the network. This high energy consumption is not
sustainable, particularly for IoT deployments where energy-efficient
operation is crucial for battery-powered devices and remote sensors.
Interoperability: Due to the proliferation of diverse IoT devices in
attaining interoperability between blockchain networks and IoT devices has
become challenging in maintaining protocols and standards. Lack of
standardization and compatibility issues hinder seamless integration and
data exchange among heterogeneous platforms and ecosystems, limiting the
scalability and adoption of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions.
Security risks: While blockchain offers integral security benefits such as
immutability and cryptographic algorithms, IoT devices are often
vulnerable to cyberattacks due to their limited computing resources and
lack of built-in security features. Securing IoT devices against malware,
data breaches, and unauthorized access is crucial to maintaining the
integrity and confidentiality of data in blockchain-enabled IoT ecosystems.
Privacy concerns: Preserving user privacy and ensuring compliance
with data protection regulations remain significant challenges in
blockchain-enabled IoT deployments. Blockchain’s transparent and
immutable ledger may expose sensitive information raising concerns
 Regulatory compliance: Compliance with regulatory requirements and
legal frameworks poses challenges for blockchain-enabled IoT
deployments, particularly in industries such as healthcare, finance, and
supply chain management. Regulatory uncertainties regarding data
ownership, liability, and data protection laws hinder the adoption of
blockchain technology in IoT applications.
Complexity: Integrating blockchain with IoT introduces complexity in
terms of managing and maintaining the infrastructure, deploying smart
contracts, and ensuring interoperability among different platforms and
ecosystems. The complexity of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions may deter
adoption, particularly among organizations with limited technical expertise
and resources.
Cost: Implementing blockchain-enabled IoT solutions involves upfront
costs for deploying and maintaining the infrastructure, developing smart
contracts, and ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements. High
implementation costs may hinder the adoption of new technology.
Legacy systems integration: Integrating blockchain with existing IoT
infrastructure and legacy systems may lack support for blockchain
technology, requiring significant modifications or upgrades to enable
seamless integration with blockchain-enabled IoT solutions.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

ENHANCEMENT
The integration of blockchain with IoT holds immense potential and
significant progress has been made in exploring and implementing solutions
to overcome these obstacles. Blockchain technology offers inherent security
benefits with cryptographic algorithms, which enhance the integrity and
confidentiality of data in IoT ecosystems. By leveraging blockchain’s
decentralized architecture and smart contract capabilities, IoT devices can
securely record transactions, execute autonomous transactions, and ensure
data privacy and ownership.
Moreover, blockchain enables seamless interoperability and data sharing
across heterogeneous IoT platforms and ecosystems, fostering collaboration
and innovation in diverse industries and use cases. Standardization efforts
and industry collaborations are essential to develop common protocols and
enable seamless integration of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions. Despite
the progress made in addressing challenges and issues, several areas for
future enhancement and research remain:
Scalability: Scalable blockchain solutions have to handle a large
quantum of transactions generated by IoT devices. This involves exploring
alternative consensus mechanisms to improve throughput and reduce
latency in blockchain networks.
Energy efficiency: Addressing the energy consumption is crucial to
ensure the feasibility of blockchain-enabled IoT solutions, particularly in
resource-constrained environments. The recommendations for future
researchers are protocols that minimize energy consumption while ensuring
the scalability and reliability of blockchain networks.
Privacy-preserving technologies: Future research should explore
privacy-preserving technologies and techniques that enable secure and
anonymous data sharing in blockchain-enabled IoT ecosystems. This
involves developing techniques to protect data.
Interoperability: Further efforts are needed to enhance interoperability
between blockchain networks and IoT devices, protocols, and platforms.
The recommendations for future research include developing standard
protocols, APIs, and interoperability frameworks that enable seamless data
exchange and collaboration among heterogeneous IoT environments.
Regulatory compliance: Addressing regulatory challenges and legal
frameworks governing blockchain-enabled IoT deployments requires
collaborative efforts from policymakers, industry stakeholders, and
technology innovators. Future studies should clarify regulatory guidelines,
establish industry-specific standards, and foster collaboration to ensure
compliance with data protection regulations and legal requirements.
User experience: Enhancing the user experience of IoT-enabled
blockchain solutions is essential to drive adoption and usability among
diverse stakeholders. The recommendations for future research are to
develop user-friendly interfaces, tools, and educational resources that
empower users to understand and interact with blockchain-enabled IoT
applications effectively.
In conclusion, while significant progress has been made in exploring and
implementing blockchain-enabled IoT solutions, there remains
opportunities for future enhancement and research to address scalability,
energy efficiency, and user experience challenges. By addressing these
areas, blockchain technology can use IoT, enabling security, transparency,
and collaboration across diverse industries and use cases.

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OceanofPDF.com
Section–II Industrial and societal implications
using blockchain and IoT

OceanofPDF.com
4 Exploration and Review of
Blockchain Technology Used in
Industrial Solutions
Maxraj J and VijayAnanth Suyamburajan
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-6

INTRODUCTION
Following a paper titled “A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,”
published in 2008 by someone under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto,
blockchain technology gained widespread public awareness with the
introduction and use of the Bitcoin network. The blueprint schemes
described in the article are used by many contemporary cryptocurrencies.
The first of numerous blockchain-based apps is Bitcoin.
The various elements of blockchain technology and their key
characteristics that make blockchain a compelling technology can
sometimes make it challenging to understand. Blockchain is in the form of
blocks that create distributed digital ledgers that hold transfers that have
been signed securely in each block. Further, a block itself is
cryptographically linked to the previous block forming a linear chain of
blocks, after validations and undergoing consensus decisions. Because of
this, if the data is altered in one block, its unique identifier will change and
be visible in the next block (providing tamper evidence). All users within
the blockchain can determine whether the data in a prior block has been
altered with this domino effect. A blockchain network offers a robust way
of cooperative recordkeeping because it is challenging to alter or delete.
 Blockchain technology at its core combines three mathematical
constructs—cryptography, distributed systems, and game theory—in a
meaningful and elegant way. Blockchain technology has the ability to be
integrated into a wide range of systems, including data registers, digital
identification, manufacturing supply chains, and records management.

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY FOR

INDUSTRIES AND ENTERPRISES
The primary focus of blockchain is on financial and legal transactions that
take advantage of the benefits of decentralized databases and a peer-to-peer
approach beyond corporate borders. Enterprise entities that are interested in
adopting blockchain typically go through trial and discovery phases before
deciding on the most practical and applicable use cases. In this chapter, the
blockchain technology adapted by Siemens is discussed in detail.
Blockchain is significant for Siemens as a technology leader for providing
services on a digital basis. Blockchain is therefore deemed one of the core
technologies in Siemens and researched for its various applications and use
cases.
This chapter examines a few of the applications of permissioned
blockchain in products and services offered by Siemens companies and
industries, including:

1. Digitalizing the supply chain for the food and beverage

industry.
2. Distributed and transparent management of electricity and
energy distribution.
 3. Seamless transaction of untrusted parties in car sharing.
4. Supply chain management of tools in servicing operations of
power plants.

DIGITALIZING THE SUPPLY CHAIN FOR

FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
As per WHO food safety facts [1], every year, one in ten individuals around
the world gets sick after eating contaminated food. A study from NetNames
[2] claims that counterfeiting is increasing by 15% yearly and depleting
more than 2% of the world’s GDP. It also emphasizes that consumers avoid
companies for two years on average after a negative experience and that
they share negative experiences 45% of the time on social media.
Additionally, 61% of consumers worldwide say they make an effort to
spend more money on goods from companies that behave ethically.
The introduction of blockchain technology has already had an impact on
the financial sector. It is time to understand and handle problems that the
food and beverage industry has long faced, like food recalls due to
contamination, counterfeiting, and catering to changing consumer
preferences. The feasibility of the technology was previously threatened by
the challenges associated with the collection and transfer of data to the
blockchain in commercial contexts. It is now feasible to generate, manage,
and communicate data efficiently thanks to the Internet of Things (IoT),
cloud computing, and the wide availability of internet access.
MindSphere is a very popular cloud-based platform from Siemens that
offers a way to collect data from supply networks. On MindSphere, there
are prebuilt blockchain apps that make it simple to subscribe and
participate. Companies can also restrict users’ access to information using
these apps. This allows for the privacy of confidential information while
only sharing essential information with other supply chain participants.
Secure cloud gateways are used to package and send data from IoT sensors,
shop floor systems, and tools to the blockchain. Siemens is busy creating
IoT sensors and modules for its current software in order to send data
straight to the blockchain.
 The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) analysis report [3] compared an
IoT solution with blockchain to an IoT solution without blockchain, and it
came to the conclusion that the solution with blockchain could “achieve net
savings equal to 0.6% of revenues” on logistics and storage alone. Real-
time traceability and smart contracts, which enable better inventory
management, brokerage fees, fraud protection, and other advantages, are
largely responsible for these advantages. A complete traceability document
can be created as supply chain blind spots become clearer. This document
can speed up root-cause analysis and shorten recall times. Brand owners
and consumers can verify the genuineness of products or other central
statements using data from the blockchain by utilizing custom rules and
smart contracts.

FIGURE 4.1 Transparency and traceability with Siemens

blockchain.

DISTRIBUTED AND TRANSPARENT

MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICITY AND
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
Automated pay-per-use, created by Siemens Energy, enables utilities to pay
for upgraded services as they are used in exchange for a portion of the price
when revenue is produced. (i.e., electricity is successfully sold). Blockchain
makes sure that the power plant’s precise profit is computed and distributed
proportionally. This translates into the ability to shift service products that
have high capital expenditure (CAPEX) costs for businesses into operating
expenses (OPEX), leading to new financing models for Siemens Energy’s
goods and services. It is no longer required to amortize all costs at once,
only the costs of installation when necessary and the costs associated with
each use. Therefore, it is feasible to produce energy while accurately
estimating and paying the upfront and ongoing costs. Customers and
solution providers will eventually share some of the operating risks,
according to such a plan. And this is where the paradigm truly makes a
difference.

FIGURE 4.2 Automated pay-per-use with Siemens

blockchain.

In Spain, Siemens Energy has introduced e-ing3ni@, an original

blockchain platform for trading renewable energy that enables customers to
choose and reserve electricity from their preferred energy sources. The
network, the first of its kind, uses the security and traceability offered by
blockchain to enable online data management, report access, and the
purchase and sale of renewable energy by producers, consumers, and
retailers. Siemens Energy is also working on new business models based on
blockchain for secure storage of digital identities, automated ordering, and
3D printing of spare parts (e.g., turbine parts) from suppliers.
In order to provide microgrid control solutions that maximize control
over energy usage, Siemens is also utilizing blockchain technology. This is
not Siemens’s first foray into the world of microgrid development. In 2016,
the firm teamed up with US startup LO3 Energy. With the help of this new
effort, it is possible to create local trading between energy producers and
consumers.

SEAMLESS TRANSACTION OF UNTRUSTED

PARTIES IN CAR SHARING
There will be an increasing trend in the opportunities for mobility services
such as car sharing rather than owning a car. People want to travel from one
location to another, rather than wanting to own a car and it is much more
convenient sometimes than owning a vehicle. Siemens Mobility focuses on
providing transport solutions related to the movement of people and goods
to various locations globally.
People who reside or work in large urban areas may frequently depend
on car sharing to avoid some of the responsibilities associated with owning
a car, such as finding parking, car payments, and insurance. According to
information on the Enterprise CarShare website 4], car sharing enables
users to use or rent a car for any duration, for, say, a minimum of one hour.
Another illustration of a car sharing business is Zipcar [5].
Car sharing has its own challenges. Though the service ensures that one
doesn’t have to pay for parking, fueling, etc., customers are often faced with
the challenge of finding specific parking and fueling stations that are in
collaboration with the respective car sharing company. Another challenge
for the car sharing companies is managing the fueling card. Once the
customer fuels the car through authorized fueling stations, they must use a
fuel card and it is associated with a PIN. It’s not only inconvenient to
customers but it’s inconvenient to car sharing companies to manage these
cards because the fueling cards get lost/stolen or are fraudulently sold on
the internet.
Siemens Mobility is actively working on a blockchain solution to
address these challenges and enable frictionless and secure transactions.
Blockchain seamlessly integrates the interacting parties such as car
companies, garage providers, fueling stations, and customers.
 At Bosch’s 2019 Connected World conference, the Siemens Corporate
Technology team detailed the concept of “blockchain-based smart parking”
as one possibility of blockchain usage.

FIGURE 4.3 Blockchain-based smart parking solution

from Siemens.

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT OF TOOLS

IN SERVICING OPERATIONS OF POWER
PLANTS
Siemens uses blockchain in its supply chain management activities
specifically for managing the tools in servicing operations for power plants
all over the world. The SCM DigiNetwork, an informal company-wide
group of digitalization enthusiasts who design and implement solutions in
this field, was behind the original initiative. The tool management sector
where blockchain is used involves a wide range of equipment and tools,
from a simple cordless screwdriver to a CNC machine costing over a
million euros.
The challenge that the tool management sector faces is that the contents
of the return containers and the condition of the individual tools are very
different from the shipments dispatched to the location of use in the first
place. Previously, the number and condition of the devices and tools that
were packed, transported, and received were recorded manually by the
relevant employees. However, this manual documentation is error-prone
and does not work very well. This is precisely why Siemens decided to use
blockchain technology in a bid to guarantee the integrity of the newly
digitalized process.
When a transport order is generated, it is automatically entered into the
blockchain. This will show a list of associated and relevant partners (such
as the logistics company), access to the document, and all papers associated
with the freight shipment. All amendments are recorded and visible to all
authorized parties. The blockchain technology used by the Siemens tool
management sector gives Siemens the ability to, for example, view anytime
whether a tool is still in customs or being transported, know whether the
returned toolkits contain drills that need to be sharpened, or if an open-
ended spanner is bent out of shape.
According to Maersk, the logistics company, administration costs can be
higher than the physical transport costs for a short journey involving a
container. However, they can be significantly reduced by using blockchain.
Like Siemens, Maersk is also working on a blockchain project with its
information technology supplier IBM.

CONCLUSION
Blockchain has been a hot topic for several years. It has long been apparent
that the distributed database and record system, first used for Bitcoin, is
capable of much more than just enabling cryptocurrencies. Today,
blockchain is used to build smart contracts that have variables and values
specific to each transaction written directly into the code. It accomplishes
this without the use of an intermediary, which is typically used to mediate
real or electronic contracts between clients and customers.
The fact that blockchain is a decentralized system, which promotes trust
in a digital ecosystem without the need for middlemen, as well as its
transparency, which enables all users to audit transactions and precisely
trace stored data back along the chain to its point of origin, are just a few of
the key benefits that make it appealing for a variety of industries. The
potential for creating new company models is enormous.
Due to the fact that blockchain creates confidence between parties who
might not typically get along, future developments will focus more on
shared goals and collaboration. Where there was no openness before,
blockchain creates it.
Finally, blockchain technology is progressing as many organizations,
like Siemens, are researching various business use cases.

REFERENCES
1. WHO, 2017. “Food Safety.” https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-
sheets/detail/food-safety.
2. “NetNames report on Counting the Cost of Counterfeiting,” n.d.
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/57066883/counting-the-
cost-of-counterfeiting-a-netnames-report.
3. Siemens, n.d. “Blockchain IoT.”
https://xcelerator.siemens.com/global/en/industries/food-
beverage/exclusive-area/blockchain-iot.html.
4. Enterprise, n.d. “FAQ.”
https://www.enterprisecarshare.com/us/en/faq.html.
5. Zipcar, n.d. “Zipcar,” https://www.zipcar.com/.

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5 Harnessing IoT for Effective
Smart Farming

A Comparative Analysis of Farming

Condition Monitoring
Anwer Basha H
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-7

INTRODUCTION
In the future, it is predicted that the influence of the Internet of Things (IoT)
will serve as the primary foundation upon which intelligent computing will
be built. The transition from “traditional technology” to “next generation
everywhere computing” is an important endeavor that must be undertaken
by both private and commercial sectors. The idea of an “Internet of Things”
has recently emerged as one of the most significant topics of conversation
in research groups all around the globe, with a special emphasis placed on
advanced wireless communication technology. IoT is presently having a
significant influence on people in a broad variety of settings all around the
world. IoT is providing the groundwork, from the perspective of the
average user, for the creation of a wide variety of goods, such as intelligent
automation, intelligent living solutions, and intelligent healthcare services.
In addition, it is often used for business reasons across a wide variety of
industries, including manufacturing, transportation, agriculture, and
corporate management, to name a few.
 IoT has received the greatest attention and study in the realm of
agriculture more than any other industry. The capacity of this business to
provide food security is one of its most important aspects. This ability is
becoming more important as the world’s population continues to grow at an
alarming rate. Researchers in this discipline first used methods that were
based on ICT (information and communications technology). The
difficulties faced by farmers are not solved by these strategies and are not a
long-term answer to the problem. Researchers are investigating the
possibilities of IoT technology in the agriculture industry as a feasible
alternative to ICT. There are many different applications required for
agricultural goods, such as managing supply chains, maintaining
infrastructure, and monitoring soil moisture, temperature, and moisture
levels in the surrounding environment. The use of IoT technology within
the realm of agriculture has resulted in a new agricultural management
paradigm referred to as “smart farming.” This strategy seeks to maximize
the amount of produce that can be harvested from agricultural land by using
a wide range of technological instruments. Farmers have learned techniques
in order to improve both the quality and quantity of their agricultural
products. Smart farming practices require farmers to make use of many
resources, including fertilizers. It has been noticed that agricultural laborers
are not able to sustain a continuous presence in the field. In addition, it is
conceivable that farmers do not possess the necessary expertise to assess the
ideal environmental conditions for their crops via the use of a variety of
technical instruments, and this is a possibility that should be taken into
consideration. Farmers are given access to an IoT-based automated system
that may function on its own and alert them to any possible issues that may
arise in connection with farming. Because the technology is able to warn
farmers even when they are not physically present in the field, it enables
farmers to more effectively manage many farms and increase their
agricultural production.
By the year 2050, the world population is anticipated to reach 9 billion
people. In order to maximize the use of available resources and keep up
with the requirements of a fast growing population, it is essential for the
agricultural industry to make use of applications of IoT. The effects of
global warming on farmers have resulted in significant losses owing to the
increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events. However, the
deployment of the IoT smart farming application provides a method to
offset these losses by allowing farmers to rapidly adapt to changing weather
conditions. This enables farmers to save more money. Researchers have
provided a quantum of analysis of the relevance of smart farming as well as
the possible future uses of IoT.

LITERATURE REVIEW
IoT makes use of mobile devices such as smartphones to obtain data
wirelessly from other mobile devices and to monitor the activity of living
organisms such as plants and animals. Farmers are able to estimate output
levels and evaluate weather conditions with the widespread use of sensors
and gadgets in their operations. In the realms of water harvesting, flow
monitoring and management, crop water needs assessment, supply
scheduling, and water conservation, IoT is finding an increasing amount of
use. Through the usage of sensors and cloud connection that is provided by
a gateway, remote monitoring of the water supply and status can be carried
out. This monitoring is performed in accordance with the particular
demands that are placed on the soil and plants. It is not possible for farmers
to do manual monitoring of each plant in order to treat nutrient deficits,
eliminate pests, or prevent illnesses. In spite of this, the use of IoT
technology has been shown to be helpful, and it has provided farmers with
the opportunity to attain a new level of success in contemporary agriculture.
The expansion of IoT technology in recent years has brought about
substantial advantages for the agricultural business, especially with respect
to its connection infrastructure. The combination of smart devices, remote
data collecting, the utilization of sensors and vehicles via the use of mobile
devices and the internet, cloud-based intelligent analysis and decision-
making, and the automation of agricultural activities have all been vital
components of this phenomenon. The agricultural industry has undergone a
great change as a result of the skills that have been developed in areas such
as resource optimization, climate change effect mitigation, and crop yield
improvement.
For the purpose of collecting and sending agricultural data throughout
different development phases, researchers have suggested several methods,
strategies, and instruments. These approaches, techniques, and tools vary
according to the kind of crop and area. For the purpose of data collection
and dissemination, a number of different firms provide communication
tools, sensors, robots, huge machinery, and drones. Food and agricultural
agencies, in addition to other governmental organizations, are working
together to set standards and procedures for the use of technology in the
preservation of the quality of food and the environment. There are several
methods, including photoelectricity, electromagnetics, conductivity, and
ultrasound, that are used in the process of analyzing the texture and
structure of the soil, as well as its nutrient content, vegetation, humidity,
vapor, air, temperature, and other elements linked to this topic. According to
the findings of earlier studies, data collected by remote sensing may be
employed to recognize crop varieties, categorize different kinds of pests and
weeds, ascertain levels of stress in soil and plant conditions, and monitor
levels of dryness.
The general health of a plant may be affected by a number of elements,
including the amount of moisture in the soil, the availability of nutrients,
the intensity of the light, the humidity, the amount of precipitation that falls,
and the color of the leaves. The plants are being watched while the
temperature and light conditions are kept at their ideal levels, and just a
small amount of microirrigation is being applied. A wide variety of sensors
are employed in order to detect a myriad of properties. According to the
conclusions of the investigation, it has been noticed that the sensor is able
to detect changes that are greater than a predefined threshold. This is
something that has been seen. When the predetermined limit is breached,
the sensor starts communicating the changes it has noticed with the
microcontroller. The microcontroller will subsequently conduct the
necessary actions in accordance with the predetermined protocol until the
parameter reaches the level that is considered to be ideal [1].
A wide variety of sensors, such as those for temperature, humidity, soil
patterns, airflow, location, carbon dioxide, pressure, light, and wetness, are
routinely used in sensing systems. According to findings from earlier
studies, the appropriateness of sensors for use in agricultural settings is
dependent on a number of important features, including but not limited to
dependability, storage capacity, mobility, robustness, breadth, and
computational effectiveness. The usage of wireless sensors has developed
into an essential component in the gathering of data pertaining to crops and
the presentation of supplementary information. The integration of different
kinds of sensors with more complex agricultural gear and equipment may
be adapted to meet the particular demands of a given application in a
manner that is completely customizable.
The exploitation of satellite images has the ability to unearth differences
in crop yield and soil quality that are influenced by the topographical
elements that are located in the surrounding area. In order to obtain precise
management of the production ingredients that boost productivity and
effectiveness, such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, this goal must first
be accomplished. One of the oldest methods used in agriculture is the
practice of producing crops in a controlled environment, also known as
smart farming. Some practices were seen to become more prevalent in
nations that had more severe weather conditions during the course of the
20th century. When crops are grown inside, their vulnerability to the effects
of the surrounding environment is significantly decreased. The growing of
crops, which was formerly confined to locations with optimum
circumstances, has become possible at any time and any location thanks to
the usage of sensors and communication technologies. The production of
crops in controlled settings is based on a variety of elements including the
design of sheds and materials used to limit wind impacts, aeration systems,
reliable monitoring data, decision-support systems, and other variables
connected to agricultural production. In greenhouse settings, accurate
monitoring of the environment’s many different factors is a substantial
problem. As a consequence of this, a number of different measurement
points are needed in order to make accurate predictions about the numerous
factors required for the regulation and maintenance of the ambient
temperature. An IoT greenhouse makes use of sensors to monitor and
measure inside characteristics such as temperature, light pressure, and
humidity.

Research Hypotheses
There is no significant difference between the application of IoT in smart
farming and better crop management.
 There is no significant difference between the application of IoT in smart
farming and site-specific nutrition management.
There is no significant difference between the application of IoT in smart
farming and Support in achieving strategic goals.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This part of the study involves in performing detailed data analysis based
on the data collected by the researchers. The IBM SPSS package is used to
make the analysis.

TABLE 5.1 Frequency

Analysis⏎
Gender Composition Frequency Percent
Male 77 60.2
Female 51 39.8
Age Classification
Less than 30 years 37 28.9
31–40 years 45 35.2
41–50 years 15 11.7
Above 50 years 31 24.2
Place of Residence
Semi-urban 84 65.6
Rural 44 34.4
Number of Dependents
1–2 79 61.7
3 and above 49 38.3
Current Role
Farmer 65 50.8
Working in agricultural company 45 35.2
Land owner 18 14.1
Work Experience
Less than 4 years 35 27.3
4–8 years 30 23.4
8–12 years 22 17.2
12–16 years 9 7
Above 16 years 32 25
 In Table 5.1, it is noted that 60.2% of the respondents were male, 35.2%
were in the age group 31–40 years, 65.6% were living in a semi-urban area,
61.7% have 1–2 dependents to take care of, 50.8% were farmers, and 27.3%
possess experience of less than 4 years.

Discriminant Analysis
This part of the analysis explores understanding the significant differences
between the independent and dependent variables, for this purpose
discriminant analysis is used. The main objective of using discriminant
analysis is to classify the various mutually exclusive data groups into one
based on the predictor value.

TABLE 5.2 Group Statistics⏎

IoT in Sustainable Farming Dependent Variables Mean Sth. Dev.
Strongly Disagree Better crop management 2.00 0.00
Site-specific nutrition management 2.00 0.00
Support in achieving strategic goals 1.00 0.00
Disagree Better crop management 1.75 0.45
Site-specific nutrition management 1.50 0.52
Support in achieving strategic goals 1.75 0.45
Neutral Better crop management 3.00 0.00
Site-specific nutrition management 3.19 0.40
Support in achieving strategic goals 3.19 0.40
Agree Better crop management 4.74 0.44
Site-specific nutrition management 4.91 0.28
Support in achieving strategic goals 4.49 0.66
Strongly Agree Better crop management 4.77 0.42
Site-specific nutrition management 4.89 0.32
Support in achieving strategic goals 4.56 0.50
Total Better crop management 4.20 1.12
Site-specific nutrition management 4.30 1.19
Support in achieving strategic goals 4.02 1.13

From Table 5.2 it is noted that the mean value of all the independent
variables for agree and strongly agree is more than 4 and their
corresponding standard deviation is less. This shows that most of the
respondents agree with the statement that the application of IoT enables
better crop management, site-specific nutrition management of crops, and
support in achieving the strategic development goals (SDGs)
Based on the analysis, it is noted that the significance value of Wilks’s
lambda is 0.00 (Table 5.3). This shows that the independent variables
possess significant difference to the dependent variable.

TABLE 5.3 Test of Wilks’s Lambda⏎

Tests of Equality of Group Means Wilks’s Lambda F dF1 dF2 Sig.
Better crop management 0.12 218.24 4.00 123.00 0.00
Site-specific nutrition management 0.08 351.15 4.00 123.00 0.00
Support in achieving strategic goals 0.22 111.98 4.00 123.00 0.00

TABLE 5.4 Classification Function Coefficients⏎

IoT in Sustainable Farming Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Better crop management 13.02 10.85 18.79 29.92 30.07
Site-specific nutrition management 17.64 12.72 27.04 42.00 41.73
Support in achieving strategic goals 1.41 4.56 8.11 10.89 11.18
(Constant) –32.97 –24.63 –85.81 –200.20 –200.87

The analysis shows that the classification functions are high for the
responses agree and strongly agree for all the independent variables
considered in the study (Table 5.4).
 FIGURE 5.1 Canonical discriminant grouping.

From Figure 5.1, it is noted that the model has created a grouping
commonly for the responses agree and strongly agree as they tend to
provide similar responses about the application of IoT in smart farming.

TABLE 5.5 Classification Analysis⏎

IoT in Sustainable Farming Predicted Group Membership
Original Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Total
Strongly Disagree 3 0 0 0 0 3
Disagree 3 9 0 0 0 12
Neutral 0 0 16 0 0 16
Agree 0 0 0 24 11 35
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 30 32 62
65.6% of original grouped cases correctly classified
 The analysis shows the comparison between the original values and the
predicted values based on the model, it is noted that nearly 65.6% of the
original cases are correctly predicted and classified and hence the model is
stated to be a good fit (Table 5.5).

CONCLUSION
In order to meet the issue of rapid global population growth on a shrinking
amount of arable land, there is an urgent need for agricultural production
systems that are both technologically sophisticated and highly efficient. It is
of the utmost importance that people be aware of the significance of
sustainable agriculture in ensuring that there will always be food available.
This research aims to evaluate the elements that impact the view of farming
as a respectable career choice among young people who are inventive and
to investigate the potential of new technologies to improve agricultural
output. Additionally, the study will investigate the factors that influence the
perception of farming as a career choice among older generations. The
focus of this research is on the investigation of various agricultural
technologies, with a specific concentration on IoT, as a method of boosting
agricultural productivity and intelligence in order to satisfy future needs.
Academics and engineers might profit from the highlighting of the
identification of probable future prospects and industrial constraints.
Increasing agricultural productivity requires careful management of every
square inch of field utilizing environmentally friendly sensors and
communication technologies that are based on IoT.
The concepts of data analytics and machine learning are put to use in
order to perform analyses on real-time data. The implementation of
methods that are related to machine learning may be used to perform one of
the most important aspects of crop production, which is the identification of
genes that provide the best results. The use of machine learning in
agriculture entails the prediction of genes that are most suited for
agricultural output. This may be accomplished via the use of computer
programs. This is especially important to keep in mind when picking seeds
that are well suited to the unique environmental conditions of a given
location. The use of algorithms for machine learning has the ability to
recognize things that are in great demand as well as those that are presently
out of supply. Recent developments in machine learning and analytics have
made it possible for farmers to properly classify their crops before
processing them and distributing them to customers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adamides, G.; Kalatzis, N.; Stylianou, A.; Marianos, N.;
Chatzipapadopoulos, F.; Giannakopoulou, M.; Papadavid, G.;
Vassiliou, V.; Neocleous, D. Smart Farming Techniques for Climate
Change Adaptation in Cyprus. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 557.
2. Ayaz, M.; Ammad-uddin, M.; Baig, I.; Aggoune, E.M. Wireless
Sensor‘s Civil Applications, Prototypes, and Future Integration
Possibilities: A Review. IEEE Sens . J. 2018, 18, 4–30.
3. Ferrández-Pastor, F.J.; García-Chamizo, J.M.; Nieto-Hidalgo, M.;
Mora-Martínez J. Precision Agriculture Design Method Using a
Distributed Computing Architecture on Internet of Things Context.
Sensors 2018, 18, 1731.
4. Hassan, A.; Aitazaz, A.F.; Farhat, A.; Bishnu, A.; Travis, E. Precision
Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Budgeting of Potato Crop
in Prince Edward Island. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2419.
5. Hernández-Ochoa, I.M.; Gaiser, T.; Kersebaum, K.C.; Webber, H.;
Seidel, S.J.; Grahmann, K.; Ewert, F. Model-Based Design of Crop
Diversification Through New Field Arrangements in Spatially
Heterogeneous Landscapes. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev 2022, 42,
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6. Liakos, K.G.; Busato, P.; Moshou, D.; Pearson, S.; Bochtis, D.
Machine Learning in Agriculture: A Review. Sensors 2018, 18, 2674.
7. Muhammad, S.F.; Shamyla, R.; Adnan, A.; Tariq, U.; Yousaf, B.Z.
Role of IoT Technology in Agriculture: A Systematic Literature
Review. Electronics 2020, 9, 319.
8. Potamitis, I.; Rigakis, I.; Tatlas, N.A.; Potirakis, S. In-Vivo
Vibroacoustic Surveillance of Trees in the Context of the IoT. Sensors
2019, 19, 1366.
9. Quy, V.K.; Hau, N.V.; Anh, D.V.; Quy, N.M.; Ban, N.T.; Lanza, S.;
Randazzo, G.; Muzirafuti, A. IoT-Enabled Smart Agriculture:
Architecture, Applications, and Challenges. Appl. Sci 2022, 12, 3396.
10. Reddy, T.; Dutta, M. Impact of Agricultural Inputs on Agricultural
GDP in Indian Economy. Theor. Econ. Lett 2018, 8, 1840–1853.
11. Shi, X.; An, X.; Zhao, Q.; Liu, H.; Xia, L.; Sun, X.; Guo, Y. State- of-
the- Art Internet of Things in Protected Agriculture. Sensors 2019, 19,
1833.
12. Zhmud, V.A.; Kondratiev, N.O.; Kuznetsov, K.A.; Trubin, V.G.;
Dimitrov, L.V. Application of Ultrasonic Sensor for Measuring
Distances in Robotics. J. Phys. Conf. Ser 2018, 1015, 032189.

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6 Blockchain-Based Parking
System Using IoT
S Sahunthala, Latha Parthiban, and R Parthiban
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-8

INTRODUCTION
The various components of a smart city are shown in Figure 6.1. These
components are important for creating a smart city, and the Internet of
Things (IoT) is an effective way to handle this.

FIGURE 6.1 Example of smart city components.⏎

The IoT evolution is shown in Figure 6.2. It has helped in the machine-
to-machine interface. The main motivation behind the use of IoT is the
integration of devices.

FIGURE 6.2 IoT evolution.⏎

The workings of IoT are presented in Figure 6.3.

FIGURE 6.3 How IoT works.⏎

LITERATURE SURVEY
Parking has become an important requirement today. Some parking systems
have tried using RFID for managing both single and multistoried parking
lots [1, 2]. Researchers have proposed a smart parking system that is secure
and automated [3, 4, 5, 6, 7–8]. An efficient automated parking system
using GSM and Zigbee technology has also been studied [9, 10].
WSN-based secure parking [11, 12–13] as well as an agent-based
parking system platform have been suggested [14]. The Google Maps
application has been used to search for parking area [15, 16]. Ultrasonic
sensors are used to sense the parking slots. If the LED display is on, then
there is a free parking slot; if the display is off, then the slot is filled.

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
This research work helps to facilitate users and admins to park vehicles in a
well-defined method. This study helps to show updates about empty
parking slots in the location chosen by the users. The research uses Arduino
to monitor and control the parking system. The Wi-Fi module ESP8266
NodeMCU is used to communicate between the IoT and the web server.
The web server updates the user about empty parking slots every three
minutes.
Infrared (IR) sensors are affixed to the entry gate and exit gates to sense
objects and when to open the gate. The servomotors collect the signal from
the IR sensors in the entry and exit gates. The IR sensors used in the
parking slots sense the status of the slots and send a signal to Arduino. The
LCD display at the entry gate will display the number of empty and filled
slots in the parking area. Users can check slot status through the web server.
Users can choose to display the status of their desired parking location.

REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION
Hardware Requirements
The various hardware requirements are shown in Figures 6.4 to 6.8.
FIGURE 6.4 Arduino Uno.⏎

FIGURE 6.5 Servomotor.

FIGURE 6.6 LCD display.

FIGURE 6.7 Infrared sensor.

 FIGURE 6.8 ESP8266 NodeMCU.⏎

Software Requirements
Tools required: Arduino IDE (Figure 6.9)

FIGURE 6.9 Arduino IDE.

Operating system: Linux OSPre requisite JDK 1.6 or above

SYSTEM DESIGN
Design Overview
The characters involved are user and admin. The situation is to choose the
location and parking area to get updates about parking slot status (Figure
6.10).

FIGURE 6.10 Use case diagram.⏎

 FIGURE 6.11 Class diagram.⏎

Description: The classes and interfaces in the diagram represent the

attributes and operations. The classes involved are user, server, and admin
(Figure 6.11).

FIGURE 6.12 Sequence diagram.⏎

Description: The admin provides the information in both modules. The

hardware interface displays information about the number of empty and
filled slots and it will also be updated in the web server module (Figure
6.12).
 FIGURE 6.13 Activity diagram.

Description: The step-by-step process of the parking system is displayed

in Figure 6.13. The activity flow includes both admin and user processes.

IMPLEMENTATION
Modules
Selection of location and area.
Check slot status.
Updating of lots.
Visualization.
Architecture
The architecture represents the overall working of the parking system
(Figure 6.14). It is implemented in two modules: hardware implementation
and web server. Both modules update the status of the parking slots and
display the output on a screen. In the first module, we implement the
hardware component to develop the parking system using the Arduino
board. The Arduino board works as a microcontroller and it controls the
overall system. There is an entrance and exit gate in the parking system that
is used to allow the vehicle to enter the system.

FIGURE 6.14 Architecture diagram.⏎

The IR sensors are used to sense the vehicle and to send a signal to the
Arduino about the vehicle’s status. The Wi-Fi module is used to integrate
the Arduino with the web server that updates the parking slot status.
The web server is developed using Arduino IDE, which is used for
updating the parking slot status for users. In the web server, users can select
the location and particular parking area. When the particular area is chosen,
the web server will display the slot status to the users.
The slot details are stored in the database to maintain the records. The
admin can monitor the parking system regularly and update the status every
three minutes. This system will help the user to know the current
availability status and reduce the time to search for parking.

Modules Description

Selection of Location and Area

This module is used to select the location and area to search for parking
slots. The user will choose the location. This module will be accessed by
using GPS to select the location. By using this module, the user can check
the status in the area they desire.

Check Slot Status

The slot status is displayed on the LCD and on the web server. The LCD
display will be affixed in the parking system and used to display the status
to users who are entering the parking system. The web server is for mobile
users and displays the status which integrates with the parking system.

Updating of Slots
This module can be controlled by the admin side. The admin will monitor
the parking area and update the parking slot status every three minutes. The
slot details will be stored in the database server.

Visualization
The generated results are visualized in a web server, which makes the
parking process easier. The web server is monitored and controlled using
the Arduino.

TESTING
Manual Testing
Table 6.1 provides the manual testing of the project and Table 6.2 its
implementation.

TABLE 6.1 Manual Testing⏎

Test Test Description Test Test Input Expected Result Actual Result
Case Procedure
ID
T1-1 To check whether Arduino Open command Type Arduino IDE The Arduino version The Arduino version
IDE is installed in the prompt in the version. must be displayed. is displayed.
system. system.
T1-2 To check whether Arduino Open the Arduino Start typing the The editor must be The editor was
IDE opens correctly. IDE. Arduino code. opened and the opened and the
coding must be code was correctly
typed. typed.
T1-3 To check whether it Compile the Enter command for The code must be The code was
implemented the code Arduino code compile. compiled. compiled.
for Arduino board. written.
T1-4 To check whether the Execute the Enter the command The code must be The code was
Arduino code is Arduino code to execute. executed. executed.
executed. written.
T1-5 To check whether the Execute the Enter the command The code must be The code was
code is implemented on Arduino code for compile. compiled. compiled.
the web server. written.
T1-6 To check whether the Execute the web Enter the command The code must be The code was
implemented web server code to execute. executed. executed.
server code is executed. written.
T1-7 To check whether the web Compile the web Compile the web The web server The web server
server integrates with server code. server code. displayed the status displayed the status
the Arduino board. in the Arduino board in the Arduino
correctly. board correctly.
T1-8 To check whether the web Compile the web Compile the web The slot status must be The slot status was
server displays the slot server code. server code. displayed correctly. displayed correctly.
status.
T1-9 To check whether the The user must The user must The user can to choose The user chose the
server allows user to choose the choose location the location. location.
choose the location. location. from the drop-
down box only.
T1-10 To check whether the The user must The user must select The user can to select The user selected the
server allows user to select the area from the the area. particular area.
select the particular particular area. drop-down box
area. only.
T1-11 To check whether the Execute the web The admin must The server updates The server updated
system updates every 3 server code. update the slot every 3 minutes. every 3 minutes.
minutes. every 3 minutes.

TABLE 6.2 Testing for Arduino Implementation⏎

Test Test Description Test Procedure Test Input Expected Result Actual Result
Case
ID
T2-1 To check whether the Give power supply Give input The Arduino must be The Arduino was
Arduino board works and test the board. connections for connected and connected and
properly. Arduino board. work properly. works properly.
T2-2 To check whether the Give power supply Give input The ESP8266 The ESP8266
ESP8266 NodeMCU and test the connections for NodeMCU must be NodeMCU was
works properly.
Test Test Description Test Procedure Test Input Expected Result Actual Result
Case
ID
ESP8266 ESP8266 connected and connected and
NodeMCU. NodeMCU. works properly. works properly.
T2-3 To check whether the Give power supply Give input The servomotor must The servomotor was
servomotor works and test the connections for be connected and connected and
properly. servomotor. servomotor. works properly. works properly.
T2-4 To check whether the Give power supply Give input The infrared (IR) The infrared (IR)
infrared (IR) sensors and test infrared connections for sensors must be sensors were
work properly. (IR) sensors. infrared (IR) connected and connected and
sensors. work properly. work properly.
T2-5 To check whether the Give power supply Give input The LCD display The LCD display was
LCD display works and test the LCD connections for must be connected connected and
properly. display. the LCD display. and work properly. work properly.
T2-6 To check whether the Sensor will sense the An object must The entrance gate The entrance gate
servomotor opens and object in the enter the entrance must open and opens and closes.
closes an entrance gate. entrance gate. gate. close.
T2-7 To check whether the Sensor will sense the An object must The exit gate must The exit gate opens
servomotor opens and object in the exit enter the exit open and close. and closes.
closes an exit gate. gate. gate.
T2-8 To check whether the IR The object is placed The sensor will The sensor must The sensor must
sensors sense the object near the sensor. sense the object. sense object and sense object and
correctly. sends signal to sends signal to
Arduino board. Arduino board.
T2-9 To check whether the Give power supply The object must be The LCD must The LCD displayed
LCD displays the slot and test the input. placed in the slot display the slot the slot status
status correctly. to check the status correctly. correctly.
LCD.
T2-10 To check whether the Compile the web Compile the web The web server The web server
ESP8266 NodeMCU server code. server code. display the status displayed the
integrates with the web in the Arduino status in the
server. board correctly. Arduino board
correctly.

Table 6.3 provides the testing of hardware requirements.

TABLE 6.3 Testing for Hardware Requirements⏎

Test Case ID Description Status
T1-1 To check whether Arduino IDE is installed in the system. PASS
T1-2 To check whether Arduino IDE opens correctly. PASS
T1-3 To check whether it implemented the code for Arduino board. PASS
T1-4 To check whether the implemented Arduino board code is executed. PASS
T1-5 To check whether code is implemented on the web server. PASS
T1-6 To check whether the implemented web server code is executed. PASS
T1-7 To check whether the web server integrates with the Arduino board. PASS
T1-8 To check whether the web server displays the slot status. PASS
Test Case ID Description Status
T1-9 To check whether the server allows user to choose the location. PASS
T1-10 To check whether the server allows the user to select a particular area. PASS
T1-11 To check whether the system updates every 3 minutes. PASS
T2-1 To check whether the Arduino board works properly. PASS
T2-2 To check whether the ESP8266 NodeMCU is working properly. PASS
T2-3 To check whether the servomotor is working properly. PASS
T2-4 To check whether the infrared (IR) sensors work properly. PASS
T2-5 To check whether the LCD display is working properly. PASS
T2-6 To check whether the servomotor opens and closes an entrance gate. PASS
T2-7 To check whether servomotor opens and closes an exit gate . PASS
T2-8 To check whether IR sensors sense the object correctly. PASS
T2-9 To check whether LCD displays the slot status correctly. PASS
T2-10 To check whether ESP8266 NodeMCU integrates with the web server. PASS

SOURCE CODE
Arduino Implementation

#include <Servo.h> #include <LiquidCrystal.h>

LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2); const int
analogInPin = A0;
int sensorValue = 0; int servoPin = 10; int i = 90;
Servo servo;
const int analogInPin1 = A1; int sensorValue1 = 0;
int servoPin1 = 9; int i1 = 90;
Servo servo1;
const int analogInPin2 = A2; int sensorValue2 = 0;
const int analogInPin3 = A3; int sensorValue3 = 0;
const int analogInPin4 = A4;
int sensorValue4 = 0;
const int analogInPin5 = A5; int sensorValue5 = 0;
int LIGHT1 = 13; int LIGHT2 = 8; int LIGHT3 = 7; int
LIGHT4 = 6;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600); pinMode(LIGHT1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LIGHT2, OUTPUT); pinMode(LIGHT3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LIGHT4, OUTPUT);
servo.attach(servoPin); servo1.attach(servoPin1);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
}
void loop()
{
lcd.setCursor(1,1); lcd.println("FILL ");
lcd.setCursor(0,0); lcd.println("EMPTY ");
sensorValue2 = analogRead(analogInPin2); if(sensorValue2
< 600){
digitalWrite(LIGHT1, HIGH); Serial.println(LIGHT1);
Serial.println(sensorValue2); lcd.setCursor(6,1);
lcd.println("1 ");
}
else{
digitalWrite(LIGHT1, LOW); Serial.println(LIGHT1);
Serial.println(sensorValue2); lcd.setCursor(6,0);
lcd.println("1 ");
}
sensorValue3 = analogRead(analogInPin3); if(sensorValue3
< 600){
digitalWrite(LIGHT2, HIGH); lcd.setCursor(8,1);
lcd.println("2 ");
}
else{
digitalWrite(LIGHT2, LOW); lcd.setCursor(8,0);
lcd.println("2 ");
}
sensorValue4 = analogRead(analogInPin4); if(sensorValue4
< 600){
digitalWrite(LIGHT3, HIGH); lcd.setCursor(10,1);
lcd.println("3 ");
}
else{
digitalWrite(LIGHT3, LOW); lcd.setCursor(10,0);
lcd.println("3 ");
}
sensorValue5 = analogRead(analogInPin5); if(sensorValue5
< 600){
digitalWrite(LIGHT4, HIGH); lcd.setCursor(12,1);
lcd.println("4 ");
}
else{
digitalWrite(LIGHT4, LOW); lcd.setCursor(12,0);
lcd.println("4 ");
}
sensorValue = analogRead(analogInPin);
if(sensorValue1<700){
if (int i =0; i<=90){ servo.write(i); delay(15);
}
}
else{
if (int i = 90; i>= 0) { servo.write(i); delay(15);
}
}
sensorValue1 = analogRead(analogInPin1);
if(sensorValue<700){
if (int i1 =0; i1<=90){ servo1.write(i1); delay(15);
}
}
else{
if (int i1 = 90; i1>= 0) { servo1.write(i1); delay(15);
}
}
}

Web Server Implementation

#include <ESP8266WiFi.h> #include <WiFiClient.h>

#include <ESP8266WebServer.h> const int ProxSensor=16;
char values;
const int ProxSensor1=5; char values1;
const int ProxSensor2=4; char values2;
const int ProxSensor3=0; char values3;
const char* ssid = "kousigan";
double data;
String readcurrent()
{
long state = digitalRead(ProxSensor); if(state == HIGH)
{
Serial.println(state); values='E';
}
else
{
Serial.println(state);
values='F';
}
return String(values);
}
String readcurrent1()
{
long state1 = digitalRead(ProxSensor1); if(state1 ==
HIGH)
{
Serial.println(state1); values1='E';
}
else
{
Serial.println(state1); values1='F';
}
return String(values1);
}
String readcurrent2()
{
long state2 = digitalRead(ProxSensor2); if(state2 ==
HIGH)
{
Serial.println(state2); values2='E';
}
else
{
Serial.println(state2); values2='F';
}
return String(values2);
}
String readcurrent3()
{
long state3 = digitalRead(ProxSensor3); if(state3 ==
HIGH)
{
Serial.println(state3);
values3='E';
}
else
{
Serial.println(state3); values3='F';
}
return String(values3);
}
<head>
<title>Font Awesome Icons</title>
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,
initial- scale=1">
<link rel="stylesheet"
href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/font-
awesome/4.7.0/css/font-awesome.min.css">
<style>
body {
background-image:
url('https://c4.wallpaperflare.com/wallpaper/590/532/911
/colors-of- the-dawn-wallpaper-preview.jpg');
background-repeat: no-repeat; background-attachment:
fixed; background-size: cover;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<center><font size="11"><p style="color:red;">CAR
PARKING</p></font><center>
<a></a>
<center><p>
<i class="fas fa-car-side" style="font-
size:48px;color:black"> <font size="6"><span class="ds-
labels">CAR PARK1 =</span> <d><span style="color:blue;"
id="values"></span></d></font>
</p></center>
<center><p>
<i class="fas fa-car-side" style="font-
size:48px;color:black"> <font size="6"><span class="ds-
labels">CAR PARK2 =</span> <d><span style="color:blue;"
id="values1"></span></d></font>
</p></center>
<center><p>
<i class="fas fa-car-side" style="font-
size:48px;color:black"> <font size="6"><span class="ds-
labels">CAR PARK3 =</span> <d><span style="color:blue;"
id="values2"></span></d></font>
</p></center>
<center><p>
<i class="fas fa-car-side" style="font-
size:48px;color:black"></i> <font size="6"><span
class="ds- labels">CAR PARK4 =</span> <d><span
style="color:blue;" id="values3"></span></d></font>
</p></center>
</body>
};
xhttp.open("GET", "/values3", true); xhttp.send();
}, 1) ;
</script>
</html>)rawliteral";
String processor(const String& var)
{
if(var == "CAR PARK1")
{
return readcurrent();
}
if(var == "CAR PARK2")
{return readcurrent1();
}
if(var == "CAR PARK3")
{return readcurrent2();
}
if(var == "CAR PARK4")
{return readcurrent3();
}
return String();
}
void setup(){ pinMode(ProxSensor,INPUT);
Serial.begin(115200);
WiFi.begin(ssid, password); //begin WiFi connection
Serial.println("");
// Wait for connection
while (WiFi.status() != WL_CONNECTED) { delay(500);
Serial.print(".");
}
Serial.println(""); Serial.print("Connected to ");
Serial.println(ssid); Serial.print("IP address: ");
Serial.println(WiFi.localIP()); server.on("/", HTTP_GET,
[]()
{
server.send(200, "text/html", index_html);
});
server.on("/values", HTTP_GET, []()
{
server.send(200, "text/plain", readcurrent());
});
server.on("/values1", HTTP_GET, []()
{
server.send(200, "text/plain", readcurrent1());
});
server.on("/values2", HTTP_GET, []()
{
server.send(200, "text/plain", readcurrent2());
});
server.on("/values3", HTTP_GET, []()
{
server.send(200, "text/plain", readcurrent3());
});
server.begin();
Serial.println("Web server started!");
}
void loop(){ server.handleClient();

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

ENHANCEMENTS
This research work has implemented an IoT-based parking system that
checks the status of a parking slot online and implemented it through a
created web server for checking the status of the parking slots. Users can
even add additional features to the server. As a future enhancement, the
researchers would like to improve the efficiency of the server and add
features like reserving parking slots, navigating the user from the entrance
to the slot, and payment options. This will be helpful for the users to search
for parking spaces and it will be user-friendly.

REFERENCES
1. Mazlan, Muhammad & A Hamid, Isredza Rahmi and Kamaludin,
Hazalila. ‘Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Based Car Parking
System’, JOIV: International Journal on Informatics Visualization,
vol. 2, no. 4–2, 2018.
2. Aye, K. Nan, Zin Oo, P. and Naing, W. War. ‘RFID Based Automatic
Multi-storeyed Car Parking System’, International Journal of Science
and Engineering Applications, Vol. 8, no. 07, pp. 172–175, 2019.
3. Abdulkader, Omar, et al. ‘A Novel and Secure Smart Parking
Management System (SPMS) Based on the Integration of WSN,
RFID, and IoT’, 15th Learning and Technology Conference (L&T).
IEEE, 2018.
4. Razinkoval, Anastasia, Chol, Hyun-Chan, and Jeon, Hong-Tae. ‘An
Intelligent Auto Parking System for Vehicle’, International Journal of
Fuzzy Logic and Intelligent Systems, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 226–231,
2012.
5. Azshwanth, D., Koshy, Mithul Titten and Balachander, T. ‘Automated
Car Parking System’, International Conference on Physics and
Photonics Processes in Nano Sciences, vol. 1362, pp. 1–9, 2019.
6. Patil, M. and Bhonge, V. N. ‘Wireless Sensor Network and RFID for
Smart Parking System’, International Journal of Emerging
Technology and Advanced Engineering, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 188–192,
2013.
7. DharmaReddy, P., RajeshwarRao, A. and Ahmed, Dr. Syed Musthak.
‘An Intelligent Parking Guidance and Information System by Using
7 Blockchain-Based Online
Attendance Management System
Latha Parthiban, S Sahunthala, and R Parthiban
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-9

INTRODUCTION
The practice of marking student attendance is traditionally done using a
logbook. New methods of marking attendance have evolved with
automation. But special care must be taken to store the data safely from
later, unauthorized modification. Many applications use the Internet of
Things (IoT) to capture attendance with biometrics. Parents can access the
attendance of their ward and track a problem if there is an issue. For
scholarships, the government can directly access the data.
A blockchain is made up of a growing list of records called blocks that
are linked by encryption. Many blockchain frameworks have been proposed
to integrate it with industrial advancements. Again integrating it with
federated learning helps it work collaboratively in a distributed
environment.

LITERATURE SURVEY
Avoade et al. [1] created a trusted blockchain environment for managing
data. Androulaki et al. [2] created a Hyperledger fabric for blockchain.
Aazam et al. [3] designed an internet cloud of things and resolved most
problems in integration. Makhdoom et al. [4] proposed methods and
solutions for the use of blockchain. Ramezan et al. [5] proposed a routing
protocol for IoT, and Lim et al. [6] proposed an automated attendance
system using IoT. Arbain et al. [7] presented an attendance system based on
the web. Chintalapati et al. [8] developed a face recognition-based
attendance system. A biometric attendance management system [9, 10] and
blockchain-based attendance system [11, 12–13] have also been developed
and implemented [14, 15] .
By using an employee management system, one can create an identity
profile for an employee. The profile can be managed (e.g., editing, creating,
deleting) in the system. Mostly this type of system is highly secure. If the
employee wants to transfer to another branch, management can help by
sending an application for a branch transfer request. If the employee wants
to apply for leave, they can request it through the system. In a university
environment, faculty become the employees and they can use all the
facilities as shown in Figure 7.1.

FIGURE 7.1 System architecture.⏎

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
An online attendance management system was developed with PHP. This
online management system has several modules, including signup, login,
teacher, student, admin, and attendance. In the signup module, the user can
register in the system by providing the required details. For example, the e-
mail column can only be completed with a valid mail ID. The password
should be eight characters long and a combination of uppercase and
lowercase letters. The username and password must not be the same.
In the login module, the user can log in to the online attendance
management system by giving their username and password. In the teacher
module, the teacher can log in with their credentials to mark the daily
attendance of students. In the student module, the student also can log in
with credentials. But they can’t edit the marked attendance. If there is a
mistake in the marked attendance, students can rectify it by informing the
teachers. In the admin module, the admin can also log in by giving their
credentials. They can check attendance status by date, and CRUD (create,
read, update, delete) operations of the student list are performed. The
attendance report counts the presence and absence of students.
The proposed system helps to mark the student’s attendance without any
buffering. Unlike PHP, there is no flexibility when compared to MERN
stack. So, the web application is created with the help of MERN stack
(MongoDb, Expressjs, Nodejs, Reactjs).

Requirements Specification
The use case diagram for the proposed system is provided in Figure 7.2.
The characters involved here are faculty and admin. The setting is to gather
the details from the students and attendance analysis. The analysis is done
using the MERN stack. The class diagram is presented in Figure 7.3 and the
sequence diagram in Figure 7.4.
FIGURE 7.2 Use case diagram.⏎

FIGURE 7.3 Class diagram.⏎

 FIGURE 7.4 Sequence diagram.⏎

The student provides the information in both modules. In the Weka

analysis module, the data collected from the interface is put into the
database, which in turn is imported to the Weka environment for analysis.
The activity diagram is shown in Figure 7.5.
 FIGURE 7.5 Activity diagram.⏎

The data is obtained from the students and analyzed using the two
modules, namely, the Java implementation and Weka analysis. The naive
Bayes algorithm is employed for analysis and the results are visualized.

SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
Modules in System Implementation
Faculty module
Admin module
Architecture Diagram
The architecture (Figure 7.6) represents the overall working of the
attendance management process. It is implemented in two modules:

FIGURE 7.6 Architecture diagram.⏎

1. Admin module
2. Faculty module

Both modules query the details from the admin and faculty, perform the
attendance process, and generate the results. In the first module, the
researcher created the student list using the MERN stack. The reason to
implement this module is to perform the attendance process. Admin can
manipulate the student details and also check the status of the student by
date. Then the report of the attendance process is also generated by the
admin and the report can be viewed by date.
In the second module, the researcher implements marking student
attendance using the MERN stack. A user interface is created using Reacts
and it is connected with the MongoDB database.
The dataset from the MongoDB database is displayed using the
MongoDB Compass software on the faculty panel page. Then the
attendance is marked by the faculty, and the attendance data is stored in the
attendance collection in the MongoDB database. Then the stored attendance
is viewed as a status on the status page.

Modules Description

Faculty Module
In the faculty module, the web page is designed using the MERN stack.
Details like name, gender, department, date of birth (DOB), year, and
section are obtained from the created student list from the MongoDB.
The student list is displayed along with the date and the faculty chooses
the particular department, year, and section to mark the attendance. Then
the faculty is able to view the attendance status that they marked by the
date.

Admin Module
In the admin module, the web page is designed using the MERN stack.
Details like name, gender, department, DOB, year, and section are stored in
the MongoDB database. Only the admin can create the student list and
manipulate the list. Faculty cannot modify the content of the student list.
The status of the marked attendance is checked and maintained in the
MongoDB database.
The report of the attendance is generated and can be downloaded in the
CSV format.

BACKEND IMPLEMENTATION

INDEX.js
//Middleware app.use(morgan('dev'));
//router
const router1 = require('./SchemaRoutes/StudentRouter');
app.use('/',router1);
const router2 =
require('./SchemaRoutes/AttendanceRouter');
app.use('/Attendance',router2);
//LocalHost
//DB Server Creation
mongoose.connect('mongodb+srv://mohanraj:5683263464@mern
-app- ilfch.mongodb.net/Attendance-

Schema
Student Schema
Name: {
},
Regno : {
type: Number, required: true, trim: true,
min : 100000000000,
max : 999999999999
},
Department : {},
DOB : {
now, required:true
},
Year :{
type: Number, min: 1000,
max: 9999, required:true
},
Gender :
},
Section : {, trim : true
},
});
module.exports = mongoose.model('students', Students);

Router Implementation

Student Router}
});
//GET method with
}});
//BY id
({ "err": err });
}
});
//UPDATE method
router.put('/update', async (req, res) => { try {
const updStu = await students.update({ _id: req.body._id
}, {
$set: {
Name: req.body.Name, Regno: req.body.Regno,
Department: req.body.Department, DOB: req.body.DOB,
Year: req.body.Year, Gender: req.body.Gender, Section:
req.body.Section
}});
res.status(200).json(updStu);
} catch (err) {
res.json({ "err": err });}
});
//DELETE methodrouter.put('/:id',async(req,res) => {
router.delete('/delete/:id', async (req, res) => {
try {
const delStu = await students.remove({ _id:
req.params.id }); res.status(200).json(delStu); } catch
(err) {
); }
});

Front End Implementation

Admin Panel
import { Modal, ModalHeader, ModalFooter, ModalBody,
Table, Spinner, Row, Col, For mGroup, Input } from
'reactstrap';
import Navbar from '../Navbar' import Axios from
'axios'; import '../../App.css';
import { MDBBtn, MDBIcon, MDBInput } from "mdbreact";
const clearNullProp = (obj = {}) => {
for (const key in obj)
const getDateLabel = (date, format) => { let dateObj =
new Date(date)
if (format === 'slash') return
dateObj.toLocaleDateString() return
dateObj.toDateString()}
const initFilterObj = { Department: '', Year: '',
Section: ''
}
class AdminDashboard
= {
//initial values modal: false, modal1: false, loading:
false, data: [],
editData: [],
_id: "",
Name: "",
Regno: "", Department: "", Year: "",
DOB: "",
Gender: "",
Section: "", isEdit: false, mode: 'update',
filterObj: { ...initFilterObj }
}
this.isCreateClose = this.isCreateClose.bind(this)
this.infoChange = this.infoChange.bind(this)
this.infoSubmit = this.infoSubmit.bind(this)
this.isCreate = this.isCreate.bind(this) }
isCreate() {
this.setState({ modal: true, mode: 'create' });
}
//modal update isUpdate = (data) => {
this.setState({ modal: true,
...data,
mode: 'update'
}) }
//modal close isCreateClose() {
this.setState({ modal: false,
_id: "",
Name: "",
Regno: "", Department: "", Year: "",
DOB: "",
Gender: "",
Section: "",
});
}
//getting all values form DB componentDidMount() {
this.getAll(); } infoChange = event =>
{
}) }
//Create and update functions infoSubmit = event => {
if (this.state._id === null) { let data = {
Name: this.state.Name, Regno: this.state.Regno,
Department: this.state.Department, DOB: this.state.DOB,
Year: this.state.Year, Gender: this.state.Gender,
Section: this.state.Section }
this.create(data)
} else {
let data = {
}
this.create(data) }
this.isCreateClose() }
//Create and Update API call create = data => {
if (!data._id) {
Axios.post("http://localhost:4000/", data).then(res => {
this.getAll()
}) }
else {
Axios.put("http://localhost:4000/update", data).then(res
=> { this.getAll()
}) } }
//GET all Function getAll() {
let { filterObj } = this.state
// clear null properties
filterObj = clearNullProp(filterObj)
Axios.get("http://localhost:4000/", { params: filterObj
}).then(res => { this.setState({
data: res.data
}) }) }
//delete function del = data => {
var option = window.confirm(`Do You Want To Delete
${data.Name}`) if (option) {
Axios.delete(`http://localhost:4000/delete/${data._id}`)
.then(res => {
this.getAll();
}) } }
viewButton() {
if (this.state.mode === 'update') { return (
<MDBBtn color="success" onClick=
{this.infoSubmit}>Update</MDBBtn>)
}
else {
return (
<MDBBtn color="indigo" onClick=
{this.infoSubmit}>Create</MDBBtn>)
} }
modalHead() {
if (this.state.mode === 'update') { return (
<ModalHeader toggle={this.isCreateClose}>Update
Students</ModalHeader>
) }
else {
return (
<ModalHeader toggle={this.isCreateClose}>Creates
Students</ModalHeader>
) } }
// filter operations handleFilterReset = () => {
this.setState({ filterObj: { ...initFilterObj } },
this.getAll) } handleFilterDepartmentFilterChange = (e)
=> {
const { value } = e.target let { filterObj } =
this.state
filterObj = { ...filterObj, Department: value }
this.setState({ filterObj }, this.getAll) }
handleFilterYearFilterChange = (e) => { const { value }
= e.target
let { filterObj } = this.state
filterObj = { ...filterObj, Year: value }
this.setState({ filterObj }, this.getAll)
}
handleFilterSectionFilterChange = (e) => { const { value
} = e.target
let { filterObj } = this.state
filterObj = { ...filterObj, Section: value }
this.setState({ filterObj }, this.getAll)
}
render() {
const { modal, loading, filterObj: { Department, Year,
Section } } = this.state; const isResetRequired =
Department|| Year|| Section
return (
<div>
<div style={{ marginBottom: '90px' }} >
<Navbar />
</div>
<h3 className="text-
center" style={{fontWeight:'bold', marginBottom:"30px"}}
>Students list</h3>
<Row style={{paddingLeft:"20px"}}>
<Col>
<MDBBtn color="cyan" onClick={this.isCreate}><MDBIcon
icon="plus- circle"/> Create</MDBBtn>
</Col>
<Col >
<FormGroup style={{marginTop:"0.6rem"}}> {/* col form
group margin
-top: 0.5rem; changesss */}
<Input type="select" value={Department} onChange=
{this.handleFilter DepartmentFilterChange}
name="departmentFilter" id="departmentFilter">
<option value="" >Select Department
<option value="ARCHI" >Architechture</option>
</Input>
</FormGroup>
</Col>
<Col>
<FormGroup style={{marginTop:"0.6rem"}}>
<Input type="select" value={Year} onChange=
{this.handleFilterYearFi lterChange}
name="departmentFilter" id="departmentFilter">
</Input>
</FormGroup>
</Col>
<Col>
<FormGroup style={{marginTop:"0.6rem"}}>
<Input type="select" value={Section} onChange=
{this.handleFilterSect ionFilterChange}
name="departmentFilter" id="departmentFilter">
<option value="" >Select Section</option>
</FormGroup>
</Col>
<Col>
{isResetRequired && <MDBBtn color="deep- orange"
onClick={this.handleFilterReset}>Reset</MDBBtn>}
</Col>
</Row>
<Table hover striped responsive borderless>
<thead className="thead-dark">
{loading && <Spinner color="success" />}
{this.state.data.length > 0 && !loading ?
this.state.data.map((e, i) => <tr key={e._id}>
<td>{i + 1}</td>
<td>{e.Name}</td>
<td>{e.Regno}</td>
<td>{e.Department}</td>
<td>{getDateLabel(e.DOB, 'slash')}</td>
<td>{e.Year}</td>
<td>{e.Section}</td>
<td>{e.Gender}</td>
<td><a color="warning" href="# " onClick={event => {
this.isUpdate(e) }}><MDBIcon className="icon" data-
toggle="tooltip" title="Edit" color="#xE147" icon="edit"
/></a></td>
<td><a color="danger" href="# " onClick={evevt => {
this.del(e) }}>< MDBIcon className="icon1" data-
toggle="tooltip" title="Delete" far icon="trash-
alt" /></a></td>
</tr>) : <tr><td>{!loading && 'No results found'}</td>
</tr>
}
</tbody>
</Table>
<div>
Backend Implementation
Figure 7.7 presents the snapshot of the application starting and
Figure 7.8 shows the backend implementation using MERN stack.

FIGURE 7.7 Starting application.⏎

 FIGURE 7.8 Database.⏎

Front End Implementation

Figure 7.9 shows the user interface for the implementation of the
attendance management system.

FIGURE 7.9 Faculty login.⏎

Figure 7.10 shows the attendance status and the submission of user details
into the MongoDB database for the implementation of the attendance
management system. Figure 7.11 shows the status list of the attendance
system.
 FIGURE 7.10 Attendance status.⏎

FIGURE 7.11 Students list.⏎

Figure 7.12 shows the report list of the attendance system.

 FIGURE 7.12 Report list.⏎

Figure 7.13 shows the faculty dashboard of the attendance system.

FIGURE 7.13 Faculty dashboard.⏎

User Manual
Instructions to Run the Project
Install the Nodejs, MongoDB Compass, VSCode editor.

Instructions for Node Analysis

 Open the VSCode editor.
Open the project Folder.
Open the terminal.
Run the command “npm i” to install the required folders.
Run the command “npm run dev” to run the project.

List of Software
NodeJS
MongoDB Compass
VSCode Editor

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

ENHANCEMENTS
The attendance of the students in a university or college and employees of
an organization should be safely maintained and the database must be
completely protected. For this purpose, blockchain is used. This system will
be revolutionary in the future as it will be the safest nonrelational database
to date. The retrieval of information and query processing is much easier.
Though the researchers have incorporated the online attendance
management system using the MERN stack with the basic attendance
process, many future enhancements are required such as adding a specific
login for each department to complete the attendance process.

REFERENCES
1. G. Ayoade, V. Karande, L. Khan and K. Hamlen, “Decentralized IoT
data management using blockchain and trusted execution
environment”, 2018 IEEE International Conference on Information
Reuse and Integration (IRI), pp. 15–22, 2018.
2. E. Androulaki et al., “Hyperledger fabric: A distributed operating
system for permissioned blockchains”, Proceedings of the Thirteenth
EuroSys Conference, pp. 1–15, 2018.
3. M. Aazam, I. Khan, A. A. Alsaffar and E.-N. Huh, “Cloud of things:
Integrating internet of things and cloud computing and the issues
 involved”, Proceedings of 2014 11th International Bhurban
Conference on Applied Sciences & Technology (IBCAST) Islamabad
Pakistan 14th–18th January 2014, pp. 414–419, 2014.
4. I. Makhdoom, M. Abolhasan, H. Abbas and W. Ni, “Blockchain’s
adoption in IoT: The challenges and a way forward”, Journal of
Network and Computer Applications, vol. 125, pp. 251–279, 2019.
5. G. Ramezan and C. Leung, “A blockchain-based contractual routing
protocol for the internet of things using smart contracts”, Wireless
Communications and Mobile Computing, vol. 2018, 2018.
6. T. Lim, S. Sim and M. Mansor, “RFID based attendance system”, 2009
IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics & Applications, vol. 2, pp.
778–782, 2009.
7. N. Arbain, N. F. Nordin, N. M. Isa and S. Saaidin, “LAS: Web-based
laboratory attendance system by integrating RFID-ARDUINO
technology”, 2014 2nd International Conference on Electrical
Electronics and System Engineering (ICEESE), pp. 89–94, 2014.
8. S. Chintalapati and M. Raghunadh, “Automated attendance
management system based on face recognition algorithms”, 2013
IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and
Computing Research, pp. 1–5, 2013.
9. P. Wagh, R. Thakare, J. Chaudhari and S. Patil, "Attendance system
based on face recognition using eigen face and PCA algorithms”,
2015 International Conference on Green Computing and Internet of
Things (ICGCIoT), pp. 303–308, 2015.
10. J. A. Badejo, C. C. Eke, S. I. Popoola, T. O. Odu and A. A. Atayero,
“Integrating automated fingerprint-based attendance into a university
portal system”, 2017 International Conference on Computational
Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), pp. 1016–1020,
2017.
11. M. A. Islam and S. Madria, “A permissioned blockchain based access
control system for IOT”, 2019 IEEE International Conference on
Blockchain (Blockchain), pp. 469–476, 14–17 July 2019.
12. H. Ardina and I. G. B.B. Nugraha, “Design of a blockchain-based
employee attendance system”, 2019 International Conference on ICT
for Smart Society (ICISS), vol. 7, pp. 1–4, 2019.
13. J. Yang, Z. Lu and J. Wu, “Smart-toy-edge-computing-oriented data
exchange based on blockchain”, Journal of Systems Architecture, vol.
87, pp. 36–48, 2018.
14. Naresh Sammeta and Latha Parthiban, “Data ownership and secure
medical data transmission using optimal multiple key-based
homomorphic encryption with hyperledger blockchain”, International
Journal of Image and Graphics, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 2240003, 2023.
15. Naresh Sammeta and Latha Parthiban, “An optimal elliptic curve
cryptography based encryption algorithm for blockchain-enabled
medical image transmission,” Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems,
vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 8275–8287, 2022.

OceanofPDF.com
Section–III Blockchain Security in Healthcare

OceanofPDF.com
8 Blockchain and AI in eHealth
K P Revathi and T Manikandan
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-11

INTRODUCTION
Constant health monitoring of infants and children is used for evaluation of
their vital parameters to avoid death. Noninvasive sensors are used to
monitor the children. The caretaker or the parents can remotely monitor the
child’s vital parameters. Using a wireless sensor network (WSN), health
parameters can be monitored by sending the data via a communication
medium. Machine learning is used to analyze biomedical signals that are
attained from the sensors to perform medical diagnosis. The machine
learning approach detects the diagnosis with a human-like detection
capability. The smart healthcare monitoring system is used to evaluate the
physiological activities of the infant and child condition. These are used to
monitor remotely in the home or hospital. To track the normal activity and
everyday activity of the child, smart child healthcare monitoring is used.
According to recent research, many researchers have developed flexible and
biointegrated sensors to measure the physiological activity of children.
These biointegrated sensors can stretch, bend, and fold into thin layers.
They are small in size and are compatible with nature. They provide high-
quality detection in measuring vital parameters. They are skin safe. They
are soft, skin-like types with a high resolution of input. Different parameters
that are measured are heart rate, pulse rate, lactose, blood pressure, pH
level, emotional disorder, and hemoglobin level of the child and infant. The
Internet of Things (IoT) is used to connect every node to another within the
network. They are very accurate and used for real-time analysis. IoT plays a
vital role in handling critical situations in healthcare. The behavioral
condition and activity pattern of the child and infant are analyzed. These
vital parameters can constantly monitor the health condition to avoid health
deterioration. Some existing systems have many disadvantages and
limitations in collecting, processing, and analyzing data. To avoid those
limitations, IoT is used in the wireless media to track the physiological and
behavioral analyses simultaneously. In this proposed model, the
biointegrated sensors are used to collect the data of the child. A machine
algorithm is used for gathering the information and to monitor the general
status of their health condition. Tracking the health condition continuously
helps to analyze health deterioration in the data records. Classifying the
health condition of the child continuously can detect the abnormality in
their health condition. Child health monitoring is one of the prominent
factors to check and monitor the constant growth of a child. The proper way
of analyzing the behavioral and physiological parameters of a child for 0–3
years and 6–10 years of age is determined. Children’s healthcare monitoring
provides flexible monitoring of their health conditions. To monitor the
physical activity using the framework, the proposed model is implemented.
This framework provides access to the child’s health data. A wearable
sensor is a new development that is initiated to analyze the health of a child.
In the traditional method, direct supervision is needed for analyzing the
health condition of the child. By using this new methodology, the cost of a
hospital and clinical laboratory can be reduced. It gives a routine check-up
of the child’s health and detects early intervention. Some of the early types
of symptoms such as high fever, sweating, breathing difficulty, and
pneumonia can be detected at an early stage. According to the researchers,
viruses can attack the child by attacking the cells in their body. It can cause
vulnerability to their cells. These viruses show an indication of fever. By
detecting the body temperature abnormality, the hyperthermia can be
analyzed. These non-invasive sensors are biodegradable and are safe and
reliable (Figure 8.1).
 FIGURE 8.1 Smart textile type biosensors.

The deaths of children sometimes occur due to sudden infant death

syndrome. To reduce the premature death rate of infants and children, the
continuous monitoring of the vital parameters is analyzed. Machine
learning techniques are used for the computational purpose to predict health
from the dataset. The combination of a smart system and machine learning
will be the best approach to monitor the health of infants/children and to
predict their conditions in health variations. A child who may be unable to
understand their health conditions as they have low immunity and are
unable to communicate with others. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), the death rate of infants and children is increasing
due to the improper balance in their health conditions due to pneumonia and
viruses. Constant monitoring, can identify health issues early. Discomfort
occurs when the traditional way of monitoring in the infant and child is
used. Modern biodegradable sensors are comfortable and can monitor vital
parameters in the home or remote places. Hyperthermia can be detected
early through abnormal variations in the body temperature. The dataset is
recorded from the sensors, which are then analyzed, evaluated, and
validated accordingly. In the recent approach, machine learning plays a
prominent role in the prediction of early intervention using the optimal
prediction analysis. Precise monitoring of different vital parameters is
analyzed. Sensors are low in cost and are effective. Long-term monitoring
can be ensured as they are compact and reliable to use. Everyday
monitoring identifies the behavioral and physiological conditions of infants
and children.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Samira Shamsir et al. [1] wrote a paper that presents the development of
multiple noninvasive sensors to measure physiological parameters using a
smart infant monitoring system. They can evaluate the different vital
parameters such as movement, noise, positioning, temperature, and
humidity. They can also identify the ambient temperature. The acquired
data are processed using the different levels of sensor nodes. In this
proposed model, the system generates alarm signals when a deterioration in
health occurs such as a seizure or apnea. These systems can detect the
critical state of the respiratory system by measuring saturated blood level
and breathing data. These data are analyzed using the machine learning
approach. In this approach, the caretaker can monitor the data by checking
the condition of the patient in a remote location through the wireless
communication medium. These are used in clinical as well as in home-
based environments. Shuai Xu et al. [2] proposed a paper where vulnerable
patients who have neonatal cardiopulmonary can be detected. Detection of
early medical intervention can help the death rate decrease. In the existing
system, these physiological systems require multiple ranges of electrodes.
These electrode wires are linked to which there is a wall-mounted display
of units. In this research, the novelty is the use of wireless and biosensors to
enhance monitoring by reducing generic injuries. These are soft, flexible,
and biotype sensors that are easy and convenient to use. Souri et al. [3]
introduced IoT to monitor the behavioral and physiological conditions of
students. IoT is used for healthcare monitoring where it detects biological
and behavioral parameters of the student. By using the experimental
approach, the results are evaluated where they attain the proper accuracy of
99.1% in the range. Using different machine learning algorithms such as
random forest, decision tree, and neural network, the results are determined.
Abdullah et al. [4] proposed a way to detect lower-back pain. A machine
learning approach was used to assist diagnosing the disease at an early
stage. The significant vital parameters are able to identify the abnormality
in the spinal cord. The data are gathered using the unsupervised learning
approach. Using principal component analysis and the supervised learning
approach, the abnormality in the spinal cord region is determined. From the
comparative analysis, the better performance is evaluated from the KNN
classifier. The KNN classifier has a higher percentage when compared to
the RF classifier approach. Fuentes et al. [5] defined four stages of child
development during which safety and health are important. The child
monitoring system emphasizes the benefits of monitoring health. The
researchers provided the efficiency of the system requirements and different
modules were represented. Joseph et al. [6] proposed a paper about the
body temperature of babies. The main aim of the paper was to ensure that
the temperature is constantly monitored using the smart body temperature
monitoring system. The temperature measures were taken periodically,
especially during the nighttime to identify any irregularity in their
temperature range. This project is a benefit for patients and caretakers as it
reduces their anxiety. Once the body temperature exceeds the threshold
range, the alarm is triggered.
Gupta et al. [7] initiated an efficient way of monitoring the health of
infants using a wearable sensor system and wireless communication. Fully
integrated sensors are used to measure the ECG, CO2, and temperature of
the infant. The wearable sensors set off an alarm or warning signs to
identify the abnormality or sudden infant death syndrome. This system has
some disadvantages:

It does not support Arabic.

There is no portable application for it.
It lacks real-time live video and audio.
It does not include cry identification.
It doesn’t support napping or being awakened.
IoT is always being improved, including its security. Waterproof ultrasonic
obstacle sensors are used for sensing purposes, and these sensors are placed
inside a simple locket that is given or worn by the baby. The locket will
alert the parents or caregiver via mobile. Electrical devices are used for
battery backup, and these devices use energy that is stored inside the
caretaker’s shoes and tracks the steps covered by the caretaker. First, the
maximum and minimum values in each section of the signals curve are
gathered. The frequently recorded maximum and minimum values are
eliminated, and each peak is combined to ensure actual peak values.
The increasing number of crimes against children raises serious concerns
about child safety and tracking. With this as a driving force, an intelligent
IoT device for child safety and tracking was created to help the parents find
and keep an eye on their kids. The system is created utilizing a single board
that has embedded C-programming and interfaced with temperature,
heartbeat, touch, GPS, GSM, and camera modules. The work is innovative
in that when a child is in need of rapid attention during an emergency, the
system instantly notifies the parent or caregiver by sending an SMS.
The child’s sense of touch, body temperature, and heartbeat level are
employed as parameters for the parametric analysis, and the results are
presented. The aforementioned technique assures the safety and monitoring
of children.
Ibrahim et al. [8] proposed a way to monitor the baby using Raspberry Pi
sensors, which provide audio and video, and record the daily activities of
the baby. It has cry detection and it supports the Arabic language. This
proposed research was compared with the current system where it works in
an efficient manner. Tupe et al. [9] wrote a paper on the methodology of a
unique way of monitoring the healthcare of children. Using the framework,
the physical condition of the child is progressed to reduce health
vulnerabilities as the child grows. This framework provides information
with flexibility and compatibility. Alam et al. [10] initiated a novel
approach to classify the medical data using the classified approach. Feature
ranking implements the medical dataset by using a ranking algorithm. The
random forest algorithm predicts the features according to the high rank
where it constructs the predictor. Using the different predictors approach,
ten predictors were evaluated and performed using similar datasets.
Ranking is performed using the tenfold cross-validated performance.
Shreelatha et al. [11] presented a paper to provide a better way to protect the
infant. Raspberry Pi is used for the advanced baby monitoring system.
These monitor different parameters such as temperature, movement, and
humidity. The camera is used to view the child by sending real-time video
to their caretaker. In this approach, PIR sensors and sound sensors are used
to measure the parameters. LEDs blink when the baby’s crying and the
system reminds caretakers of feeding and medication times.
Patil and Mhetre [12] initiated a GSM-based child screen framework.
This framework detects important limits such as internal heat level,
moisture status, heart rate, fetal development, and the use of GSM
organization, and this information is sent to family members. Guardians can
be alerted of boundary nuances so that any move can be made. A single
microcontroller controls a set of sensors for detecting important parameters,
an LCD display, a GSM connection point, and sound alerts.
This framework has a few drawbacks:

An Arabic language support is not available.

Neither the awake nor the sleep feature is supported.
It is unable to detect humidity or room temperature.
The cry detection feature is absent.
There is no mobile application for it.
It lacks real-time audio and video streaming.

Ferreira et al. [13] designed a wearable framework to monitor for sudden

infant death syndrome, one of the significant reasons for death among
newborn children during rest. The wearable IoT gadget is a remote sensor
hub coordinated into a chest belt, and it screens for internal heat level, heart
and breathing rates, and body position. In case of an emergency, the device
will set off a visual and audible alarm and send a message to a mobile app.
Leier and Jervan [14] proposed a framework for checking children that
can identify their primary vital signs and communicates the results to the
control device, for example, a cell phone, over a remote connection. It is
possible to use this framework in a variety of potentially life-threatening
situations by monitoring the symptoms long term.
Suresh et al. [15] proposed the Advanced Baby Care System (ABCS) to
help parents keep track of their child and their surroundings. The ABCS is
equipped with an Ace Regulator (Arduino Mega 2560), which integrates all
of the device’s different modules by gathering vital signs from the sensor
modules and sending messages to the trigger warnings.
Mothukuri and Prathap Kumar [16] developed a wireless Patient
Monitoring System (PMS). The device measures heartbeat, temperature,
and level of oxygen in the blood. The paper examines the plan and
improvement of the low-cost device that utilizes GSM technology for
observing patients.
The care of children is taken into very careful consideration, especially
children who are very young, sick, and have severe restrictions on their
ability to move around, communicate, and think. Additionally, children’s
immune systems are weak. Busy parents, a lack of parental understanding
about health care, and a lack of parental awareness to monitor a child’s
health can all contribute to the lack of care, which can ultimately disrupt a
child’s growth, development, and healthcare process. The holistic
healthcare framework that is suggested in this paper [16] may be
customized to each child’s needs and allows for the accurate, direct
distribution of information to parents, caregivers, pediatricians, and
hospitals. A smartphone belonging to a parent or nanny will be instantly
provided with health care reminders and information. Parents can also dial a
hospital or pediatrician with only one click in case of an emergency. To
make it easier for parents and pediatricians to keep track of a child’s health,
all of the child’s daily information—including information on their diet,
activities, medications, and treatments—will be stored in an electronic
medical record (EMR) and shown as a chart. Finally, the application of this
holistic framework shields the child against numerous hazardous situations
affecting their health, such as a medication problem or error regarding
nutrition and exercise or inadequate healthcare.
Palaskar et al. [17] suggested a similar automated infant monitoring
device. When crying is heard, a low-cost technology swings the cradle until
the infant stops crying. The integrated alert sounds when one of the
following occurs: the infant won’t stop crying or the mattress is damp.
Above the cradle is a video camera monitoring the child. However, parents
are limited to receiving the system communications and cannot control it;
they only receive SMS notifications. The system uses an IoT application to
monitor the child and remotely operate the smart cradle in real time.
 Harper and Blea [18] proposed an intensifier circuit for boosting the
received sound signal as part of the child cry recognizer. The heartbeat
generator circuit creates a heartbeat sign or pulse rate with 0 intersections
that are lined up with 0 intersections of the amplified signal of sound as a
result of the stronger sound signal. The beat signal is provided as an input to
a signal affirmation circuit. The signal confirmation circuit produces a
signal that indicates a baby’s cry was heard.
Revathi and Manikandan [19] proposed a system that has an inbuilt
alarm and GPS/GSM module that alerts users when a child crosses a
physical boundary and needs assistance. By simultaneously calling and
sending an SMS alarm, this method enables parents and other caregivers to
take care of youngsters without having to physically attend to them. Parents
can obtain the information from the system specified in the article to start
the appropriate management measures, and it uses the cloud to monitor
factors like baby cry, environment temperature, and moisture conditions. A
system that monitors important characteristics like body temperature, heart
rate, and moisture status was proposed by Wesseler et al. [20]. The specifics
of the child’s condition are communicated to the parents via GSM. The
following equipment components are used: a temperature sensor, a moisture
sensor, a pulse rate sensor, an LCD display, a motion sensor, and a GSM
module. The suggested framework featured a web application from which
the sensor data could be shown remotely.

RELATED WORK
Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of objects connected to the
internet. Devices may now transmit sensor data online without human
interaction. IoT incorporates several devices and expands quickly due to its
broad phase. According to predictions, there will be about 26.66 billion IoT
devices operating by 2019 and 75 billion IoT devices available and
wirelessly connected online by 2025. Millions of wearable sensors are
among these connected gadgets, and they are extensively used in healthcare
systems. IoT-related spending reached $737 billion globally in 2016 and
was expected to reach $1.29 trillion by 2020. IoT is a fantastic industry with
tremendous growth potential. Control, real-time monitoring, and
independence or autonomous work and efficiency are all functions of IoT.
IoT tries to make life easier, and people frequently invest in products that
make their lives easier. This may be one of the primary reasons why IoT is
so popular. As a result, the number of IoT applications is increasing across
numerous industries. IoT was incorporated into the child monitoring system
in this study to improve response times and provide parents a better sense of
security.
The IoT’s organizational structure as it relates to medical care
applications aids in integrating the benefits of distributed computing and
IoT innovation with the area of medicine. Additionally, it disperses the
protocols for communicating patient data from various sensors and clinical
devices to a specific medical care organization. The geography of a
healthcare IoT (HIoT) is the overall framework or network of various IoT
medical services that are well-connected in a healthcare environment. A
fundamental HIoT framework consists of the distributor, the representative,
and the endorser. The distributor speaks to a group of connected sensors and
other medical devices that may or may not operate together to record the
patient’s vital information. Circulatory strain, pulse, temperature, oxygen
saturation, ECG, EEG, and other measurements may be included in this
information. The distributor might continually convey this data to a
professional through the company. The dealer is responsible for managing
and storing the collected data on the cloud. Finally, the supporter
appreciates having constant access to and visual representations of the
patient’s data via a mobile device, computer, tablet, etc. When the
distributor notices any physiological oddity or debasement in the patient’s
illness, they can handle this knowledge and offer feedback. A specific
object is committed to each component of the IoT organization and cloud in
the healthcare organization. It is difficult to suggest a widespread
architecture for HIoT since the configuration depends on the interest in and
use of medical care. A HIoT framework has historically embraced a number
of fundamental modifications. While developing another IoT-based medical
care framework for ongoing patient monitoring, it is crucial to drill down
entirely relevant tests associated with the optimal well-being application.
The IoT framework’s outcome significantly depends on how items conform
to the requirements of healthcare providers. The configuration should
adhere to the clinical recommendations and processes in the decision-
making process because every ailment necessitates a complex system of
medical care exercises.

Sensor
Sensors detect stimuli and change it into information. Normal sensors like
the temperature sensor estimate the intensity of an item. Closeness sensors
are used to identify the proximity of objects. Strain sensors ascertain the
pressure applied. Optical sensors can detect light intensity. Humidity
sensors will distinguish the presence of water vapor in the air. Miniature
sensors are intended to gather and transfer data about the climate.

Cloud
Distributed computing implies shared registering assets (networks, servers,
stockpiles, applications, and administrations) are conveyed over the web
from cloud to client. As indicated, the cloud is an interconnected
organization of servers offering types of assistance for individuals or
organizations. The cloud upholds continuous, as a matter-of-fact activity,
handling, investigating, associating, making due furthermore, and getting
IoT gadgets along with applications. What’s more, it decreases cost since
clients are paying in light of utilization without building the physical
foundation. It also permits engineers to make projects quicker. Associations
can likewise get to big data from the cloud. The purpose of the cloud is to
decrease handling trouble on clients. Therefore, various devices such as
PCs, smartphones, and other tech-savvy phones are equipped to access
different utility programs, storage, and application development platforms
over the internet.

Machine Learning in Healthcare

Healthcare use of artificial intelligence (AI) calculations helps in isolating
perplexing and wide examples of information and records. For those with
complex genomes and proteomics, this strategy is particularly well suited
for clinical applications. Different issues are additionally recognized and
distinguished utilizing it. Profound learning calculations are used in clinical
innovations to create a patient treatment plan. Drug machine learning can
be utilized in different ways, including:

1. Infection detection and confirmation

2. Customized change in treatment/lead
3. Drug revelation/fabricate
4. Audit of clinical test results
5. Radiology and radiation treatment
6. Health electronic records (HERs)
7. Anticipating epidemics

Machine Learning Algorithms in IoT

An astute locally situated remote medication box with an Android
(healthcare IoT) application was assessed and detailed by the creators in
request to further develop correspondence between patients and specialists.
On the recommended stage, a smart medication box is accessible that
advises patients when to take their prescription. The system provides brief
notifications of medications prescribed to the patient’s mobile through the
Android application, with the added feature of remote web access. The
patient gets the legitimate medication at the suitable time thanks to the
machine’s robotized warning. Moreover, the preset defender gets SMS
warnings if any basic signs change. While the paper proposes a procedure
or structure for observing patients’ restorative use. It allows for the
following of physician-recommended meds and directions. The framework
recommends utilizing alerts to the patient. Clinical specialists frequently
find infusions errors, and the e-health idea stops the disadvantages of
customary gadgets. This smarter framework works better than traditional
methods and is more modest, less expensive, more exact, and lighter. The
recommended procedure could make it simpler for all senior people to take
their prescriptions on time. As the world’s population ages, there is more
need to track down methods for helping people in their day-to-day
existence. In such a manner, the Web of Things could give another aspect to
current medical services by empowering a more individualized deterrent,
and cooperative style of treatment.
This study advises professionals of an IoT for following and recording
their patients’ basic information while supporting crisis alert frameworks.
The review proposes utilizing a wristband that might be connected to a
cloud server to screen and help older people. It is expected to become a
profitable remote systems administration arrangement. The qualities of a
brain–computer interface utilizing different sensors, for example,
electroencephalography (EEG), were examined in research. Envision
utilizing a dissemination tensor (rsfMRI) to see and concentrate data from
an epileptic patient’s mind. For a methodology continuously utilizing
advances to track, assess, and screen the brain, the proposed strategy
incorporates frontline PCs. This guides in the early discovery and treatment
of epilepsy.
The focus of this study is to foresee an “ictal beginning.” Thorough
study should be completed to oblige these novel requirements on the
grounds that medical care frameworks need an organization structure that
can empower QoS provisioning for video and time-delicate applications.
Further, the article discusses the utilization of AI in medical services.
Medical services will be influenced by AI in a couple of years. Later on,
machine learning and artificial intelligence will change medical care,
however, execution of their decision support systems (DSS) ought to give
insight into issues looked at by patients and clinical experts. Large
companies like Enclitic, Med Aware, and Google have made attempts at
insight and innovation for the medical services industry. Successful medical
services suppliers can’t simply maintain for the time being. Man-made
brainpower and AI will expand the effectiveness and precision. The sharing
of such innovation could move along medical care administrations and
lower medical services costs. IoT and medical care investigation are the
significant focal points of the article. Big data analytics (BDA) is the
aftereffect of the advancement of two related software engineering fields
that cooperate to provide businesses information. Since a product is
equipped for shipping, delivering, and trading involving a lot of
unstructured, coordinated information, business experts make up the
majority of big data clients. IoT increases the data capacity and trade across
electronic and sensor-based devices. When making decisions humans
consider their personalities, moral principles, information on the world, and
political convictions. However, these components may be troublesome for
information assortment used for learning. Machines are not predisposed to
these hindering concerns. More client wellbeing will come about because of
conquering machine learning and IoT imperfections. This paper also
attempts to discuss the general viewpoint of IoT and machine learning that
are utilized in the medical care framework, the applications utilized for
customized medical care, and some other related works and their
viewpoints with their discoveries of this field. It will additionally examine
the difficulties and issues that confront computerized medical care.

Wi-Fi Module
The Wi-Fi module is utilized for the process. Since it has Wi-Fi capabilities,
the ESP8266 can either host an application or delegate all Wi-Fi networking
tasks to another application. A newborn’s health condition data will be
automatically uploaded into the cloud storage from linked devices so the
data is available everywhere in the world and is accessible to parents and
doctors during examinations.

GSM Modem
The term “GSM” stand for to Global System for Mobile Communications,
which is used to establish a connection between a mobile device and a GSM
modem. In order to enable connection with the network, GSM modems
need a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a 12V power source, and a
communication interface like RS232. The GSM modem uses the AT-
Commands to facilitate communication.

METHODOLOGY
Textile Biosensors
Biosensors are highly flexible and user-interactive. They are user-friendly
for the purpose of health monitoring. These devices can simplify the
transmission of signals, minimize delay, and reduce noise. This wearable
health monitoring device is comfortable on the skin and enhances sensing
accuracy from the human body. These stretchable sensors are used to
measure the heart rate by detecting the electrical activity in the heart. These
elastic substrates have photodetectors to emit light from a source on the
surface of the skin.

Heart Rate
The volumetric ranges of variations of blood that is circulated all over the
body are determined using heart rate (also see Table 8.1). Wearable sensors
pay attention to the vital signals of the infant and child. They are small in
size, low in cost, and consume less power. The electrical activity is
measured from the P wave, T wave, and QRS complex. Traditional methods
of using gel electrodes are harmful to children’s skin. To avoid that, textile
electrodes that are highly conductive and flexible are used. The reliable
integration inside the clothing is convenient as it avoids direct contact with
elements and children. Rather than using conventional gel electrodes, the
textile electrodes are used where it is convenient and the signal quality is
comparatively high with the accurate level of beat detection of the heart
rate. The heart rate indicates the change in the emotional stability of the
child or infant by their increase in the heart beat rate per minute.

Body Temperature Sensor

The body temperature is measured using a thermoelectric effect that is
noninvasive. These thermostats are embedded in clothing and accurately
measure the skin temperature range. The temperature sensor, such as the
LM35, is used with the textile sensor to attain the accurate value.
Photodiodes are used to detect the reflected light from the skin. Minimum
levels of light are observed during the contraction of the heart. Since the
temperature varies according to the room temperature, the ambient
temperature is validated.

Blood Pressure Sensor

The blood saturation level is detected using a pressure sensor such as a
sphygmomanometer sensor. They can analyze the data by the infrared
reflection of the heartbeat rate. This device continuously measures the rate
of the blood pressure by using the capacitive type of sensitive strain
sensors. They are compressible and use robust electrodes. They use a
piezoelectric capacitive strain sensor where it induces the generation of
voltage. They are compressible orders made of plastic. The reflectivity
activity of the data determines the systolic behavior of the heartbeat.

Respiration Sensor and Pulse Oximetry

The organic photodiode is used to develop the flexible pulse range of the
oximeter. Piezo-resistive sensors are used inside the clothing or fabric to
attain the respiration rate of the child. During inhalation and exhalation, the
indirect lung movement is attained by using the piezo-resistive sensors.
When the blood level reduces, hypoxemia can occur. Different oxygenated
blood is measured, such as tissue oxygenated level, venous oxygenated
level, and peripheral oxygenated level.

Hemoglobin
By using the photodiode, the volume and the concentration of hemoglobin
in blood are determined by using the light absorption. Organic types of
sensors are mounted inside, which consist of the photodiode and other
sensors to detect the oxygenation level in the blood. These physical signal
biosensors have motion detection to analyze the movement of the child. The
ambient temperature is attained by using the LM35 sensor. The pH level
and the lactic acid level are measured by using the biosensors. Biosensors
are compatible and are less expensive. The hemoglobin level is used to
identify any abnormality in the volume of the blood.

PIR Motion Sensor

A passive infrared (PIR) sensor is basically made of a pyroelectric sensor
that can distinguish levels of infrared radiation. A PIR sensor recognizes the
infrared light emitted by a warm stimulus. It contains pyroelectric sensors
that present changes in their temperature (in light of episode infrared
radiation) into electric signals. Exactly when infrared light strikes a
valuable stone, it creates an electrical charge. Likewise, a PIR sensor can be
used to recognize the proximity of people inside an area of around 14
meters.

Sound Sensor
One form of module utilized to hear the baby’s sound is the sound sensor.
Typically, the sound sensor outputs true or false values. The result is 1 if the
sensor hears sound. If not, the value is 0. This allows us to determine if the
infant is sleeping or awake.

Ambient Temperature
The temperature in a room that measures the humidity in the air is called
the ambient temperature. Along with the crucial metrics, the temperature
and humidity of the room are measured. To check if surroundings are warm
or cold to achieve a pleasant temperature state, it is important to take into
account both the temperature and humidity. Heat-sensing devices are
incorporated to measure the environment’s ambient temperature.

CONSTRUCTION
Raw Data Collection
The raw data that are sent from the smart biosensors are integrated using the
wireless communication. By using the wireless network, the raw signal is
attenuated and collected in the cloud storage. The stored data are raw,
unprocessed data. The unprocessed data have to be filtered and processed to
avoid any signal distortion. Signal distortion has to be reduced to avoid the
minimal loss. The child’s data are analyzed according to their physical
conditions. In general, the raw signal has noise distortion and random
interference, which can increase the error percentage.

Data Preprocessing
Raw data are processed to remove the noise distortion in the dataset values.
By preprocessing the data, the format is getting changed in an effective
way. The data are cleansed, encoded, and transformed into the known set of
values by using the preprocessing technique. The unknown set of missing
values data are disrupted accordingly. It changes the data into an
understandable format for further use.

Trained Dataset
The data are trained using the initial dataset and used to help the program.
Each dataset is processed using the training model. The model can label and
enrich the data by increasing the accuracy. To build a trained model, the set
of information is processed. The model is tested and validated according to
their typeset. For prediction purposes, an algorithm is used to train the
model of the dataset. The data are organized according to their trained set of
models.

Data Annotation
Data annotation is used to add the metadata to the dataset. It is mainly used
for labeling the dataset. It cleans up the data by annotating the dataset using
a pipeline method. The machine learning approach is used to train the
model of the dataset, so that the machine can be able to understand its
format. It can make the machine easily understand the format by
memorizing their input patterns.

Data Validation
After training the data, the data gets validated before the transmission
power. It checks whether the data is accurate by analyzing the dataset. The
validated dataset is sent to the actual model to check whether it is free from
error. The quality of the data is checked by validating the dataset. Each
sample data is trained by using the training model by checking the null
values or missing values. It removes the null values or the missing values to
ensure that the data validation is complete. The preceding processes and
flow are featured in Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.3.
FIGURE 8.2 Architecture diagram.⏎
 FIGURE 8.3 Flowchart representation.⏎

TABLE 8.1 Vital Parameter Ranges⏎

Parameter Infant (0–3 Infant (0–3 Child (6–10 Child (6–10 Electrode
years) years ) years) years)
Condition Normal Abnormal Normal Abnormal Biosensors with textile
sensors
Heart rate 90–150 bpm >160 bpm 70–100 bpm >140 bpm Photodetector
Systolic blood 80–107 mm/Hg >108 95–110 >110 Sphygmomanometer
pressure
Diastolic blood 55–70 >70 60–73 >73 Sphygmomanometer
pressure
Pulse rate 55–110 beats >110 beats 70–118 >118 Photodetector
Temperature sensor 94.5–99.1°F >100.1°F 95.9–99.5°F 100.4°F Thermocouple/thermistors
pH level 7.32–7.49 >7.49 7.35–7.45 >7.45 Photodetector
Lactic acid 0.5–2.2 mmol/L >2.2 mmol/L 4.5–19.8 mg/dl >19.8 Organic biosensor
Hemoglobin 9.5–13 g/dL >13 g/dL 11.9–15.0 g/dL >15 g/dL Emitter and photo detector
Respiration rate 30–60 bpm >60 bpm 20–30 bpm >30 bpm Organic photodiode

IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS

Machine Learning Approach
Machine learning is used to classify and predict the data by labeling the
data. Each data is labeled and unlabeled according to its specific conditions.
Machine learning uses the known set of values to predict the result
outcomes. The accuracy of the results is said to be the output. Machine
learning algorithms classify the trained datasets. Machine learning is used
to predict the disease by diagnosing it using the examination of both
physiological and environmental factors. In machine learning, the
supervised learning approach is used to classify and predict the dataset as it
emphasizes the patterns from the data. For distinguishing the feature, the
output is predicted. It can validate the dataset by using the cross-validation
technique. The machine learning framework is depicted with details in
Figure 8.4b.
 FIGURE 8.4A Blockchain in healthcare.⏎

Support Vector Machine

Support vector machine (SVM) is one of the types of supervised machine
learning that is used to decide the boundary of multiple classes by
performing various analyses of input within the dataset. It points at the
position of the greatest possible distance between two data points in each
class. It uses binary linear categorization as its main objective. It helps to
highlight the model of a higher dimension. In the nonlinear model, it uses a
kernel technique to map or plot within the high-dimensional space. The
decision boundary between two different classes is using SVM. SVM
supports every data point in the course entry of mapping the data. SVM can
predict the distance between two data points where the scaling ranges from
0 to 1. For classification purposes, K-SVM is performed.

Random Forest Classifier

Random forest is one of the significant methods used to integrate multiple
models. The extensive ranges of datasets are classified with compatibility
by using a random forest algorithm. Bootstrap aggregation and bagging
models integrate multiple models of data. Model variants are reduced by
using the bagging technique to prevent overfitting. Decision entries are used
to specify the data point by attaining various outcomes in the decision tree.
It was classified in the majority value by attaining the average value. In
terms of prediction, a combined decision approach is better in performance
than a single decision approach. Random samples are taken from the
training dataset. It chooses the attributes from each training dataset and
selects the data point from the tree. Random samples are taken from the
training dataset. It chooses the attributes from each training dataset and
selects the data point from the tree. These features are selected according to
their ranking scores.
Step 1: Select a random set of K features from the total set of m features such as K<<m.
Step 2: From the K features calculate the node p by using the split point in the dataset.
Step 3: By using the split node, split the node p into daughter nodes.
Step 4: Repeat the process until the number of nodes is reached.
Step 5: Build a forest by using the number of ways (n) to create trees by repeating the same
process.

KNN Classifier
The KNN classifier is a popular machine learning approach used for
classification and regression tasks. In this model, the unlabeled data points
and the existing set of training dataset distances are determined in the
featured set of stored space. It is highly compatible for predicting classes.
The nearest set of data points are validated according to the K value of new
observations. This KNN classifier can allocate the predicted classes
according to class label volume. The optimized set of KNN algorithm
generates a neighbor only with a positive relationship to the requester. It can
evaluate the weight of the adjacent neighbor. The weight of the adjacent
neighbor is determined by using the KNN algorithm by measuring the
distance function. Different types of continuous distance function variables
are used to weight the adjacent neighbor. By using the KNN classifier
algorithm, the distance functions of the test and training data can be
validated. The algorithmic steps to be followed are:
Step 1: Load the dataset of values.
Step 2: After loading the data, initialize the set of values of k.
Step 3: For prediction purposes, use the iterate set of values from 0 to the total range of the
training set of data points.
Step 4: Euclidean distance d(x, y) is used to measure the distance metrics by calculating the
distance between the training data and the test data.
Step 5: After calculating the data, sort the distance in ascending order.
Step 6: Gather the k set of rows from the sorted type of array.
Step 7: Gather the frequent class from each row.
Step 8: After the prediction, the process is returned to the original state.
Blockchain in Healthcare
The distributed and safe method to collect and gather transactions is
provided by blockchain technology. A blockchain stores information and
offers advantages including privacy, interoperability, and audits of an
immutable nature. It uses a digital ledger of transactions that distributes the
networks throughout the computer system to duplicate the complete
network. It creates a chain of immutable blocks using a decentralized,
digital ledger of transactions. The public key and private key are used in the
blockchain technology to verify validity. The storing of a child’s health
information is controlled by blockchains. By using digital transactions, the
application notifies the health records. The decentralized system is used to
eliminate the point of failure or delay in order to eliminate traffic flows. It
can guarantee the information’s scalability and robustness. The signature is
used to identify the user’s identification and to verify the data. The
blockchain can be used to boost scalability by adding more nodes. Data
storage in the cloud server is encrypted by using common cryptographic
techniques. Given the sensitivity of health data records, the digital signature
is authenticated in order to examine user data (Figure 8.4a).

Comparative Analysis
Each dataset is validated by using the performance of the model. By using
the different algorithms, the data are formatted where each data is
normalized ranging from both the positive values and negative values.
Some of them are overfitted and are validated to avoid any set of potential
bias. In the training step process, the predicted value is tested. Different
parameters are validated to attain the train and test values, such as positive
value, precision, and recall, to validate the cross-validations. From the
outcome of the ROC curve, the prediction is validated as it occurs from the
test data values. Some of the data validations are calculated as follows:

Sensitivity = TP

T P +F N
; Specificity = FP

T N +F P
; Precision = TP

T P +F P
; Recall =
TP

T P +F N
;

Accuracy = T N +T P

T N +T P +F P +F N
 The dataset is from the Pima Indian research center. Nine attributes
were taken from the children’s vital parameters (Table 8.2). TP is the
number of children who have an abnormality in their vital parameters,
TN is the number of children who are healthy, FP is the number of
children who have an abnormality in their vital condition, and FN is the
number of children who are found to be normal. The features extracted
are ranked according to their evaluation. The evaluated dataset uses each
feature in the context according to the output variable. Based upon the
Pima dataset from the medical records, the number of features is
determined. Both the training dataset and testing dataset are combined for
the predictive results. The feature extraction is used to reduce the number
of features by using the dataset (Figure 8.5a). The dataset is created by
using the new features from the existing features. The results of a
comparison on the basis of accuracy and computational burden are
shown in Figure 8.5b and Table 8.3.

FIGURE 8.4B Machine learning framework.⏎

 FIGURE 8.5A Feature extraction process.

FIGURE 8.5B Comparative analysis of machine learning

algorithms.⏎

TABLE 8.2 Attributes from Data Record⏎

Attribute Infant (0–3 Child (6–10 Number of Training Testing
years) years) Features Samples Samples
Heart rate 140 bpm 110 bpm 7 44 166
Systolic blood 98 mm/Hg 100 mm/Hg 8 67 46
pressure
Diastolic blood 65 70 9 24 67
pressure
Pulse rate 105 beats 108 beats 15 35 77
Temperature sensor 98.1°F 99.1°F 17 36 98
pH level 6.55 7.01 19 78 78
Lactic acid 1.7 mmol/L 17 mmol/L 21 43 54
Hemoglobin 10 g/dL 13 g/dL 34 68 49
Respiration rate 40 bpm 20 bpm 56 85 98
 TABLE 8.3 Comparative Analysis
Performance
ML Algorithm Accuracy Specificity Recall Precision Sensitivity
SVM 78% 80% 79.0% 69% 56%
KNN classifier 84.5% 82.4% 71.5% 77% 78%
Random forest 86% 83.3% 80% 84% 80%

CONCLUSION
The chapter analyzes the smart ways of monitoring child health using
noninvasive sensors. By using textile biosensors, the constant monitoring of
health parameters is detected. Child health monitoring is one of the
prominent factors to check and monitor the constant growth of a child.
Constant monitoring of the system can detect any early abnormalities in
their health conditions. A machine algorithm is used for gathering the
information and to monitor the general status of their health conditions.
These types of physical and smart biosensors are small in size, flexible, low
in cost, and low in power consumption. Everyday monitoring identifies the
behavioral and physiological conditions of an infant or child. The proper
way of analyzing the behavioral and physiological parameters of a child 0–
3 years and 6–10 years of age is determined. In this futuristic approach, the
detection of ailments by analyzing the different diseases can be analyzed.
By using the comparative approach over the dataset of the records, the
random forest method has the highest accuracy at 86% than the two other
algorithms. The machine learning approach is widely used in modern
healthcare applications as it attains precise results and good performance
accuracy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by Supervisor T. Manikandan, Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering
College, Chennai, India.

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OceanofPDF.com
9 Blockchain-Driven Solutions for
IoT Data Security in Healthcare
P K Jawahar, S Mubeena, V Jean Shilpa, R Anitha,
and S Anusooya
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-12

INTRODUCTION
Recently, the trends and technology advancements of the Internet of Things
(IoT) have made it possible for automation, data collection, and analytics in
numerous industries. Communication between physical devices is made
possible via the IoT, for example, using sensors for the collection and
exchange of data with other devices over the internet. The hub connects
various devices, gathers real-time data, analyzes it, and shares it locally.
The applications of IoT include smart water and smart healthcare level
monitoring, smart solar panels, smart home, smart waste management, and
smart agriculture.
The Internet of Things makes it possible for the connectivity of
inventory materials, over the Internet; information can be delivered or
received. IoT has an impact on a variety of technologies, including
embedded systems, artificial intelligence sensors, and real-time analysis.
Smart devices can gather information and transmit it to perform specific,
everyday life tasks. Smart cities, networked healthcare systems, intelligent
transportation systems, and various other IoT applications are now
accessible. IoT implementation in the medical sector is centered on a
variety of sensors, medical devices, AI, diagnostic tools, and high-tech
imaging equipment [1].
After the data has been connected to the control systems and collected
from the sensors near or on patients, it is transmitted to the health
monitoring unit. The cloud is used to store data, which helps manage the
amount of data while preserving security. Since it is challenging to encrypt
data from minimal-resource devices, security is a vital aspect of IoT. When
data is sent from the sensor to the cloud, there is a chance that its integrity
and confidentiality will be compromised. Due to its distributed nature, the
cloud is the best option for storing health information that is simple for
clinicians to gain access to while providing care for patients who reside far
away. IoT and cloud use real-time processing, which increases complexity
[2].
IoT is a bulk of networks that connect devices that are recognized,
verified, and linked through cloud servers under the server–client paradigm,
needing a huge amount of computing power and storing space.
Additionally, communication between the devices must happen over the
internet regardless of how close they are to one another. Although this
approach works well for small IoT systems, it cannot be scaled. It is
expensive to set up a large number of communication connections, run
centralized clouds, and connect the complete equipment for large-scale IoT
networks [3].

LITERATURE REVIEW
Sun et al. [3] propose storing medical data in the blockchain, which may be
made secure and impenetrable by developing associated smart contracts.
The plan leverages attribute-based access management to allow dynamic
and granular access to that data. Additionally, IPFS technology is
implemented into this system to decrease the storage-related issues on the
blockchain. Tests show that the proposed system in this study ensures not
only the integrity and safe storage of healthcare data but also increases
efficiency when requesting access to that data. Prior to storing medical data
in the blockchain, which may be made secure and impenetrable by
developing associated smart contracts, the plan leverages attribute-based
access management to allow dynamic and granular access to that data.
Ray et al. [1] focus on the Integration of blockchain and IoT technology
as a logical option for creating a distributed IoT-based healthcare system.
This paper discusses e-health and how it is used to assess popular
blockchain consensus techniques. It assesses the blockchain platform’s
suitability for IoT-based electronic healthcare. Several practical application
scenarios are provided to demonstrate how major IoT and blockchain
capabilities could be used to assist healthcare services and ecosystems. It
also provides a health data flow architecture, which unifies blockchain, and
e-healthcare data can be stored, managed, and accessed through IoT.
Control over access to private medical data is possible using a
blockchain technology data sharing permission paradigm. By using smart
contracts, one can dynamically express consent about their health
information and make the information searchable and available to data
requesters. On the Ethereum blockchain, researchers put the idea into
practice and evaluated several data-sharing scenarios. The model for
individual permission for networks that share healthcare information has
been developed as a result of the work by Jaiman and Urovi [4]. According
to the assessment of the solution, such a data exchange architecture offers
data requesters a flexible decision-making strategy regarding data
utilization. The experimental evaluation demonstrates the efficacy of the
suggested approach and its ability to adapt to customized access control
settings in various data-sharing scenarios.
Gadekulla et al. [5] state decentralized, immutable, and traceable
blockchain networks have the potential to reconfigure and revolutionize
current IoT systems and provide them with improved degrees of security. A
fresh paradigm known as BEoT, which combines the Edge of Things (EoT)
with blockchain, was created specifically in conjunction with blockchain
and IoT as a potential mediator for forthcoming services and applications.
The researchers reviewed changes to BEoT technology and examined its
immense potential in a range of application fields. BEoT is used in a range
of commercial applications, such as smart grids, smart houses, smart towns,
and smart healthcare.
Zghaibeh et al. [6] propose SHealth, which offers consumers maximum
autonomy. It takes advantage of smart contracts by means of an easy-to-use
graphical interface to start different requests and questions about, for
example, consultations, diagnostic procedures, prescriptions, medical
interventions, or past experiences with the patient. SHealth is easy to use,
reliable, efficient, secure, and fully automated. The distributed database that
stores the health-related data is accessible to all system participants without
any sort of danger to the data’s integrity. The paper discusses some
scenarios involving the health system covered by SHealth.
Wu et al. [7] present a blockchain-enabled secure transaction network, a
triple subject purpose-based access control (TS-PBAC) paradigm, and
access control with diverse functions and responsibilities in the Internet of
Medical Things (IoMT) scenarios. In an edge computation environment, the
researchers created a local privacy differential (LDP)-based strategy and a
role-based authentication mechanism to grant authorized users fine-
granularity privileges in order to strengthen the security for important
characteristics against an in-house attacker. The experimental findings
demonstrate that the recommended privacy-preserving scheme can protect
patient confidentiality in IoMT environments superior to conventional
access control policies by making reliable and constant access control
selections between information publishers and information requesters with
different purposes.

ARCHITECTURE OF IOT LAYERS

IoT in healthcare systems is essential for collecting, sharing, and
transmitting data among devices in a smart way and with high speed [2, 8].
Sensors used in healthcare include the pulse oximeter, ECG sensor,
temperature sensor, and sphygmomanometer. IoT uses several protocols
like MQTT, HTTP, CoAP, TCP, and WebSocket for data transmission [9,
10]. The network connectivity used for IoT includes cellular technology up
to 5G, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, RFID, and low-power WAN. Smart healthcare
devices collect a lot of data and these devices are also used in remote
villages where people can self-monitor themselves and diagnose
accordingly with doctors [11, 12–13].
IoT can be classified into five different layers (Figure 9.1). They are the
perception layer, which is used to transform analog signals to digital and
digital signals to analog using sensors and actuators. The network layer is
used to communicate between physical devices using some protocols like
Wi-Fi, Ethernet, Bluetooth, Zigbee, MQTT, and HTTP [14]. The processing
layer is used to capture, store, and process data for further requirements.
The application layer is used to make decisions for business models once
the data is analyzed. The business layer is used for business models with the
processed data [3, 15, 16].
Perception layer: It is used for transforming analog signals to digital and
digital signals to analog form. Sensors, actuators, and machine devices are
used as application protocols [17, 18–19]. Blood pressure monitors,
working lights, and pulse oximeters are a few examples of medical
equipment. Medical devices include oximeters, work lamps, and blood
pressure monitors. Monitors, glucose meters, and other devices in the
patient’s room communicate with the IoT gateway using the
aforementioned short-range links [20, 21].

FIGURE 9.1 Architecture of IoT layers.⏎

 Network layer: Communication takes place between the physical layer
of IoT devices and IoT architecture. Wi-Fi, Zigbee, Bluetooth, MQTT, and
Ethernet are some other application protocols used in this layer [22, 23–24].
Processing layer: The process layer is used to capture, store, and process
data for further requirements. CRM, ERP, and ERM are some application
protocols used [25].
Application layer: Data is further processed and analyzed to gather
business intelligence. Business decision-making software, artificial
intelligence, and machine learning are some application protocols used [26].
In this layer, data is further processed and analyzed to gain business insight.
Here, IoT systems connect to middleware or other programmers that can
understand data more precisely [27].
Business layer: Business owners and other stakeholders make accurate
future plans using data from the past and present. Data analysis is the
application protocol used in this layer [28, 29].
Also sometimes included in the IoT architecture is the security layer,
which follows security guidelines to install both firmware and hardware for
IoT integration. Cloud security and connection security are important
application protocols used. The importance of the security layer in IoT is
crucial as IoT devices are often resource-constrained and vulnerable to
cyberattacks, which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data, as well as the functionality of the devices themselves.

APPLICATIONS OF IOT
The application of devices and sensors together with a range of
technologies to acquire data from physical objects while interacting with
other layers is one of the two primary uses for IoT devices. The complete
network may be used with the process in connection with a supply-chain
assessment that is proposed due to the RFID chip’s ability to be connected
to the product that needs monitoring and recognized with data that needs to
be supplied. Realistically, the sector will benefit from the ability to
consistently provide accurate information interchange using a variety of
technological combinations.
 Telemedicine is very popular and widely used in healthcare as a result of
the growth of IoT technologies. A real-time tracking system for patients’
vital signs and the condition of their rooms is proposed by a smart
healthcare system inside the IoT environment. This system makes use of
four pulse rate sensors, an electrocardiography sensor, a carbon dioxide
sensor, and a carbon monoxide detector to get data from the hospital’s
environment. In each case, the error percentage of the developed scheme is
within a predetermined range. Through a portal, medical staff can access
patient status updates to process and assess the patient’s current condition.
The primary objective of this chapter is to identify the impact and
possibilities of IoT, blockchain, and fog computing in healthcare services.
Blockchain technology has the ability to completely transform how we
share, store, and transmit data by offering a safe and open platform for a
variety of uses. The following text and Figure 9.2 describe the application
of IoT in various fields.
 FIGURE 9.2 Application of IoT.⏎

Smart healthcare. Applications in healthcare include healthcare data

management, telemedicine, remote access, and collaborative medications.
IoT devices can be used to remotely check on patients’ health, lowering the
need for hospital visits and increasing patient outcomes. These gadgets have
the capacity to gather information on vital signs, medication compliance,
and other health factors and use it to guide treatment choices.
Smart agriculture. These are the applications to make smart farming,
monitoring crop disease and pests, crop moisture and water levels,
irrigation, and climate conditions. In order to optimize farming practices
and raise yields, farmers can utilize IoT devices to monitor crop, soil, and
weather conditions. These tools may gather information on a variety of
parameters, including soil moisture, humidity, and temperature, and utilize
that information to guide decisions for pest management, fertilization, and
irrigation.
Smart industry: IoT devices can be used to monitor and manage
commercial operations including production, delivery, and logistics.
Industries are using IoT-powered production track and trace innovators and
also intelligent robotics, reinvention, and warehousing. These gadgets can
gather data in real time and use it to streamline operations, save downtime,
and raise security.
Smart grid: Decision support software, improved management panel
methods, and automation for power distribution faults and repairs. Precision
sensing and measuring technology make it possible to have a smart grid.
Smart home: Lights may be turned on, temperatures can be changed, and
doors can be locked all with the help of IoT devices. Homes can be made
more convenient and energy-efficient by using these gadgets, which can be
operated remotely using a smartphone or voice assistant.
Smart vehicle: Real-time data is gathered by IoT sensors on things like
fuel use, engine temperature, fluid levels, and run time. IoT has the capacity
to revolutionize a number of industries by promoting sustainable,
efficiency, and safety while also enhancing the standard of living for both
individuals and communities.
IOT IN HEALTHCARE
1.IoT offers transformative applications in the healthcare industry,
enhancing patient care, streamlining operations, and reducing costs.
Remote monitoring enables healthcare providers to track patients’
health in real time through wearable devices that monitor vital signs
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels, while smart
inhalers ensure timely medication usage. Predictive analytics,
powered by IoT and machine learning, can analyze extensive health
data to detect patterns and predict potential health issues, allowing
early interventions for high-risk patients. In smart hospitals, IoT
facilitates efficiency by locating medical equipment, automating tasks
like medication dispensing, and managing supplies. Telemedicine,
supported by IoT devices, extends healthcare services to remote areas,
offering virtual consultations and reducing the need for travel. IoT
also supports personalized medicine by gathering data on patients’
health and lifestyles, enabling tailored treatment plans. Furthermore,
IoT combined with blockchain addresses key challenges such as
secure data exchange and supply chain management. Blockchain
ensures safe, decentralized, and tamper-proof health data sharing,
empowering patients to control access while tracking medical supplies
to prevent counterfeit drugs, thereby enhancing overall healthcare
quality and safety.

INTRODUCTION TO BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain is the emerging technology used for data security in
transactions. Each block includes an index number, transaction data, date,
timestamp, and prior hash value. The previous hash function is the
interconnection of the preceding block. The main features of blockchain
technology include decentralization, transparency, security, increased
capacity, authenticity, and immutability. Blockchain is classified into four
different varieties, including consortium, hybrid, private, and public
blockchains.
 A distributed ledger technology, or blockchain, can be described as
where data is stored in different blocks using cryptography hashing.
Blockchain allows for a decentralized system that does not require
centralization to transfer data to a specific organization. Blockchain
monitors the exchange of data and maintains a distributed record of all data
transactions across all nodes. Figure 9.3 depicts the basic concept of
blockchain with the number of blocks connected consisting of the present
block hash and previous block hash value.

FIGURE 9.3 Basic concept behind blockchain.⏎

Figure 9.4 depicts the structure of a blockchain with n number of blocks

connected to previous the hash value.

FIGURE 9.4 Structure of blockchain.⏎

 A blockchain-based platform for developing and managing medical
records and approvals is suggested. First, all healthcare institutions and
clients have to finish the authentication function of the proposed scheme in
order to receive both private and public key sets and register in the mobile
application (MA). A distributed network is then used to run the suggested
application. Before authorizing a user, the healthcare facilities must
generate a medical certificate for any user who requests one. The authorities
check the user information stored in the blockchain network using a mobile
application interface. The blockchain network uses the data the user
provided upon registration to create a proof of identity.
The decentralized aspect of the blockchain implies that there isn't just
one entity in charge of the network, which makes it secure. Instead, the
network’s nodes cooperate to verify transactions and keep the ledger’s
integrity. The blockchain uses consensus algorithms like proof of work
(PoW) or proof of stake (PoS) to make sure that each node concurs on the
ledger’s current state in order to guarantee the security and legitimacy of the
transactions.
The transparency of blockchain technology, which enables all network
users to view and confirm completed transactions, is one of its major
advantages. Due to the fact that all transactions are recorded and made
public to all parties, it is also harder for fraud to occur.

Types of Blockchains
Blockchain is categorized into four types: public, private, hybrid, and
consortium (Figure 9.5).
 FIGURE 9.5 Types of blockchain.⏎

A public blockchain is a decentralized system that can be accessed by

anyone with the help of an internet connection. An individual can perform a
mining operation and has access to both existing records and new records.
A private blockchain is a partially decentralized system. Only one
organization will have access and authority over the network. The private
blockchain is also called a permissioned blockchain.
The hybrid blockchain is used by business and industry sectors that can
control who can access their blockchain data and the information that is
made available by establishing both a public system and a private,
permission-based system, decentralized network (permissionless system).
Within a hybrid blockchain, data and transactions are typically private, but
consent shall be given through a smart contract if verification is necessary.
The consortium blockchain is a completely decentralized system. It gives
access to multiple organizations and authority over the network. The nodes
can send and receive transactions. A federated blockchain is another name
for the consortium blockchain.

BYZANTINE FAULT TOLERANCE

ALGORITHM
A distributed network can achieve consensus (agreement on the same value)
with the use of a feature known as Byzantine fault tolerance (BFT), which
allows some nodes to answer incorrectly or fail to respond at all. The goal
of using a BFT technique is to prevent faulty systems caused by utilizing
group decision-making (including right and fault nodes), which seeks to
lessen the impact of the malfunctioning nodes. The Byzantine generals’
problem gave rise to BFT (Figure 9.6).
 FIGURE 9.6 Structure of Byzantine fault tolerance.⏎

In a BFT-based blockchain network, a consensus protocol is used to

ensure that all nodes agree on the validity of transactions and the state of
the blockchain. This is attained through a voting process, where nodes in
the network vote on the validity of new transactions and the ordering of
those transactions in the blockchain. One common approach to BFT
consensus is the practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT) protocol. In
PBFT, a designated leader node is responsible for proposing new
transactions to the network. The other nodes then vote on the validity of the
proposed transactions, and a new block representing a transaction is only
added to the blockchain when a certain number of nodes have validated it.
Other BFT-based consensus mechanisms have been developed in recent
years, such as the Tender mint consensus protocol used by the Cosmos
network and the Clique consensus protocol used by the Ethereum network.
BFT consensus mechanisms provide a significant level of security and
resilience. Networks, making them suitable for use in applications where
trust and reliability are critical. However, BFT-based consensus
mechanisms can be computationally expensive and may require a high
degree of network coordination, making them less suitable for use in
smaller networks or applications with low transaction volumes.
Many ideas from the Byzantine error tolerance algorithm used in
distributed systems are carried over into the practical version used in
blockchain. In this instance, an agreement is reached to determine if a block
is genuine. System nodes communicate with one another to add blocks to
the chain. In this scenario, malicious nodes might communicate altered
blocks, thus the network as a whole accepts the block as genuine if it is
accepted by the maximum number of nodes [15].
Distributed systems are more prone to byzantine problems than
centralized ones. These problems are a result of system node
disinformation. The members of distributed systems are largely unaware of
the causes of these errors or false information. It is so challenging to
identify this node as malicious or flawed because it may be acting weirdly
and providing various responses to various nodes in the network. Thus, to
identify a faulty node, the system’s honest nodes must reach an agreement.
A mechanism that reaches a decision unaffected by a bad or malfunctioning
node is referred to as a system with Byzantine fault tolerance [30].
.
The BFT mechanism consists of these three steps:

1. Pre-prepare: Each backup node receives a notification from the

leader node via a prewritten message.
2. Prepare: Upon getting the pre-prepared response from the
leader, the backup nodes reply to all the remaining nodes, even
the leader, with the prepared message. A node cannot be
regarded to be prepared until it has observed (2f + 1) prepared
data from the other nodes and has acquired pre-prepared
information from the leader.
3. Commit: The nodes send a message called a commit if they are
prepared. If a node sees (f + 1) committed messages, it will
carry out the client’s request.

Two main categories of Byzantine failures are arbitrary node failure and
fail-stop failure. Several illustrations of random node failures are:
It does not yield a result.
Draws an incorrect assumption.
Responds with a purposely misleading result.
Replies that various system components get have varying effects.
In a blockchain peer-to-peer (P2P) network, each node maintains a copy of
the entire blockchain ledger, and each new transaction that occurs on the
network is broadcast to all nodes in the network. This ensures that all nodes
have the same version of the blockchain and that all nodes are aware of all
transactions. When a new block is added to the blockchain, each node in the
network verifies the transactions in the block and checks that the block has
been added in a valid way according to the consensus rules of the network.
If the block is valid, it is added to each node’s copy of the blockchain, and
the process continues. Because the network is decentralized, there is no
central authority that controls the blockchain, and transactions can be
validated without the need for intermediaries. This makes the blockchain
P2P network secure and resilient, as it is not vulnerable to a single point of
failure or attack.

Steps to connect blockchain in a P2P network:

1. Consider the number of nodes to be connected in the network.

2. Each node acts as a client–server model.
3. Make an IP address for each node to be connected.
4. Search for the neo state command on the command prompt to
find out the available port address.
5. Run the blockchain program to establish the P2P network on
the edge server.

PROPOSED WORK
A simulation test is made where a pseudo electronic health care data is
generated and blockchain is applied to each patient’s details. These secured
details are connected in a distributed network using a P2P network. This
P2P is implemented using the Python program. Each node is completely
checked with the available port address for the edge server and the
Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm is implemented in all the nodes. This is
depicted as the model for the proposed work in Figure 9.7.
 FIGURE 9.7 Proposed work.⏎

Figure 9.8 shows the simulation result of implementing blockchain to the

patient health detail. In Figure 9.9 the results of node 2 without applying
BFT are shown and Figure 9.10 shows the results of applying BFT in the
P2P network. It is observed that when node 2 is connected to the P2P
network it takes a minimum of 2 ms, maximum of 3 ms, and average of 2
ms to send data. When node 2 is connected using Byzantine fault tolerance
algorithm the time taken to send data is a minimum of 1 ms, maximum of 3
ms, and average of 1 ms. So the transaction in BFT algorithm takes less
time to commit the message. Results show that the blockchain transactions
without the Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm in the P2P network take
more time when compared with the Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm.
FIGURE 9.8 Implementation of blockchain for patient
medical details.⏎

FIGURE 9.9 Speed analysis of node 2 in P2P network.⏎

 FIGURE 9.10 Speed analysis of node 2 using BFT
algorithm.⏎

The four phases of the Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm identify the
fault node and resist that particular node. The remaining node prepares
transactions and commits them with high speed. BFT-based blockchain
networks can provide fast transaction processing and ensure the security
and consistency of the network.

CONCLUSION
Many advancements in science and technology have changed the healthcare
sector. Blockchain technology is implemented by using Byzantine fault
tolerance, a consensus process for IoT data security. This project proposes a
modified PBFT, in which the consensus process incorporates the
mechanism for identifying fault nodes and resisting those nodes. The P2P
network using BFT increases the consensus efficiency and performance
speed. By using the BFT algorithm, blockchain transactions on IoT-based
electronic health records are committed to the nodes connected in the
distributed system and the speed of transactions between nodes is increased.
Finally, electronic health record data are stored in edge servers so that the
data storage problem can be reduced.
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10 Integrating Blockchain in
Healthcare to Secure Data
Selvakumarasamy, Latha Parthiban, B. Hariharan,
and R Parthiban
DOI: 10.1201/9781003428886-13

INTRODUCTION
Blockchain was first developed to supply distributed records of financial
transactions that had been independent of central authorities or any
financial institutions. Developments in blockchain technology have helped
in improving exchanges that involve smart contracts, medical records,
security, and allowing permanent access to data and insurance billing, along
with that delivering a distributed database of transactions.
There are many advantages of blockchain of which the most important
advantage in the medical records industry is that blockchain could also alter
the exchanges between the databases used in healthcare, thus providing
further access to medical records of patients, prescription and drug supply
databases, tracking of devices, and hospital assets, comprising the whole
life cycle of any device that is a part of the blockchain framework.
Allowing access to the medical records of patients is very important to
properly prescribe medication to patients, with blockchain being capable of
histrionically improving the healthcare services infrastructure.
A blockchain comprises records that are arranged in a block structure in
an ordered manner. Each data block comprises a hash that is a unique
identifier (like a digital fingerprint), a hash of the previous block, and
timestamps of recent transactions. Various blocks are linked in
chronological order with this design, and the blocks that are connected are
termed as a blockchain. It’s virtually unfeasible to alter any of the blocks
that are in the chain.
A smart contract is an algorithm that is executed automatically when the
required conditions are satisfied, and it is a distinct unit from the already
existing blockchain technology. The unit of smart contract was included in
Blockchain 2.0 as a significant function, increasing the application and
functions of blockchain beyond the field of cryptocurrency. The fact that
blockchain cryptographically verifies the transactions executed does away
with the possibility of a man-in-the-middle attack, replay, and all other
traditional “device-to-cloud” attacks. With respect to this context, the aim
of this research is to create a blockchain architecture for healthcare to
secure data.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous research has highlighted the privacy and security concerns faced
by health organizations and analyzed some of the solutions that could help
solve those issues [1, 2]. The research by Agbo et al. [3] focuses on the
challenges arising from patient-centered interoperability, which includes
standards for data, privacy, and security, scalability, speed, incentives for
blockchain, and blockchain/healthcare governance. Attaran [4] gives an
overview of what Hyperledger fabric is, how it can be used to build
solutions, and how transactions get executed in Hyperledger fabric.
Aste et al. [5] describe blockchain’s concepts and provide a perspective
on its risks and challenges. Other researchers have investigated privacy in
electronic healthcare as a communication-centered issue since the future of
electronic health systems will probably be quite distributed and will need
the interoperability of a lot of subsystems [6, 7–8]. In addition, the papers
also describe the privacy needs related to research for persons other than
patients. Others have also identified the IT-related privacy issues that
occurred in the healthcare industry [9, 10, 11]. Tariq et al. [2] present a
survey on the various challenges and direct issues encountered in security
requirements and smart healthcare of the mentioned domains. They also
discuss the capabilities of blockchain technology as a potential and strong
security measure and analyze different blockchain-based approaches.
 Previous studies provide a complete and detailed abstract on blockchain
technology [12, 13, 14, 15–16]. They provide an outline of blockchain
architecture and compare it with some common consensus algorithms that
are used in various blockchains. Efforts have been made to incorporate a lot
of the compelling ideas from the community of professionals and
researchers involved in improving the security and privacy of blockchain
[17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Scholars have also described how blockchain enables
transactions and related data to be stored in a secure manner and verified
without requiring any central authority [22, 23, 24, 25].

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
It is quite important that healthcare systems share data in a systematic way.
Also, they should be able to give privacy, increased access and control to
the data, and guaranteed anonymity to the individual using the system. If
there is a scope for less privacy, lower security, and trust handling, the
person would be unwilling to give their sensitive and important information
or even refrain from getting treatment. At present, a lot of healthcare data
systems depend on a central party for managing confidential and sensitive
healthcare data, which can be very susceptible to single-point-of-failure.
However, due to its distributive nature, the technology of blockchain could
alter this dependency. Blockchain can present the ability to solve technical
issues and system attacks in an immutable and distributive way. Along with
this, a record is included to track the ownership and authenticity of data.

Existing System
Before the advancement of present-day technology, the healthcare industry
was dependent on a system based on handwritten, paper medical records.
This paper-based system of medical records was unorganized, inefficient,
and vulnerable to tampering. Also, the system encountered the problem of
redundancy and duplication of data since all the hospitals that the patient
went to had different copies of his or her medical records. The healthcare
sector then shifted to electronic health records (EHRs). These record
systems were then used to store laboratory-based results and clinical
observations. It was recommended that to strengthen the safety of the data
of the patients, breaches be prevented and access to the stored information
be increased. The main aim of EHR systems had been to fix the issues faced
by the healthcare system that was dependent on paper to build a reliable
system that could revolutionize the healthcare industry. They faced the
problems of being unreliable, less secure, lacking interoperability among
hospitals, and less user-friendly. Given that a lot of these EHR systems are
used in different institutions, it was found that the systems had no
universally defined standard.

Proposed System
The primary aim of this research is to integrate blockchain with healthcare
to create a system to ensure that patients’ data is accessed only by
authorized persons and isn’t changed by a third party for malicious reasons.
A blockchain network will be configured to securely store the collected data
using a blockchain framework platform. The patients and healthcare
workers will be a part of the blockchain network deployed as accounts
having access to it and data will be stored after being considered as valid by
the blockchain consensus mechanism. A Graphical User Interface (GUI)
will be designed that allows an authorized user within the network (doctors,
nurses, patients) to view patients’ records.

Requirement Gathering
The collected data is secured after every transaction in the blockchain for
healthcare devices. One of the main sources from which the data will be
collected is from patients’ healthcare device readings. More precisely, data
collected from patient-connected devices will be sent to the blockchain
system as a transaction. If the transaction is considered valid by a node in
the blockchain network, then it will be added as a block to the network. All
nodes (patient/doctor computers) that are part of the network will also be
updated with the new data.

Analysis of Requirements

Functional Requirements
 Allow users or patients to register with their Ethereum address.
Allow patient to give permission to doctors to edit their records.
Allow doctors to enter medical reports for patients and attach their digital signature with it.
The patient can view and share their records. No unauthorized person can view the records.

Nonfunctional Requirements

Efficiency requirement: The system should use the available resources and dataset efficiently
to produce fast and accurate results.
Reliability requirement: The software system should be a reliable and easier to handle for both
owners and customers. Since it is a very sensitive application, the software system should be
reliable and not fail in any case. There must be recovery protocols established in order to avoid
such issues.
Implementation requirement: Implementation of the system is done using JavaScript and
solidity, which makes it versatile and flexible to be used in any type of work environment.
Delivery requirement: The complete system is envisioned to be delivered within four to five
months, including an evaluation by the project guide every week.

Data Source
The data for our project was collected from the internet.

Cost Estimation
The researchers will be using an organic type COCOMO model for
approximate cost estimation: KLOC = Thousand lines of code (estimate) =
2

Effort undertaken = E = a/(KLOC)^b = 2.4(2)^1.05 = 4.969 person-months.

Time required = D = c(E)^d = 2.5(4.969)^0.38 = 4.597 months.
Staff size = ss = E/D = 4.969/4.597 = 1.08 (roughly 1–2 persons).

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Figure 10.1 presents the overall blockchain system. The diagram provides
an overall physical arrangement of the blockchain model of the researchers.
The diagram shows how a healthcare worker creates a medical record in the
application, how MetaMask verifies transactions by generating digital
signatures, and how patients can view their medical records from the
application.
 FIGURE 10.1 Overall blockchain system.⏎

Interface Prototyping (UI)

Figure 10.2 shows the user interface prototype of the work.

FIGURE 10.2 Interface prototype.⏎

Figure 10.3 shows the interface to create a new address.

 FIGURE 10.3 Create new address.⏎

Figure 10.4 shows the interface to create a new record and Figure 10.5
shows how the record is shared.

FIGURE 10.4 Create a new record.⏎

 FIGURE 10.5 Share record.⏎

Figure 10.6 shows the GUI for creating permissions.

FIGURE 10.6 Create permission.⏎

Data Flow Design

Figure 10.7 shows the processes for sending data from the input data store
to reports. The data created by patients and healthcare workers are stored in
the blockchain and they can retrieve the data on request.
 FIGURE 10.7 Complete data flow design.⏎

Use Case Diagram

Figure 10.8 shows the user’s interaction with the system. The users in this
system are patients and healthcare workers. The diagram shows how a
patient registers, gives permission for the doctor to add a patient record, and
how a patient can view their record through the blockchain.
 FIGURE 10.8 Interaction with system.⏎

Class Diagram of the System

Figure 10.9a shows how objects are related to one other and the operations
taken. Each patient record is stored in the blockchain, the healthcare worker
can add patient data, and numerous patient data is stored in the blockchain.
 Figure 10.9a Class object and links.⏎

Activity Diagram
Figure 10.9b shows various decision paths undergone during system
activity. The activity starts with the patient registration, followed by logging
in as either a doctor or patient, and ends with the patient viewing their
records.
 Figure 10.9b Various decision paths during system
activity.⏎

Sequence Diagram
Figure 10.10 shows how the model works. Patients and healthcare workers
are characters in the diagram. The model shows how a patient registers,
views the record updated by the healthcare worker, and that each time a
record is added, and it is stored in the blockchain.
 FIGURE 10.10 Sequence model.⏎

MODEL OPERATION
Design of the Database
ER Diagram
The entity relationship (ER) diagram of the researchers’ model (Figure
10.11a) shows the relationship between the patient, healthcare worker, and
blockchain entities. The diagram also includes the attributes for each entity.
The patient and healthcare worker can store as well as request data from the
blockchain.
 Figure 10.11a ER diagram.⏎

Relational Model
Figure 10.11b represents how each patient record is stored. The blockchain
can store numerous patient records as well as the updated healthcare records
of the patient.
 Figure 10.11b Relational model.⏎

User Interface
Figure 10.12 shows the landing page for the users.
 FIGURE 10.12 User interface.⏎

The patient can give permission to the doctor to add a record. The doctor
can add records as shown in Figure 10.13 or create a new record as in
Figure 10.14. The patient can view the record as in Figure 10.15.

FIGURE 10.13 Adding a patient’s record.⏎

FIGURE 10.14 Create new record.⏎

 FIGURE 10.15 View records.⏎

Middleware
Ethereum: It is an open-source blockchain that has smart contract functionality and is also
decentralized. It helps in enabling distributed applications and smart contracts which could be
used to be built and run without any interference from a third party, downtime, or fraud.
Ganache: It is a tool that is used for creating your own blockchain for distributed app
development. Ganache can be used during the whole life cycle, which helps in developing,
deploying, and testing any decentralized apps in a safe environment.
Truffle: It is mainly used for contract development, for testing blockchain environments, and is
also an asset pipeline that is used for Ethereum blockchain. It provides a development
framework for creating, designing, and deploying smart contracts for Ethereum.
Visual Studio Code: It is a freeware source-code editor made by Microsoft for Linux,
Windows, and macOS. It has numerous features, including syntax highlighting, debugging,
code refactoring, embedded Git, intelligent code completion, and snippets.
Node.js: It is an open environment used for the development of web applications. Node.js
applications have a library that helps in developing web-based applications.
Web3: It has a lot of libraries that allow you to work with nodes in Ethereum. The nodes can
be either local Ethereum nodes or remote Ethereum nodes of the contract.

VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION RESULTS

Unit Testing
Patients can be successfully registered as shown in Figure 10.16a.
 FIGURE 10.16A Register patients.⏎

Doctors can add a patient’s record after the patient gives permission to
the doctor as in Figure 10.16b.

FIGURE 10.16B Create record.⏎

 Patients can view the added record as in Figure 10.16c.

FIGURE 10.16C View records.⏎

Integration Testing
Case 1: The patient is registered and doctor can request to add the patient’s records as in
Figure 10.17a.
Case 2: The doctor adds the records, and the patient (Figure 10.17b) can successfully view
them as in Figure 10.18.
Figure 10.17A Register patients.⏎

FIGURE 10.17b Register patients.⏎

FIGURE 10.18 View records.⏎
Case 3: The doctor adds their digital signature to the record, and when viewed the doctor’s
address is seen with the record (Figure 10.19).
 FIGURE 10.19 Add digital signature.⏎

User Testing
The home page where users can choose the provider/patient is shown in
Figure 10.20.
 FIGURE 10.20 Home page.⏎

The doctor can create a new record for a patient with permission as in
Figure 10.21.

FIGURE 10.21 Create new record.⏎

Patients can give permission and view records as in Figure 10.22.

 FIGURE 10.22 Give permission and view records.⏎

Patients can share their records as in Figure 10.23.

FIGURE 10.23 Share records.⏎

Defect Analysis
A fishbone diagram (Figure 10.24) depicts the cause–effect analysis of
defects.
 FIGURE 10.24 Fishbone diagram.⏎

McCall’s Quality Factors

Product Operation Factors

Correctness
The output of the modules of the project is accurate. However, the
completeness of information shown depends on the input data.

Reliability
The system can have a failure rate of 0.1 per hour and so a higher reliability.
In case of a service failure, the data and accounts are not lost and can be
retrieved.

Efficiency
For efficient working of the project, a system with a minimum processing
speed of 2.2 GHz and 4GB RAM is required.

Integrity
The integrity of the system security is maintained by the encryption of data
done by blockchain and the digital signatures that are added to each
transaction to verify which user has committed the transaction.

Usability
The project requires someone with a basic understanding of blockchain
technology to use it, and higher knowledge for someone to make changes to
it. Its usability is moderately easy and requires some prior knowledge of
blockchain. The system also displays the interoperability of blockchain
technology with web applications and databases.

EXPERIMENT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Results
The doctor adds their digital signature to the record (Figure 10.25).

FIGURE 10.25 Add digital signature.⏎

The address of the doctor appears with the record when the patient views
them as in Figure 10.26.
 FIGURE 10.26 Share records.⏎

No one else can view the record without permission as in Figure 10.27.

FIGURE 10.27 No viewing without permission.⏎

RESULT ANALYSIS
The primary aim of the research is to provide a secure system that is the
most trustworthy and if the data stored in the model is dependable and
cannot be changed by anyone else. This blockchain-based system makes
sure that the model maintains this method. Data that is stored in the model
can only be changed by an authorized person. Other than that, the record
data can be accessed only by doctors and patients. Doctors, patients, or any
other person in the system cannot make modifications in the smart contract
unless they have access to it. This makes sure that the information is private
or the record of the patient cannot be accessed by everyone and stays
tamper-proof. The private details of the patient are stored and a hash is
created for the stored patient information. This hash is now stored and can
be used when healthcare workers and patients need it. The hash is secured
cryptographically. This is used to maintain security in our proposed system.
Performance-wise, we used Apache JMeter to evaluate our system. By
using JMeter we simulated 100–500 users (with a period of 10 to 35
minutes) of the model using the system’s different functions. The
throughput of the JMeter is defined as Data/time, that is KB/sec units. It
was observed that when the amount of requests and the users increased,
there was an increase in the throughput in a linear manner. Hence, results
showed that the system worked efficiently. Simulations were run on our
proposed model to analyze the throughput.
The graphical representation of the results are shown in the following
Figure 10.28.

FIGURE 10.28 Throughput.⏎

When the transaction number increased, the execution time of the system
increased. These transactions are for the different functions present in the
smart contracts. When a single user uses the system, the functions for
registering patient details, adding patient medical records, and viewing
patient medical records would take 2.29, 4.3, and 3 seconds, respectively.
The execution times increase when 100 users use the system at the same
time.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This blockchain framework can be used by healthcare facilities to overcome
the limitations of the current way of storing data. Blockchain technology is
the key to enhancing privacy and helps in preventing data breaches. The
sharing of patient data between the concerned parties can be done in a safe
and secure manner. Blockchain is the stepping stone to a more transparent
healthcare industry. Thus, blockchain helps revolutionize healthcare sectors
by providing privacy, accessibility and trust to medical records. The use of
blockchain can further help in implementing a payment module in our
existing blockchain structure. To implement, the researchers have to decide
on the amount a patient would be willing to pay to consult a doctor in a
decentralized model in blockchain. Certain policies and rules related to
healthcare divisions also need to be gathered.

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OceanofPDF.com
Index

A
ABCS, see Advanced Baby Care System
Admin module , 99, 103
Advanced Baby Care System (ABCS) , 121
AES, 54
Ambient temperature, 129
Apache JMeter, 174
Application layer, 7, 44, 141, 142
Arduino board, 85
Arduino IDE, 85
Arduino Uno, 81
Automotive industry, BIIoT in, 37–38

B
Balance attack, 17
BCG, see Boston Consulting Group
BDA, see Big data analytics
BEoT, see Edge of Things with blockchain
BFT, see Byzantine fault tolerance algorithm
BGP hijacking attack, 17
Bigchain, 13
Big data analytics (BDA), 125
BIIoT, 28, 40; see also Industrial IoT (IIoT)
applications
in automotive industry, 37–38
in food sector, 36
in fuel sectors, 38
in healthcare sector, 37
in smart manufacturing, 36
in trade supply chain industry, 38
architecture, 34–35
deployment, 35
open research issues in
privacy leakage, 39
resource constraints, 39
scalability, 39–40
security vulnerability, 39
Biodegradable sensors, 118
Biointegrated sensors, 117
Biosensors, 129
Bitcoin, 3
activity unlinkability, 15
addresses, 3
applications, 11
architecture, 7
attacks, 17–18
solutions, 18–19
issues and challenges, 14–15
miners, 13
open-source bitcoin implementation, 13–14
privacy techniques, 15–16
profile indistinguishability, 16
security, 17
transaction, 3
wallets, 9
Blind Coin, 16
Blockchain, 3, 28, 43, 63, 145; see also individual entries
applications, 20–22
architecture
application layer, 7
consensus layer, 6
contract layer, 6
data layer, 5
network layer, 5
service layer, 7
with IPFS, 54
-based IoT information storage and retrieval, 53–55
blocks, 3, 32, 63
chain, 4
genesis block, 32
structure, 3, 4
consensus algorithms, 9, 33
data management layers, 11, 12
for enhanced security, 53
frameworks, 98
healthcare data systems, 155
in healthcare to secure data
activity diagram, 160, 162
case diagram, 159, 161
class diagram, 160, 161
cost estimation, 157
database design, 163–165
data flow design, 159, 160
data source, 157
functional requirements, 156–157
integration testing, 168–169
interface prototyping, 157–159
McCall’s quality factors, 170–173
middleware, 163
nonfunctional requirements, 156–157
result analysis, 173–174
sequence diagram, 160, 162
unit testing, 166–168
user testing, 169
integration with IoT, challenges and issues, 55–59
complexity, 57
cost, 58
energy consumption, 47, 56–57
enhanced security, 48
improved privacy, 48
interoperability, 47, 57
latency, 56
legacy systems integration, 58
regulatory compliance, 47, 57
scalability, 46–47, 55
seamless interoperability, 48–49
security and privacy, 47, 57
mining, 7–8
selfish mining, 8–9
for patient medical details, 149, 150, 154
peer-to-peer network, 149, 150
performance evaluation, 44
risks, 19–20
smart contracts, see Smart contracts
structure, 146
technology, 42, 43
Corda, 11
digitalizing supply chain for food and beverage industry, 64–65
Fintech, 10
governance, 11
for industries and enterprises, 64
Internet of Things, see Internet of Things (IoT)
supply and chain management, 10
transparency, 146
types
consortium blockchain, 34, 147
hybrid blockchain, 146–147
private blockchain, 34, 46, 146
public blockchain, 34, 46, 146
workflow, 33
Blockchain 1.0, 28
Blockchain 2.0, 154
Blockchain 3.0, 28
Block withholding, 18
Blood pressure sensor, 128
Body temperature
monitoring system, 120
sensor, 128
Boston Consulting Group (BCG), 65
Bribery attacks, 18
Brute force attack, 18
Brute-force password attack, 51
Business layer, 142
Byzantine fault tolerance (BFT) algorithm, 147–149, 151
Byzantine nodes, 8

C
Car sharing, 67
CBM, see Cloud-based manufacturing
Censorship resistance, 17
Chaincore, 13
Child health monitoring, 117, 119, 136
Clique consensus protocol, 148
Closeness sensors, 124
Cloud-based manufacturing (CBM), 28
Coinbase, 16
CoinParty, 16
Coin shuffle, 16
Complete storage, 35
Consensus algorithms, 9
Consensus layer, 6
Consortium blockchain, 34, 147
Contract layer, 6
Corda, 11
Cryptocurrencies, 5
Cyberattacks, 43, 47, 48, 142

D
DAG, see Directed acyclic graph
Dandelion, 16
DAO attack, 17
Data annotation, 130
Data layer, 5
Data preprocessing, 130
Data validation, 130
DdoS attack, 18
Deanonymization, 18
Denial-of-service, 50
DHT, see Distributed hash table
DiceMix, 16
Digital signatures, 37
Digital wallet services, 11
Directed acyclic graph (DAG), 54
Distributed hash table (DHT), 53, 54
Double-spending, 17, 19
Drug machine learning, 124

E
Eavesdropping, 51
Eclipse attack, 17
Edge of Things with blockchain (BEoT), 140
EEG, see Electroencephalography
EHR, see Electronic health record system
Electroencephalography (EEG), 125
Electronic health record (EHR) system, 53, 156
Electronic medical record (EMR), 122
Electronic product code (EPC), 36
Employee management system, 98
EMR, see Electronic medical record
Entity relationship (ER) diagram, 163, 164
EPC, see Electronic product code
ER, see Entity relationship diagram
Ethereum, 13, 34, 163
blockchain, 140
nodes, 165

F
Faculty module, 103
Feather attacks, 18
Finney attack, 18
Fintech, 10
Firmware jacking, 50
Food product traceability (FPT), 36
Food sector, BIIoT in, 36
Fork and withholding attack, 18
Forking, 17, 19
of blockchain, 8
FPT, see Food product traceability
Fuel industry, 38
BIIoT in, 38

G
Ganache, 163
Genesis block, 32
Gold finger attack, 18
Google Maps, 80
Graphical User Interface (GUI), 156
GSM-based child screen framework, 121
GSM modem, 126
GUI, see Graphical User Interface

H
HDG, see Healthcare Gateway
Healthcare
BIIoT in, 37
IoT in, 144, 145
ambient temperature, 129
BEoT technology, 140
blockchain in, 134
 blood pressure sensor, 128
body temperature sensor, 128
child health monitoring, 117, 119, 136
cloud, 124
comparative analysis, machine learning algorithm, 134–136
data annotation, 130
data preprocessing, 130
data validation, 130
GSM modem, 126
heart rate, 126, 128
hemoglobin, 128–129
KNN classifier, 119, 133–134
machine learning in, 124–126, 130–132
PIR motion sensor, 129
pulse oximetry, 128
random forest classifier, 133
raw data collection, 129
respiration sensor, 128
sensors, 124
SHealth, 141
sound sensor, 129
support vector machine, 132–133
textile biosensors, 126
trained dataset, 130
vital parameter ranges, 126, 127
Wi-Fi module, 126
to secure data, Blockchain technology
activity diagram, 160, 162
case diagram, 159, 161
class diagram, 160, 161
cost estimation, 157
database design, 163–165
data flow design, 159, 160
data source, 157
functional requirements, 156–157
integration testing, 168–169
interface prototyping, 157–159
McCall’s quality factors, 170–173
middleware, 163
nonfunctional requirements, 156–157
result analysis, 173–174
sequence diagram, 160, 162
 unit testing, 166–168
user testing, 169
Healthcare Gateway (HDG), 21
Healthcare IoT (HIoT), 123
Health professionals share electronic health records (HERs), 21
Hemoglobin, 128–129
HIoT, see Healthcare IoT
Humidity sensors, 124
Hybrid blockchain, 146–147
Hydrachain, 13
Hyperledger, 13
Hyperthermia, 118

I
IBM SPSS package, 73
ICT, see Information and communication technology
IDC, see International Data Corporation
Industrial IoT (IIoT); see also BIIoT
blockchain technology, 28
characteristics, 27
consensus techniques, 29
difficulties, 32
Industry 4.0, 28, 37
Information and communication technology (ICT), 32, 70
Infrared (IR) sensors, 81, 85
International Data Corporation (IDC), 30
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), 141
Internet of Things (IoT), 10, 21, 27, 43, 70, 117, 123; see also individual entries
in agricultural industry, 72
applications
smart agriculture, 144
smart grid, 144
smart healthcare, 144
smart home, 144
smart industry, 144
smart vehicle, 144
telemedicine, 143
battery duration, 30–31
connectivity, 29, 30
critical security vulnerability, 80
difficulty of confidentiality and safety, 31
difficulty of trust approach, 31
 evolution, 79, 80
greenhouse, 73
in healthcare, see Healthcare, IoT in
integration with blockchain, challenges and issues, 55–59
complexity, 57
cost, 58
energy consumption, 47, 56–57
enhanced security, 48
improved privacy, 48
interoperability, 47, 57, 58
latency, 56
legacy systems integration, 58
regulatory compliance, 47, 57–59
scalability, 46–47, 55, 58
seamless interoperability, 48–49
security and privacy, 47, 57, 58
layers
application layer, 44, 45, 141, 142
business layer, 142
network layer, 44, 45, 141, 142
perception layer, 44, 45, 141–142
process layer, 141, 142
nodes, 29, 30
obstacles, 30
security issues
brute-force password attack, 51
denial-of-service, 50
eavesdropping, 51
firmware jacking, 50
malicious nodes, injection of, 50
physical escalation, 51
physical tampering, 50
services, 30
smart farming, 71, 73
canonical discriminant grouping, 74, 76
discriminant analysis, 73–74
frequency analysis, 74
group statistics, 74, 75
Wilks’s lambda, 74, 75
sustainability challenge, 31
working, 79, 80
Interoperability, 36, 45, 47, 48, 57, 58
InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), 42, 43, 46, 53, 140
IoMT, see Internet of Medical Things
IoT, see Internet of Things
IPFS, see InterPlanetary File System

K
KNN classifier, 119, 133–134

L
Latency, 56
Lightweight nodes, 35
Local privacy differential (LDP)-based strategy, 141

M
Machine algorithm, 117
Machine learning, 77, 117–119, 136
in eHealth, 124–126, 130–132
Malicious nodes, 50
Merkle trees, 8, 32
MERN stack, 99, 100, 102, 103, 110
MetaMask, 157
MindSphere, 64
Miniature sensors, 124
Mining pools, 8, 11
Mix Coin, 16
MongoDB database, 102, 103
Multichain, 13

N
Nakamoto consensus, 9
Net split, 18
Network layer, 5, 44, 45, 141, 142
Node .j s, 163

O
One-time accounts (OTAs), 39
Online attendance management system
activity diagram, 100, 102
architecture, 99, 101, 103
backend implementation, 104–105, 110, 111
 front end implementation, 105–113
modules, 101
admin module, 103
faculty module, 103
node analysis instructions, 111
project instructions, 110
requirements, 100–101
software, 111
system analysis, 99
Openchain, 13
Open-source bitcoin implementation, 13–14
Optical sensors, 124
OTAs, see One-time accounts

P
P2P, see Peer-to-peer
Parking systems, 79
architecture, 85–86
check slot status, 86
hardware requirements, 81–82
location and area selection, 86
modules, 84–85
software requirements, 81, 83
source code
Arduino implementation, 91–93
web server implementation, 93–96
system design, 82–84
testing
for Arduino implementation, 86, 89–90
for hardware requirements, 86, 91
manual testing, 86–88
update slots, 86
visualization, 86
WSN-based secure parking, 80
Partial storage, 35
Passive infrared (PIR) sensor, 121, 129
Patient Monitoring System (PMS), 121
PayPal, 40
PBFT, see Practical Byzantine fault tolerance protocol
“A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,” 63
Peer-to-peer (P2P) network
speed analysis, 149, 151
 work, 149, 150
Perception layer, 44, 45, 141–142
pH level, 129
Physical escalation, 51
Physical tampering, 50
PMS, see Patient Monitoring System
Pooling, 19
Practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT) protocol, 148
Privacy leakage, 39
Private blockchain, 34, 46, 146
Process layer, 141, 142
Public blockchain, 34, 46, 146
Pulse oximetry, 128
Punitive attacks, 18

Q
Quorm, 13

R
Random forest algorithm, 121
Random forest classifier, 133
Raspberry Pi, 121
Raw data collection, 129
Refund attack, 18
Resource constraint, 39
Respiration sensor, 128
Routing attack, 18
RSA, 54

S
Scalability, 39–40, 55
SCM DigiNetwork, 68
SCs, see Smart contracts
Secure Coin, 16
Securing Bitcoin network, 19
Securing wallets, 19
Security vulnerability, 39, 50
Selfish mining, 8–9, 15, 17, 18
Service layer, 7
SHealth, 141
Siemens Energy, blockchain in, 64, 65
 automated pay-per-use, 67
blockchain-based smart parking solution, 68
transparency and traceability, 66
Siemens Mobility, 67
Signal distortion, 129
Smart agriculture, 144
Smart city components, 79
Smart contracts (SCs), 28, 33–34, 36, 43, 53, 154
access control policy function, 55, 57
blockchain node function, 55, 56
IPFS, 55, 56
Smart farming, 71, 73
Smart grid, 29, 144
Smart healthcare, 141, 144
Smart home, 144
Smart industry, 144
Smart manufacturing, BIIoT in, 36
Smart textile type biosensor, 118
Smart vehicle, 144
Sound sensor, 129
Strain sensors, 124
Supply chain management, 10, 22
Supply chain (SC) networks, 29
Support vector machine (SVM), 132–133
Sybil attack, 18

T
Telemedicine, 143, 144
Textile biosensors, 126, 136
Time jacking attack, 18
Trade Supply Chain Industry (TSCI), 38
Trained dataset, 130
Transaction malleability, 18
Triple subject purpose-based access control (TS-PBAC) paradigm, 141
Truffle, 163
Trusted third party (TTP), 28
TSCI, see Trade Supply Chain Industry
TS-PBAC, see Triple subject purpose-based access control paradigm
TTP, see Trusted third party
Tumble Bit, 16
U
Ultrasonic sensors, 80

V
Value Shuffle, 16
VISA, 40
Visual Studio Code, 163

W
Wallet security, 17
Waterproof ultrasonic obstacle sensors, 120
Wearable IoT gadget, 121
Wearable sensors, 118, 120, 126
Web3, 165
Web of Things, 125
Weka analysis module, 100
WHO, see World Health Organization
Wi-Fi module, 85, 126
Wi-Fi module ESP8266 NodeMCU, 81
Wilks’s lambda, 74, 75
Wireless sensor network (WSN), 117
World Health Organization (WHO), 118
WSN, see Wireless sensor network
WSN-based secure parking, 80

X
Xim, 16

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