Name of Programme : B.Ed.

Special Education

Name of the Course Code : SED-218X

Title : PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Curriculum Design : Prof. M. Manivannan

Chair Person-Faculty of Education
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai
Mrs. Thelma Rani
Course Writer :
Lecturer, Computer Education
St.Christopher’s College of Education
Content Editors &
Course Coordinators : Dr. K. S. Premila
Associated professor of Education
School of Education
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai
Dr. B. Anupama Devi
Assistant professor of Special Education
School of Special Education & Rehabilitation
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai
2009 (First Edition)

Reprint (Year)August 2021

ISBN No:978-93-5706-092-9

© Tamil Nadu Open University, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Tamil Nadu Open University. Course Writer is the sole responsible person
for the contents presented in the Course Materials. Further information on the Tamil Nadu Open University
Academic Programmes may be obtained from the University Office at 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai-600 015
[or] www.tnou.ac.in

@ TNOU, 2022, “PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE” is made

available under a Creative Commons Attribution -Share Alike 4.0 License (International)

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/

Printed by: M/S. R.K.11, Virudhunagar District Co-Operative Printing Press Ltd
 SED – 218X

PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Content Page No

Block1
Nature and Scope of Computer Science 3

Block 2
Teaching of Computer Science 94

Block 3
Networking and Applications of Computers 182

Block 4
Objectives - Methods and Evaluation 263

Block 5
Inclusive Educational Practices for
Students with Disabilities 351

1
 SED 218: PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Course Objectives

This course facilitates the Student-Teacher to;

• Recognise the aim and objectives of teaching Computer Science at School.

• apply skills to select and use different methods of teaching the content of Computer Science
• practice competencies for designing unit and lesson plans, as well as tools of evaluation for
Computer Science teaching.
• develop skills in preparation and use of support materials for effective Computer Science
teaching.
 practice various techniques to evaluate the achievement of the learner in Computer Science.

Block 1Nature and Scope Of Computer Science

Unit 1: The Techniques and Technology of Computer
Unit 2: The Hardware and Software of Computers
Unit 3: Programming Logics and Learning Strategies
Unit 4: Values of Learning Computers

Block 2Teaching of Computer Science

Unit 5: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Unit 6: Genesis in Teaching Computer Science
Unit 7: Scheming for Teaching
Unit 8: Competency in Teaching Computers

Block 3 Networking and Applications Of Computers

Unit 9: Networking
Unit 10: Computers in Education
Unit 11: Learning Using Computers
Unit 12: Computer Laboratory

Block 4 Objectives Methods And Evaluation

Unit 13: Aims and Objectives
Unit 14: Instructional Methods
Unit 15: Audio Visual Aids
Unit 16: Evaluation and Measurement

Block 5 Inclusive Educational Practices for Students with Disabilities

Unit 17: Differentiated teaching strategies and Universal Design for students with disabilities
Unit 18: Teaching Learning Materials for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms
Unit 19: Co curricular activities for students with disabilities
2
 Unit 20: Adaptation of evaluation procedure for students with disabilities

Course Learning Outcomes

After completing this course the student-teachers will be able to
Describe the aims and objectives of teaching Computer Science at school level.
• Describe the aim and objectives of teaching Computer Science at School.
• Demonstrate and apply skills to select and use different methods of teaching the content of
Computer Science
• Design unit and lesson plans, as well as tools of evaluation for Computer Science teaching.
• Prepare and use of support materials for effective Computer Science teaching.
• Use various techniques to evaluate the achievement of the learner in Computer Science.

Suggested Readings
 Bloom, Benjamin, S.(1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Book1: Cognitive domain.
Boston:Addison Wesley Publication.
 Chauhan, S.S. (1985). Innovation in teaching and learning process. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House.
 Sandeep, John Milin (2014). Teaching of computer science. New Delhi: Neelkamal Publication.
 Khirwadkar, A. (2005). Information and communication technology in education. New Delhi:
Sarup& Sons.
 Rajasekar, S. (2004). Computer education and educational computing. New Delhi:Neelkamal
Publications.

Web Resources

 https://teachcomputing.org/pedagogy#:~:text=Effective%20pedagogy%20is%20at%20the,co
ntinues%20to%20emerge%20and%20evolve.
 http://ispython.com/pedagogy/
 https://www.electronicsmedia.info/2021/04/17/applications-of-computer-networks/
 https://psu.pb.unizin.org/ist110/chapter/2-2-computer-
networks/#:~:text=Computer%20networks%20support%20an%20enormous,as%20well%2
0as%20many%20others.

3
BLOCK 1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

This Block consists of four units on "Nature and Scope of Computer

Science".

Unit 1 introduces the concept about nature and importance of

computers, their generations and principles of computing techniques that
are needed for the teaching learning communities. It also provides
feedback mechanism for the learners.
Unit 2 gives a gist of the different types of Hardware and software. The
pre service teachers are provided with different kinds of Input and
Output devices and also the Software categories. As teachers of
secondary schools need to know fundamental concepts on computers,
the future teachers are provided with those concepts that are all needed
for their effective teaching.

Unit 3 discusses about the fundamentals on programming logics and

computer learning strategies. It deals with the algorithm and flowcharting
which are the basic concepts in computer programming. As teachers
need to help the children to think logically the teacher trainees are
exposed to programming strategies and systems analysis.

Unit 4 brings clearly the utilities of computers. Though the services of the
computers are vast in nature a few major applications are provided in
this unit. It gives an account on how computers are used in the fields of
Transport, Trade, Industry, Science, Medicine and Education.

4
UNIT 1 THE TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGY OF COMPUTER

Introduction
Objectives

Meaning and Scope of Computer Science

Computing Needs

The Computer
Components of Computer

1.2.2Capabilities of Computer System

1.2.3Limitations of a Computer System

Generations of Computer
1.3.1First Generation (1940-1956)

Second Generation (1956-1963)

Third Generation (1964-1971)

Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond

Principles of Computing
Techniques of Computing

Batch Processing
Time Sharing

Real Time Systems

Distributed Operating System
Let Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

5
 INTRODUCTION

Computer Science is a field of growing need and interest for any

common person. Computer science is considered both as a subject as
well as skill. Hence the teachers need to acquire the knowledge of
computer science and the skills of computing. Also the subject computer
science has to be approached in a pedagogical way to help the teachers
teach the subject in an effective way. This unit will elaborately discuss
the need, importance and use of computers. It also gives a brief account
on the generations of computers and the principles of computing.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about computers and understand the utilities

of computers.
 understand the phenomenal developments of computers and
their growth.
 understand the principles involved in computing.
 understand and identify the techniques of computing.

MEANING AND SCOPE OF COM PUTER SCIENCE

Computer science is the study and the science of the theoretical

foundations of information and computation and their implementation
and application in computer systems. Computer science has many sub-
fields like computation of specific results and others relate to properties
of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in
implementing computations. For example, programming language theory
studies approaches to describing computations, while computer
programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific
computational problems. Further, human-computer interaction, focuses
on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable
and universally accessible to people. As a discipline, computer science
spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the
limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing
systems in hardware and software.

Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not

involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several
alternative names have been proposed. Danish scientist Peter Naur
suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific

6
discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily
involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was
the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in
1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is
used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. The term computics has also
been suggested. Informatik was a term used in Europe more frequently.

The renowned computer scientist EdsgerDijkstra stated, ― computer

science is no more about computers than astronomy is about
telescopes.‖ The design and deployment of computers and computer
systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than
computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is
usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of
commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called
information technology or information systems. Computer science is
sometimes criticised as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in
the statement ―Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to
plumbing‖, credited to Stan Kelly-Bottle and others. However, there has
been much transfer of ideas between the various computer related
disciplines. Computer science research has also influence into other
disciplines. Computer science is considered by some to have a much
closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines.

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is

another issue develop disputes over that the term ―software engineering‖
means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, has
claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the
properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of
software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve
practical goals, making the two separate but complementary over one
another. The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer
science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a
mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer
science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical
orientation consider alignment computational science.

COMPUTING NEEDS

Every day‘s activities in the present era is so interwoven with the usage
of computers that it makes everyone feel that nothing is possible without
computers. The use of computers is found right from the petty cash shop
till the multinational companies. Computers are needed for the very
purpose of making our jobs faster, easier, repeated, accurate and

7
automatic. The technological development is possible at tremendous
growth only because of computers. The processing of information for a
small industry as well for the highly sophisticated organisation is
operated efficiently only with the dawn of computers. High accurate
values are needed in the high tech industries like space science and
engineering sectors. This is possible only because of computers.
Following are a gist of the innumerable applications of computer and a
few of the applications will be dealt in detail in the following units.

Computer has become very important nowadays because it is very

much accurate, fast and can accomplish many tasks easily. Otherwise to
complete those tasks manually much more time is required. It can do
very big calculation in just a fraction of a second. Moreover it can store
huge amount of data in it. We also get information on different aspects
using internet on our computer.

Mid nineteen‘s computers were only used by the government and army
sectors. At that time using computer was a complicated task. When the
microprocessor was invented computer get smaller in size, but after
DOS and UNIX it become very easy for the people to use computer.
Computer in Different Fields

Banks: almost every bank is using computers to keep the record of all
the money transaction and other calculations. Moreover it provides
speed, convenience and security.

Communication: Communication is another important aspect of

computer and has become very easy through internet and email.
Computer communicates using telephone lines and modems. Through
email we can send messages to anybody in any part of the world in just
a second, if we write letter then it will reach after some days. So the
internet has made the earth a global village and above all saves time.
This would not be possible without computers. Internet helps to find
information on every topic. It is the easiest and fastest way of research.
Computer network makes the user capable of accessing remote
programs and databases of same or different orgnisations.

Business: computer has now become an integral part of corporate life.

They can do business transactions very easily and accurately and keep
the record of all the profit and loss. Today computers can be found in
every store, supermarkets, restaurants, offices etc., Special software is
used to these computers to calculate the huge bills within seconds. One
can buy and sell things online, bills and taxes can be paid online and

8
can also predict the future of business using artificial intelligence
software. It also plays very important rolein the stock markets.

Medicine: diseases can be easily diagnosed with the help of computer

and can also know about its cure. Many machines use computer which
allows the doctors to view the different organs of or body like lungs,
heart, kidneys etc., there is special software which helps the doctor
during the surgery.

Education: today computer has become an important part of one‘s

education because we are using computers in every field and without
the knowledge of computer we cannot get job and perform will in it. So
computers can secure better jobs prospects. Knowledge about computer
is a must in this era.

Media: Almost every type of editing and audio-visual compositions can

be made by using special software especially made for this purpose.
Some software can even make three dimensional figures which are
mostly used in the cartoon films. Special effects for action and science
fiction movies are also created on computer.

Travel Plans: computers do all the work of plane and train reservation. It
shows the data for vacant and reserved seats and also saves the record
for reservation.

Whether predictions: weather predictions are also possible by the

experts using super computers.

Sports: it is also used for umpiring decisions. Many times the umpire
has to go for the decision of third umpire in which the recording is seen
again on the computers and finally reaches to the accurate and fair
decision. Simulation software allows the sportsman to practice and
improve his skills.

Daily Life: we operate washing machines, microwave oven and many

other products using software. Moreover we can store all the information
about our important work, appointments, schedules and list of contacts.

So we can say that today computer is playing very important role in our
lives. Now is the time we cannot imagine the world without computers.
And this technology is advancing both in industry and home. It has
become necessary for everyone to have the basic knowledge about
computer. Otherwise he cannot get a job as computers have invaded
almost all the fields.

9
 THE COMPUTER

The concept of computing dates from the usage of pebbles for counting
cattle till this period of technology oriented era. During its initial
development computer was a mechanical device, later it became an
electrical device in its technology and now it is an electronic device.
Thus computer can be defined as ―an electronic device that could
automatically input data, process them in a logical order as per the given
instruction and produce the results according to the user‘s desire‖.

Based on the processing mode computers take to 3 categories as

1. Digital computers
2. Analog computers
3. Hybrid computers

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

The functional components of computer system consist of input Unit,

Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Output Unit. The way these
components are embedded in a computer may differ from one
architectural design to another, yet all of them constitute the essential
building blocks of a computer system as in the following figure:

Fig:1.1Block Diagram of a Computer

Input Unit: it controls various input devices which are used for entering
data into the computer system. Keyboard and Mouse, are the most

10
commonly used input device. Other such devices are magnetic tape,
magnetic disk, light pen, optical scanner, Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR), Optical Character Recognition (OCR), bar code
reader, smart card reader, etc., Besides, there are other devices which
respond to voice and physical touch. A menu layout is displayed on a
touch sensitive screen. Whenever user touches a menu item on touch -
screen, the computer senses which particular menu item has been
touched and accordingly performs the operation associated with that
menu item. Such touch screens have been installed at major railway
stations for obtaining the online information about arrival and departure
of trains.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): This is the main part of computer

hardware that actually process data, according to the instructions it
receives. It controls the flow of data by directing the data to enter the
system, places the data into its memory, retrieves the same as and
when needed and directs the output of data according to a set of stored
instructions. It has three main units as described below:

a. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): It is responsible for performing

all the arithmetic computations such as additions, subtraction,
division, multiplication and exponentiation. In addition to this, it
also performs logical operations involving comparisons among
variables and data items.
b. Memory Unit: In this unit, data is stored before being actually
processed. The data so stored is accessed and processed
according to a set of instructions and results are also stored in
the memory of the computer well before such processed data or
information are transmitted to the output devices.
c. Control Unit: This unit is entrusted with the responsibility of
controlling and co-ordinating the activities of all other units of the
computer system.
Specially, it performs the following functions:

 Read instructions out of memory unit

 Decode such instructions
 Set up the routing of data, through internal circuitry/wiring, to
the desired place at right time; and
 Determine the input device from where to get next instruction,
after the instruction in hand has been executed, send the
processed information to the output devices. It checks and
coordinates if the input and output units are ready for the
operations

11
OutPut Unit: After processing the data, the information produced
according to a set of instruction need to be made available to the user in
a human readable and understandable form. A computer system,
therefore, needs an output device to communicate such information to
the user. Essentially, the output device is assigned the task of translating
the processed data from machine coded form to a human readable form.

The commonly used output devices are,

 External devices like monitor also called Visual Display Unit

(VDU), and printer
 Graphic plotter for producing graphs, technical drawings and
charts and
 Internal devices like magnetic storage devices

Recently, a new device being perfected is the speech synthesiser,

which is capable of producing verbal output that sounds like human
speech.

CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system possesses some characteristics, which, in

comparison to human beings, turn out to be its capabilities. These are as
follows:

Storage: It refers to the amount of data a computer system can store

and access. The computer systems, besides having instant access to
data, have huge capacity to store such data in a very small physical
space. A CD-ROM with 4.7‖ of diameter is capable of storing a large
number of books, each containing thousands of pages and yet leaves
enough space for storing more such material. A typical mainframe
computer system is capable of storing and providing online billion of
characters and thousands of graphic images. It is clear from the above
discussion that computer capabilities outperform the human capabilities.
As a result, a computer, when used properly, will improve the efficiency
of an organisation.

Speed: It refers to the amount of time computers takes in accomplishing

a task or completes an operation. Computes require far less time than
human beings in performing a task. Normally, human beings take into
account a second or minute as unit of time. But computers have such a
fast operating capability that the relevant unit of time is fraction of a
second. Most of the modern computersare capable of performing a 100s
million calculations per second and that is why the industry has

12
developed Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) as the criterion to
classify different computers according to speed.

Accuracy: It refers to the degree of exactness with which computations

are made and operations are performed. One might spend years in
detecting errors in computer calculations or updating a wrong record.
Most of the errors in Computer Based Information System (CBIS) occur
because of bad programming, erroneous data and deviation from
procedures. These errors are caused by human beings. Errors
attributable to hardware are normally detected and corrected by the
computer system itself. The computers rarely commit errors and perform
all types of complex operations accurately.

Versatility: It refers to the ability of computers to perform a variety of

tasks simple as well as complex. Computers are usually versatile unless
designed for a specific application. A general purpose computer is
capable of being used in any area of application: business, industry,
scientific, statistical, technological, communications and so on. A general
purpose computer, when installed in an organization, can take over the
jobs of several specialists because of its versatility: Computer system
when installed can take over the jobs of all these specialists because of
being highly versatile. This further ensures fuller utilization of its
capability.

Reliability and Automation: It refers to the ability with which the

computers remain functional to serve the user Computer systems are
well-adapted to performing repetitive operations with utmost reliability
provided they are fed with reliable data and perfect processing
instruction. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue.
Therefore, they are more reliable than human beings. Yet there can be
failures of computer system due to internal and external reasons. Any
failure of the computer in a highly automated industry is unacceptable .
Therefore, the companies in such situations provide for back-up facility
to swiftly take over operations without loss of time.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

In spite of possessing all the above capabilities, computers suffer from

the following limitations

Lack of Commonsense: Computer systems as on date do not possess

any common sense because no full-proof algorithm has been designed
to programme common sense. Since computers work according to a
stored programme(s), they simply lack of common-sense.

13
Zero IQ: Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence Quotient
(IQ). They cannot visualize and think what exactly to do under a
particular situation, unless they have been programmed to tackle that
situation. Computers must be directed to perform each and every action,
however minute it may be.

Lack of Decision-making: Decision-making is a complex process

involving information, knowledge, intelligence, wisdom and ability to
judge. Computers cannot take decisions on their own because they do
not possess all the essentials of decision making. They can be
programmed to take such decisions, which are purely procedure -
oriented. If a computer has not been programmed for a particular
decision situation, it will not take decision due to lack of wisdom Human
beings, on the other hand, possess this great power of decision - making.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
1.Write any two Reasons for Learning Computers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2.What are the Dual Purposes of Computer Science Subject?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3. Give any two Uses of Computers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

4. Define Computer.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5. Mention the Capabilities of Computers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

14
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to

the different generations of computing devices;A generation refers to the
state of improvement in the development of a product. This term is also
used in the different advancements of computer technology. With each
new generation, the circuitry has got smaller andmore advanced than
the previous generation before it. As a result of the minimization, speed,
power, and memory of computers have proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live,
work and play.
Each generation of computer is characterised by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices. Let us learn about each generation and the
developments of computers that we use today.

FIRST GENERATION (1940-1956)

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums
for memory and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
Amagnetic drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated
with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be
stored. Magnetic drums were once used as a primary storage device but
later as auxiliary storage devices. The tracks on a magnetic drum are
assigned to channels located around the circumference of the drum,
forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum. A single
drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the drum rotates at a speed of up to
3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on
the drum during the write operation and sense these spots during a read
operation. This action is similar to that of a magnetic tape or disk drive.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunction: First generation computers relied on machine language to
perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers.
While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost

15
impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers.
Programmers, therefore, use either a high-level programming language
or an assembly language. An assembly language contains the same
instructions as a machine language, but the instructions and variables
have names as mnemonic codes instead of being just numbers.
Programs written in high-level languages are translated into assembly
language or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language
programs are translated into machine language by a program called an
assembler. Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Programs
must be rewritten or recompiled, therefore, to run on different types of
computers. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and
output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation

computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer
delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, ENIAC,
weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting of
18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945. The
ENIAC‘s was used in weather prediction, atomic energy calculations,
cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition, random-number studies, wind-tunel
designs, and other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon became obsolete
when the need for faster computing arose. Fig 1.2 shows the Bendix G-
15, General Purpose Digital Computer, a First Generation computer
introduced in 1956.

16
 Fig: 1.2 Bendix G-15

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second

generation of computers. Transistor is a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a
circuit. Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, transistors have become the key
ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's
microprocessors contain tens of millions of microscopic transistors. Prior
to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum
tubes, which had many disadvantages. They were much larger, required
more energy, dissipated more heat, and were more prone to failures. It's
safe to say that without the invention of transistors, computing as we
know it today would not be possible. The transistor was invented in 1947
but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable than their first generation predecessors. Though the transistor
still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to
damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second -
generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic
binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which
allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as

17
early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first
computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved
from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Fig: 1.3 Transistors Replaced the Vacuum Tubes making the

Computers Smaller

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
6. What is meant by Generation?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7. What was the component used in the First Generation Computers?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. Name any one of the First Generation Computers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. What was the main component of the Second Generation

Computers?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

18
 THIRD GENERATION (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the
speed and efficiency of computers. Silicon is a non-metallic chemical
element in the carbon family of elements. Silicon atomic symbol "Si"- is
the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, surpassed only
by oxygen, Silicon occur combined in nature. Sand and almost all rocks
contain silicon combined with oxygen, forming silica. When silicon
combines with other elements, such as iron, aluminium or potassium, a
silicate is formed.

Compounds of silicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters,

plants and in the bodies of some animals. Silicon is the basic material
used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other
electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure
makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped,
or mixed, with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic,
to alter its conductive properties. A chip is a small piece of semi
conducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is
embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain
millions of electronic components (transistors). Computers consist of
many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards.
There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called
microprocessors) contain an entire processing unit, whereas memory
chips contain blank memory.

Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor of electricity

(like copper) nor a good insulator (like rubber). The most common
semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. These materials
are then doped to create an excess or lack of electrons. Computer chips,
both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials,
Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components,
such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization mean that the
components take up less space, it also means that they are faster and
require less energy. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers through key boards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time

19
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

Fig: 1.4 The NOVA

(The NOVA was one of the 16 bit mini Computers of the 3 Generation
that led the way to the Multiples of 8 bits).

FOURTH GENERATION (1971-PRESENT)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as

thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. A
silicon chip contains CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms
microprocessor and CPU used interchangeably. At the heart of all
personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor .
Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from
clock radios to fuel injections stems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

1. Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor

can execute.
2. Bandwidth: The member of bits processed in a single
instruction.
3. Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed
determines how manyinstructions per second the processor can
execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful is the CPU. For
example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful
than a 16 bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz. What in the first
generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.
The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output

20
controls-on a single chip. The CPU is the brains of the computer.
Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the
CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing
power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. On
large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On
personal computers and small work stations, the CPU is housed in a
single chip called a microprocessor.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple introduced the Macintosh Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and
more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small
computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUls, the mouse
and handheld devices.

FIFTH GENERATION-PRESENT AND BEYOND

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are

still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today. Some of the 5 generation
computers have gone up to a Palm top that could do lot of jobs from
petty cash to higher level scientific calculations Following is a model of
such a computer.

Fig: 1.5 Palm Top

21
Artificial Intelligence: This is the branch of computer science
concerned with making computers behave like humans. The term was
coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes:

Games: Computers to play games such as chess and checkers.

Expert Systems: Computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for

example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based
on symptoms).
Natural Language: Computers to understand natural human languages.

Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to

reproducethe types of physical connections that occur in animal brains.

Robotics: Computers to see, hear and react to other sensory stimuli,

currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, which
are able to simulate human behavior). The greatest advances have
occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess
programs are now capable of beating humans. In May, 1997, an IBM
super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary
Kasparov in a chess match.

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembling

plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great
difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still
move and handle objects clumsily.

Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards

because it would allow people to interact with computers without
needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a
computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to
understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than
originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate
from one human language to another are in existence, but they are not
nearly as good as human translators.
There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken
sounds into written words, but they do not understand what they are
writing they simply take dictation. Even these systems are quite limited,
we must speak slowly and distinctly.

22
Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and
engineering but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only
in special situations.

Today, the most recent area of artificial intelligence is neural networks,

which are proving successful in a number of disciplines such as voice
recognition and natural language processing. There are several
programming languages that are known as Al languages because they
are used almost exclusively for Al applications. Two of the most common
languages are LISP and Prolog.

Voice Recognition: The field of computer science deals with designing

computer systems that can recognize spoken words. Note that voice
recognition implies only that the computer can take dictation, not that it
understands what is being said. Comprehending human languages falls
under a different field of computer science called natural language
processing. A number of voice recognition systems are available on the
market. The most powerful can recognize thousands of words. However,
they generally require an extended training session during which the
computer system becomes accustomed to a particular voice and accent .
Such systems are said to be speaker dependent.

Many systems also require that the speaker speak slowly and distinctly
and separate each word with a short pause. These systems are called
discrete speech systems. Recently, great steps have been made in
continuous speech systems-voice recognition systems that allow you to
speak naturally. There are now several continuous-speech systems
available for personal computers.

Because of their limitations and high cost, voice recognition systems

have traditionally been used only in a few specialized situations. For
example, such systems are useful in instances when the user is unable
to use a keyboard to enter data because his or her hands are occupied
or disabled. Instead of typing commands, the user can simply spea k into
a headset. Increasingly, however, as the cost decreases and
performance improves, speech recognition systems are entering the
mainstream and are being used as an alternative to keyboards.

The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make

artificial intelligence a reality. Parallel processing is the simultaneous use
of more than one CPU to execute a program. Ideally, parallel processing
makes a program run faster because there are more engines (CPUs)
running it. In practice, it is often difficult to divide a program in such a
way that separate CPUs can execute different portions without
interfering with each other.

23
Most computers have just one CPU, but some models have several.
There are even computers with thousands of CPUs. With single-CPU
computers, it is possible to perform parallel processing by connecting
the computers in a network. However, this type of parallel processing
requires very sophisticated software called distributed processing
software.

Note that parallel processing differs from multitasking, in which a single

CPU executes several programs at once. Parallel processing is also
called parallel computing.

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that

respond to naturallanguage input and are capable of learning and self-
organization. Natural language means a human language. For example,
English, French and Tamil but not the Computer languages, such as
FORTRAN and C. But it will be the most challenging problem in
computer science to develop computers that can understand natural
languages. So far, the complete solution to this problem has proved
vague, but a great deal of progress has been made.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.

10. What is a Silicon Chip?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
11.Define Semiconductor.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

12. What is a Micro Processor?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
13. What is meant by Artificial Intelligence?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

24
 PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTING

Principles are statements that guide future action. Computing principles

are of two kinds: (1) recurrences, including laws, processes, and
methods that describe repeatable cause-effect relationships, and (2)
guidelines for conduct. An example of a law is that the fastest sorting
algorithms take time at least order ofnlogn to arrange n items in order.
An example of a conduct guideline is that network programmers should
divide protocol software into layers. The purpose of such principles is to
reduce apparent complexity, increase understanding, and enable good
design.

From the many computing technologies to identify the principles on

which they are based, and on what aspects of computation are
influencing other fields, it is concluded that computing principles can be
grouped into seven categories:

 Computation
 Communication
 Coordination
 Recollection
 Automation
 Evaluation
 Design

It is the process of data manipulation, sharing of the needed data and

information, transferring data to the destination, storing and retrieval of
data and information, repetition and making the copies automatically,
making judgments and reasoning and designing and modelling.

TECHNIQUES OF COM PUTING

Computer processing is done in coordination with its different units and

components. The processing technique depends on the type of
Operating Systems (OS).
Specific Types of OS

1. Batch processing System

2. Timesharing OS
3. Real-time OS
4. Distributed OS

25
BATCH PROCESSING

In a batch processing system, a number of computer programs would be

collected on stacks of punched cards, then transferred on magnetic
tapes and loaded into the computer together to be executed in
succession. This minimize the time the computer spent idly waiting for
data to be loaded or unloaded.

Disadvantage: Batch-processing do not allow user's direct interaction

with or an immediate response from the computer. Programs could not
be edited or debugged in direct interaction with the machine because a
large computer was too valuable to devote to the exclusive use of a
single person.

TIME-SHARING

To make efficient use of the machine, but also allow users to program
interactively, computer scientists began investigating a new type of
operating system. This new type of system was called time-sharing.
Instead of running a single program at a time from start to finish, a time-
sharing operating system would serve a number of users, cycling
between them in rapid succession. Each user would have the
impression of continuous interaction of the computer. Time-sharing
made it economically feasible to use computers interactively because a
user could log in for an extended session without monopolizing the
machine resources.

REAL TIME SYSTEM

A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS; generally pronounced as "R-

toss") is a multitasking operating systems intended for real-time
applications. Such applications include embedded systems
(programmable thermostats, household appliance controllers), industrial
robots, spacecraft, industrial control and scientific research equipment.

DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEM

Distributed OS gives one system image to/over a networked cluster of

workstations, research project, high file system performance via client
and server caching process migration to use idle machines; test bed for
research in file systems and crash recovery.

26
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the unit.

14. What is Batch Processing?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
15. Define Time Sharing.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

16. What is a Real Time System?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

LET US SUM UP

Computer is an electronic device designed to process the given data the

requirements of the user. It is unique in its process of speed, accuracy,
simply and automation. It has the vast storage capacity to help mankind
store large data. From the dawn of the device it can be categorized into
4 generations based components, capacity, speed and accuracy. The
present generation is con be the generation and Nano technology is the
boon of this generation. Computer works on three type signals such as
Digital, Analog and Hybrid. The processing of the computing is Batch
processing, Time Sharing and Real time Systems etc.,

GLOSSARY

 Computer - an electronic device for storing and processing data,

typically in binary form, according to instructions given to it in a
variable program.
 Computer science - the study of the principles and use of
computers.
 Generations of computer - Generation in computer terminology is
a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

27
  Techniques of computing - Computing is any goal-oriented
activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing
machinery.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a. To learn about the global happenings

b. To be competent

c. To get a job
d. To become knowledgeable person in the knowledge era

2. a. Learn computer science as a subject

b. Become equipped in the job market

3. 1. Weather fore casting & 2. Bank transaction

4. Computer is an electronic device that can automatically input the

data process them according to the given instruction and produce
the results in the desired form with minimum human intervention.
5. It has large storage capacity, high accuracy, great speed,
automatic with less human intervention and versatile in nature.

6. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development

of product. This term is also used in the different advancements of
computer technology.
7. First generation computers used Vacuum Tubes

8. UNIVAC

9. Transistor was the main component of the second generation

computers

10. Silicon is a non-metallic chemical element in the carbon family of

elements. A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material on
which an integrated circuit is embedded.

11. Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor of

electricity (like copper) nor a good insulator

12 A microprocessor is a circuitry chip that incorporates most or all of

the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single
integrated circuit(IC).

13. It is the branch of computer science concerned with making

computers behave like humans.

28
14. It is a program that takes a set of data files as input, process the
data, and produces a set of output data files. This operating
environment is termed as "Batch Processing" because the input
data are collected into batches onfiles and are processed in
Batches by the program.

15. Time sharing is sharing of the same computer resources with

many users.

16. Real-time system responds to events as they occur in the

computer is used for the current operation on progress.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004), Fundamentals of ComputingNew

Delhi: Vijay Nicole Publishers.

Govindarajalu, B. (2004), Computer Architecture and Organization

New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hall Publishing Company Limited.

Sanjay Saxena. (2003). A first Course in Computers, New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House.
Lance, A. Leventhal. (1984). Introduction to Microprocessors. New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
Microsoft Corporation Editorial Style Board. (2004). Technical
Publications, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.

Radhakrishnan. (1987). Textbook on Computer Programming.

Coimbatore: Pratheeba Publishers.

Mahesh, K. Goel. (1987). Programming in BASIC. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private
Limithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com
puter

29
UNIT 2 THE HARDWARE AND SOFTWAREOF COMPUTERS

Structure

Introduction

Objectives
Hardware

Definition of Hardware
Input Devices

Keyboard
Joystick

Mouse
Light pen

Scanner
Output Devices

Monitor
Printers

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 Line and Serial Printer

Dot Matrix Printer

Inkjet Printer

Laser Printer
Thermal Printer

Storage Devices
Hard Disk

Floppy Disk
CDs

DVDs
Software

Definition
System Software

Application Software
Programming Languages

High and Low Level Languages

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Computers employ 2 folds of gears to do any job, unlike any other

technological device. It needs a good physical component and also
driving components that make the physical component operate properly.
These two distinct factors provide vast areas of knowledge and usage
for mankind. Every individual from child till old age people show interest
to learn and apply computer skills. So the teachers need to be aware of
the latest computer hardware and software areas to support their
students to learn the needed computer skills. This unit will provide the
basic concepts on Hardware the mechanical component and the
software the driving factor of the hardware.

OBJECTIVES

31
 After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about computers hardware and software

 understand and identify the different types of Input and output
devices
 understand the principle involved in printing techniques
 understand and identify the different types of software

HARDWARE

Computers were initially started as a mechanical instrument that could

help mankind to do tedious, laborious calculations. Later as technology
improved, computers took up a phenomenal growth in its dimension and
usage. From mechanical device, developed to electrical and now to an
electronic device. Unlike any other devices, computer comprises of two
unique and exclusive operative features which are supplementing each
other in their operation and work coordinated towards achieving a single
goal. The two unique areas are hardware and software.

DEFINITION OF HARDWARE

The physical components, peripherals, and equipment that comprise a

computer system that can be visually seen and used in getting a
problem to be solved is known as the hardware. More commonly kn own
as the mechanical and electrical component of a computer system i.e.,
the physical units of the computer system, the electrical cables, the
junction boxes, the modem, the switch and the other input-output
devices are known as hardware.

INPUT DEVICES

The Hardware component through which the needed data for processing
as well as the program that instruct the computer to operate are called
Input devices. Input details can be given to the computer during the
process or can be given through already stored devices. These storage
devices are also called input devices or secondary storage devices.
Following are a few Input devices.

KEYBOARD

32
A keyboard's primary function is to act as an input device. Using a
keyboard, a person can type a document, use keystroke shortcuts,
access menus, play games and perform a variety of other tasks.
Keyboards can have different keys depending on the manufacturer, the
operating system they're designed for, and whether they are attached to
a desktop computer or a laptop. But for the most part, these keys, also
called keycaps, are the same size and shape from keyboard to
keyboard. They're also placed at a similar distance from one another in
a similar pattern, no matter what language or alphabet the keys
represent. Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys.

Keyboards can also use a variety of other typing key arrangements. The
most commonly used letters are all found along the home row. The
home row is the main row where we place our fingers when you begin
typing. Other layouts include ABCDE, XPERT, QWERTZ and AZERTY.
Each is named for the first keys in the pattern. The QWERTZ and
AZERTY arrangements are commonly used in Europe.

The numeric keypad is a more recent addition to the computer keyboard.

As the use of computers in business environments increased, so did the
need for speedy data entry. Since a large part of the data was numbers,
a set of 17 keys, arranged in the same configuration found on adding
machines and calculators, was added to the keyboard.

Fig: 2.1 Keyboard

JOYSTICK

Joystick is one kind of input component which has a stick with a knob to
operate. With the help of this the screen elements can be directed and

33
accordingly the operations take place. Very often these kinds of joysticks
are used for kids programs and some of hybrid type of computers.

MOUSE

A mouse is a small hand held device which is used to mark, fix, identify,
invoke or operate any screen element or to position any text or object.
The latest development in the input device is the optical mouse. There is
also wireless mouse.
Optical Mouse : Developed by Agilent Technologies and introduced to
the world in late 1999, the optical mouse actually uses a tiny camera to
take thousands of pictures every second. Able to work on almost any
surface without a mouse pad, most optical mouse use a small, red light-
Emitting Diode (LED) that bounces light off that surface onto a
Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) sensor. In addition
to LED, a recent innovation are laser-based optical mouse that detect
more surface details compared to LED technology. This results in the
ability to a laser-based optical mouse on even more surfaces than an
LED mouse.

Fig: 2.2 Wireless mouse

LIGHT PEN

This is a kind of input device which has a pen like structure. It is

attached with the computer through cables. The user can make marks or
drawings on the screen of the computer by touching the screen through
the tip of the light pen. The drawings made on the screen will be
converted into electronic codes and will be stored in the memory. This is

34
very much helpful when the user wants to make any instant correction or
make drawings currently.

SCANNER

Scanners allow a PC to convert a picture or object into digital code that

allows the computer to display and use an image. A scanner's
sophistication is the ability to translate an unlimited number of analog
voltage levels to digital values. The computer is not able to use graphics
unless they are in a form that they can understand. The scanner takes
the information it sees on a page and converts into code that the
computer can use. A picture once scanned can be edited, printed, or
used in an application. Scanners can come with specialised software
called Optical Character Recognition (OCR). This software can read text
as printed or written. The information can then be manipulated in the
computer.
Types of Scanners

Sheet-Fed Scanner: Sheet-fed scanners have mechanical rollers that

move the paper past the scan head.
Flatbed Scanner:Flatbed Scanners have a glass window where the
item to be scanned is placed on top of it while the head moves past the
item. This method is similar to a xerox machine.

Hand Held Scanner: Hand held scanners are small, portable scanners
that depend on a human operator to move the head across the object or
image to be scanned.
Colour Vs Grayscale

Gray Scale: Using black and white and shades of grey, the scanner is
able to translate the image into grey scales. Why would you use a grey
scale scanner? If you plan to print on a black and white printer, it is most
cost effective since colour ink is so expensive. Text is best done on a
grayscale scanner.
Colour: A colour scanner scans images in red, blue, and green shades.
This scanner is more expensive in terms of final print output. A colour
scanner usually costs more than a grey scale scanner. If you plan on
doing presentation work, work with colour photographs, or any sort of
task that requires a colour output, then use a colour scanner. With this
scanner you can also choose options of scanning such as line art
(scanning the image only in black or white), grayscale (black, white, and
shades of grey, or colour (shades of red, blue, and green).

35
While scanning, the following operations are done.

1. A light source underneath the picture or document illuminates

the image. Spaces white or blank reflect more light than do
inked and coloured areas.
2. A motor moves the scan head underneath the page. When the
scan head is moving it captures light that was reflected from
individual areas of the page about 1/90,000 of an inch.
3. Light from this page is bounced through an intricate system of
mirrors that must continually pivot to keep the light beams
aligned with a lens.
4. A lens focuses the beams of light into light sensitive diodes that
translate theamount of light into an electric current. The amount
of the current depends onthe amount of light reflected, the
greater the amount of light reflected the greaterthe current.
5. The Analog to Digital (A-D) converter stores each analog
reading of voltage as a digital pixel representing either a black or
white area. Scanners that aremore sophisticated can translate
the voltage into shades of grey. In a scanner, the scan head
makes 3 passes under the image and the light on each pass is
directed through a red, green or blue filter before it strikes the
original image.
6. The Digital Information is sent to the computer where it is
translated into a format that a graphics program can read.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.
1. What is Hardware?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. Mention any 2 Input Devices.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3.Write any two types of Scanners.

36
 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4.What is a Hand Held Scanner?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

OUTPUT DEVICES

The hardware components through which the processed information are

received either through print out materials or through storage devices is
called output devices. Let us learn about a few output devices.

MONITOR

Monitors are the ones which are prominently seen in a computer system.
It is a small screen that displays the text, facts, figures, pictures and
objects that are presented, processed and produced in the computers.

Monitors come in various sizes. 17" monitor are becoming entry

standard monitor. 15" monitors are OK if you are running it at a low
resolution and not using it for long hours. Monitors consist of thousands
of pixels (the tiny dots you see on the screen). Smaller pixels produces
high definition sharp display which is at least 0.25 mm dot pitch A17‖
monitor can have refresh rate of at least 85 H2 at 1024×768 resolutions.
A 19" monitor has at least 1250×1024 at 85 H2 Power consumption
varies greatly with different technologies. CRT displays are somewhat
power-hungry, at about 100 watts for a typical 19-inch display.

LCD monitors: The latest development in the monitor displays is the

LCD monitors. It is Liquid Crystal Display. The average power
consumption is about 45 watts for a 19-inch LCD display: LCD also
produces less beat, smaller and weight less. An LCD monitor is
significantly thinner and lighter than a CRT monitor, typically weighting
less than half as much. In addition, you can mount an LCD on an arm or
a wall, which also takes up less desktop space, LCD displays are much
more adjustable than CRT displays With LCD, you can adjust the tilt,
height, swivel, and orientation from horizontal to vertical mode. As noted
previously, you can also mount them on the wall or on an arm.

37
Less eye strain-Because LCD displays turn each pixel off individually,
they do not produce a flicker like CRT displays do. In addition, LCD
displays do a better displaying text compared with CRT displays.

Fig: 2.3 LCD Monitor

38
Advantages of CRT Monitor

Less expensive-Although LCD monitor prices have decreased,

comparable CRT displays still cost less.

Better colour representation-CRT displays have historically

represented colours and different gradations of color more accurately
than LCD displays. However, LCD displays are gaining ground in this
area, especially with higher-end models that include color-calibration
technology.

PRINTERS

Printers help the user to get the computer processed results in a printed
format and help to make any lay person to understand the result and
also help to file office copy of the results. There are different types of
printers namely line printers and serial printers depending upon the
nature of printing.

LINE AND SERIAL PRINTER

The line printer is a form of high speed impact printer in which one line of
type is printed at a time. They are mostly associated with the early days
of computing, but the technology is still in use. Print speeds of 600 to
1200 lines-per-minute (approximately 10 to 20 pages per minute) were
common. Serial Printers print the information character by character.

Based on the printing technique printers are also classified as impact

printers and nonimpact printers. Impact printers, as the very name
implies means that the printing mechanism touches the paper for
creating an image. Impact printers were used in early 70s and 80s.
There are several printer technologies used in today's home, office and
banking printers.

DOT MATRIX PRINTER: Dot matrix printer is one of the

impact printers, represent the oldest printing technology, are still
widespread today, and grace of its best cost per page ratio. Dot matrix
printers are divided on two main groups: serial dot matrix printers and
line dot matrix printers. In serial dot matrix printers the characters are
formed by the print head. The print head has a number of print wires
(pins) arranged in vertical columns and electromagnetic mechanism is

39
able to activate these wire. There are two main print head technologies
in the first one electromagnetic field shoots the print head's wire. In the
second one, called permanent magnet print heads, a spring, shoots the
print head wire and the magnetic field just holds the spring in stressed
and ready to shoot position. When the electromagnetic field equalizes
the magnetic field, the spring is released to shoot the wire. As the printer
head moves in horizontal direction, the print head controller sends
electrical signals which forces the appropriate wires to strike against the
inked ribbon, making dots on the paper and forming the desired
characters. The most commonly used printer heads has 9 print wires in
one column (9-pin print heads) or 24 print wires in two columns (24-pin
print heads), for better print quality. In some heavy-duty dot matrix
printers there are also used 18 wire print heads (18 -pin print heads)
which have 2 columns, 9 wires in each.

Fig: 2.4 Dot Matrix Printer

Other Impact Printers like Character printers are basically computerized

typewriters. They have a series of bars or a ball with actual characters
on them, which strike on the ink ribbon to transfer the characters on the
paper. At a time only one character can be printed. Daisy Wheel printers
use a plastic or metal wheel. These types of printers have limited usage
though because they are limited to printing only characters or one type
of font and not the graphics.

There are Line printers where a chain of characters or pins, print an

entire line, which makes them pretty fast, but the print quality is not so
good. Thermal printers are nothing but printers used in calculators and
fax machines. They are inexpensive to use. Thermal printers work by
pushing heated pins against special heat sensitive paper.

40
More efficient and advanced printers have come out now which use new
Nonimpact Technology.

INKJET PRINTER

During the printing function the print head in this printer scans the page
horizontally back and forth and another motor assembly rolls the paper
vertically in strips and thus a strip is printed at a time. Only half a second
is taken to print a strip. Inkjet printers were very popular because of their
ability to colour print. Most inkjets use Thermal Technology. Plain copier
paper can be used in these printers unlike thermal paper used for fax
machines. Heat is used to fire ink onto the paper through the print head.
Some print heads can have up to 300 nozzles. Heat resistant and water
based ink is used for these printers.

Fig: 2.5 Inkjet Printer

LASER PRINTER

Non-impact printers are those where the printing mechanism does not
come into the contact of paper at all. This makes them quicker and
quicker in operation, in comparison to the impact printers. In mid 1980s
Inkjet printers were introduced. These have been the most widely used
and popular printers so far, Colour printing got revolutionized after inkjet
printers were invented. An Inkjet printer's head has tiny nozzles, which
place extremely tiny droplets of ink on the paper to create an image.
These dots are so small that even the diameter of human hair is bigger.
These dots are placed precisely and can be up to the resolution of 1440
x 720 per inch. Different combinations of ink cartridges can be used for
these printers.

41
 Fig: 2.6 Laser Printer

The latest and fastest printers are Laser Printers. They use the principal
of static electricity for printing it as in photocopiers. The principle of static
electricity is that it can be built on an insulated object. Oppositely
charged atoms of objects (positive and negative) are attracted to each
other and cling together. For example, pieces of nylon material cling ing
to your body, or the static you get after brushing hair. A laser printer
uses this same principle to glue ink on the paper.

Unlike other printers, Laser printers use toner, static electricity and heat
to create an image on the paper. Toner is dry ink. It contains colour and
plastic particles. The toner passes through the fuser in the computer and
the resulting heat binds it to any type of paper. Printing with laser
printers is fast and non-smudge and the quality is excellent because of
the high resolution that it can achieve with 300 dots per inch (dpi) to
almost 1200 dpi at the higher end. Basic components of a laser printer
are fuser, photoreceptor drum assembly, developer roller, laser scanning
unit, toner hopper, corona wire and a discharge lamp. The laser beam
creates an image on the drum and wherever it hits, it changes the
electrical charge like positive or negative. The drum then is rolled on the
toner. Toner is picked up by charged portion of the drum and gets
transferred to the paper after passing through the fuser. Fuser heatsup
the paper to amalgamate ink and plastic in toner to create an image,
Laser printers Software are called "page printers" because entire page is
transferred to the drum before printing. Any type of paper can be used in
these printers. Laser printers popularized DIP or Desk Top Publishing for
it can print any number of fonts and any graphics.

42
THERMAL PRINTER

A thermal printer (or direct thermal printer) produces a printed image by

selectively heating thermo coated paper. When the paper passes over
the thermal print head, the coating turns black in the areas where it is
heated, producing an image. Two colour direct thermal printers are
capable of printing both black and an additional colour (often red), by
applying heat at two different temperatures. Thermal printers print faster
and quieter than dot matrix printers. They are also more economical
since their only consumable is the paper itself. Even though the paper is
more expensive, printers can be rapidly refilled. Through the 1990s,
many fax machines used thermal printing technology. Toward the
beginning of the 21st century, however, thermal wax transfer, laser, and
inkjet printing technology largely supplanted thermal printing technology
in fax machines in order to allow plain-paper printouts. Early
formulations of the thermo-sensitive coating used in thermal paper were
sensitive to incidental heat, abrasion, friction thus darkening the light and
water. However, more modem thermal coating formulations have
resulted in exceptional image stability; thermally-printed text should
remain legible at least 50 years.

Fig: 2.7 Thermal Printer

A thermal printer (or direct thermal printer) produces a printed image by

selectively heating thermo coated paper. When the paper passes over
the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is
heated, producing an image. Two colour direct thermal printers are
capable of printing both black and an additional colo ur (often red), by
applying heat at two different temperatures. Thermal printers print faster
and quieter than dot matrix printers. They are also more economical

43
 since their only consumable is the paper itself. Even though the paper is
more expensive, printers can be rapidly refilled. Through the 1990s,
many fax machines used thermal printing technology. Toward the
beginning of the 21st century, however, thermal wax transfer, laser, and
inkjet printing technology largely supplanted thermal printing technology
in fax machines in order to allow plain-paper printouts. Early
formulations of the thermo-sensitive coating used in thermal paper were
sensitive to incidental heat, abrasion, friction thus darkening the light and
water. However, more modem thermal coating formulations have
resulted in exceptional image stability,thermally-printed text should
remain legible at least 50 years.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

5. What is the use of Monitors?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

6. What are the 2 types of Printers,

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7. Name any two Printers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

STORAGE DEVICES

The computer peripheral devices that are used to store the data and
programs are called storage devices. They are also known as secondary
storage devices or auxiliary storage devices. These devices act both as
input as well as output devices.

44
HARD DISK

Hard Disk is the main component present in the computer's Central

Processing Unit. This is the fundamental storage that resides in the
computer's core memory and act as a platform for all the internal
manipulation and processing. It stores the input details, intermediate
values during process and the results after process. The memory of a
computer is decided by this hard disk.

FLOPPY DISK

Floppy disk drives were a key computer component for 20 years. If you
have spent any time at all working with a computer, then chances are
good that you have used a floppy disk at some point. The Floppy Disk
Drive (FDD) was the primary means of adding data to a computer until
the CD-ROM drive became popular. In fact, FDDs have been a key
component of most personal computers for more than 20 years.
Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular
piece of metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape.

The Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) was invented at IBM by Alan Shugart in
1967. The first floppy drives used an 8-inch disk (later called a "diskette"
as it got smaller), which evolved into the 5.25-inch disk that was used on
the first IBM Personal Computer in August 1981. The 5.25 -inch disk held
360 kilobytes compared to the 1.44 megabyte capacity of today's 3.5 -
inch diskette. The 5.25-inch disks were dubbed "floppy" because the
diskette packaging was a very flexible plastic envelope, unlike the rigid
case used to hold today's 3.5-inch diskettes.

By the mid-1980s, the improved designs of the read/write heads, along

with improvements in the magnetic recording media, led to the less -
flexible, 3.5-inch, 1.44-megabyte (MB) capacity FDD in use today. For a
few years, computers had both FDD sizes (3.5-inch and 5.25-inch). But
by the mid-1990s, the 5.25-inch version had fallen out of popularity,
partly because the diskette's recording surface could easily become
contaminated by fingerprints through the open access area.

The following is an overview of how a floppy disk drive writes data to a

floppy disk. The computer program passes an instruction to the
computer hardware to write a data file on a floppy disk, which is very
similar to a single platter in a hard disk drive except that it is spinning
much slower, with far less capacity and slower access time. The
computer hardware and the floppy-disk-drive controller start the motor in
the diskette drive to spin the floppy disk. The disk has many concentric

45
tracks on each side. Each track is divided into smaller segments called
sectors, like slices of a pie. A second motor, called a stepper motor,
rotates a worm-gear shaft (a miniature version of the worm gear in a
bench-top vise) in minute increments that match the spacing between
tracks. The time it takes to get to the correct track is called "access
time." This stepping action (partial revolutions) of the stepper motor
moves the read/write heads like the jaws of a bench-top vise. The floppy-
disk-drive electronics know how many steps the motor has to turn to
move the read/write heads to the correct track. The read/write heads stop
at the track. The read head checks the prewritten address on the
formatted diskette to be sure it is using the correct side of the diskette
and is at the proper track. This operation is very similar to the way a
record player automatically goes to a certain groove on a vinyl record.
Before the data from the program is written to the diskette, an erase coil
(on the same read/ write head assembly) is energized to "clear" a wide,
"clean slate" sector prior to writing the sector data with the write head.
The erased sector is wider than the written sector-this way, no signals
from sectors in adjacent tracks will interfere with the sector in the track
being written.

COMPACT DISK (CD)

The latest development of the storage devices is the Compact Disk

outdating the floppy disks. It is widely known as CD. The technique is
the same as that of the floppy disk but with large storage capacity. The
CDs can be used only in computers.

Fig: 2.8 Compact Disk

46
 i. DIGITAL VIDEO DISK (DVD)

The Digital Video Disk is the extended form of CDs and is capable of
being operated in the DVD drives besides the computers.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.
8. What is the use Hard disk?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

9. Mention any two types of Floppies.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. What is meant by CD?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. Can a DVD be played in a Computer?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _

SOFTWARE

DEFINITION

Software is a set of instructions used to make a computer work

according to the requirements. There are software's which helps the
computer operate. Programming Software is one of the most commonly
known and popularly used forms of computer software. This software
comes in form of tools that assist a programmer in writing computer
programs. Computer programs are sets of logical instructions that make
a computer system perform certain tasks. The tools that help the
programmers in instructing a computer system include text editors,
compilers and interpreters.

47
 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer system.

System software is a collection of operating systems, device drivers,
servers, windowing systems and utilities. System software helps an
application programmer in abstracting away from hardware, memory and
other internal complexities of a computer. Systems software is built in
software. Operating systems, compilers and translators are systems
software. DOS, MS-DOS, Windows and all the versions of Windows,
Linux, and UNIX are a few example of operating system that any
common man uses now a day.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks. Business

software, databases and educational software are some forms of
application software. Different word processors, which are dedicated for
specialised tasks to be performed by the user, are other examples of
application software. The various types of application programs are
Excel, Word, PowerPoint etc.,

Software category Function

Word Processor Provides the tools for entering and

editing text, adding graphical pictures
and figures, formatting and printing
documents.

Spread Sheets Provides the tools for working with

numbers and allows one to create and
edit electronic spreadsheets in
managing and analyzing information.

Provides tools for management of a

collection of interrelated facts. Data can
Database Management
be stored, updated. manipulated,
retrieved and reported in a variety of
ways.

Presentation Graphics Provides the tools for creating graphics

that give visual effects which can be
easily understood and designed.

48
 Communication Software Provides the tools for connecting one
computer with another to enable
sending and receiving information and
sharing files and resources.

Internet Browser Provides access to the Internet through

a service provider by using graphical
interface.

Table 2.1 Few Application Software often used

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

12. Define Software.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
13. What is a Programming Software?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

14. What is an Application Software?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Any language that helps a user to interact with computer to get

meaningful processing from the computer is a computer language. Since
computer is a machine, the user needs to instruct the computer and a
set of sequence of instruction is called program and the language used
for instructing the computer is known as programming language.

49
 HIGH AND LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

The programming language from its birth got into periodical development
according to the development of hardware and also to match the human
needs. The programming languages are known to have developed from
its machine readable form through assembly language to attain the high
level language. The machine language and assembly languages are
known as low level languages. Machine languages are those that are
directly understood by the machines but are machine dependent. They
are represented mathematically as a string of 1s and 0s.

A computer language consisting of mnemonic code and machine code

are known as assembly language. The codes used in these languages
included a few English texts which are human readable to a certain
extent like ADD A and B. But this had to be converted to machine
languages. The translator converts the assembly language to machine
language and vice versa is known as assembler.

A computer language whose instructions or statements each correspond

to several machine language instructions, designed to make coding
easier is known as higher level language or higher-order language.

A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables

a programmer write programs that are more or less of universal
application and independent of a particular type of computer. Such
languages are considered high level because they are closer to human
languages and further from machine languages. The program that
converts the high level language into machine language is known as
translator program. Compiler is a translator that converts the high
language into machine language and vice versa as a whole while
interpreter converts the high level language into machine language
sentence by sentence.

The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is

that they are easier to read, write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs
written in a high-level language must be translated into machine
language by a compiler or interpreter.

The first high-level programming languages were designed in the 1950s.

Now there are dozens of different languages for different application,
specific or common usages.

Following are some of the present days programming languages.

General Use:

 Clipper

50
 Data Flex
 IBM Visual Age Generator
 Panther
 Power Builder
 SQL Windows and Team Developers
 Win Dev
 %GL
 Visual Data Flex

Database Query Languages:

 FOCUS
 Genero
 SB+/System Builder
 Informix-SQL
 NATURAL
 Progress 4GL
 SQL

Report Generators:

 Build Professional
 GEM Base
 LINc
 Meta font
 NATURAL
 Oracle Reports
 Quest
 Report Builder
 RPG-II
Data Manipulation, Analysis and Reporting Languages:

 ABAP
 Clarion Programming languages
 Cor Vision
 Culprit
 ADS/Online
 Graph Talk
 IDL
 LANSA
 Lab VIEW
 MAPPER
 MATLAB
 NATURAL

51
 VISION:BUILDER
 SAS
 SPSS
 SOR
 PRO IV
 Stata
 Synon

Data-Stream Languages

 APE
 AVS

Database Driven GUI Application Development:

 Genexus
 System Builder
 Progress Dynamics
 UNIFACE
Screen Painters and Generators:

 FOURGEN CASE tools

 System builders
 Oracle Forms
 Progress 4 GL Pro vision
 Unify Accell

GUI Creator:

 4 Dimension Software
 E-Developers
 MATLABS guide
 Omnis Studio
 Open ROAD
 Revolution programming languages
 Sculptor 4GL.

Web development languages:

 Cold Fusion
 CSS

52
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit

15. What is a Machine Language?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ __
16.What is an Assembler?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

17. Give two examples of High Level Languages.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

LET US SUM UP

The physical components, peripherals, and equipment that comprise a

computer system and that can be visually seen and used in getting a
problem to be solved i known as the hardware. Most commonly known
are the mechanical and electrical components of a computer system.
There are different components in hardware to help the user to
communicate with computers. The Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, CDs,
Printers and Scanners are a few of the Input output devices. Software is
a set of data or instructions used to make a computer work according to
the requirements. There are software which would help the computer's
operating and the other that helps for the application. Software typesare,
Systems software and Application software. Systems software deals
with operating systems whereas Application software deals with the user
oriented programs. The languages through which the user
communicates with the computers are known as programming language.
Now a days we communicate with the computers using high level
languages like C, C++, Visual Basic etc.,

53
GLOSSARY

 Hardware and software - A computer system is divided into two

categories: Hardware and Software. Hardware refers to the
physical and visible components of the system such as a
monitor, CPU, keyboard and mouse. Software, on the other
hand, refers to a set of instructions which enable the hardware to
perform a specific set of tasks.
 Input devices - An input device is a term for a physical piece of
hardware that connects to a primary device, such as a computer,
in order to provide user input. Input devices are generally a class
of peripheral devices that connect to the primary device. Top
examples include: Keyboards, Mouse devices, Joysticks.
 Monitor - a device used for observing, checking, or keeping a
continuous record of something:"a heart monitor".

 Output devices - An output device is any hardware device used

to send data from a computer to another device or user. Usually,
most output peripherals are meant for human use, so they
receive the processed data from the computer and transform it in
the form of audio, video, or physical reproductions.

Programming languages - A programming language is a set of

commands, instructions, and other syntax use to create a
software program. Languages that programmers used to write
code are called "high-level languages." This code can be
compiled into a "low-level language," which is recognized directly
by the computer hardware.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The Physical components of the Computers are called Hardware.

2. Keyboard and Mouse.
3. Sheet fed Scanner and flat Bed Scanner.
4. Hand held Scanners are small, portable scanners that depend on a
human operator to move the head across the object or image to be
scanned.
5. Monitors display the input details and the Output Results.
6. They are impact and non-Impact Printers.
7. Inkjet Printers and Thermal Printers.
8. Hard Disk is the main Memory of the Computer. The Input and
Output and the Intermediate values are Stored in the Memory.
9. 3% and 5% are two Types of Floppies.

54
10. CD means Compact Disk.
11. Yes provided it is DVD Compatible.
12. Software is a set of Instruction written in a Logical Sequence to
make the Hardware Function.
13. It is an instruction set Designed to Solve a Problem.
14. It is a set of programs written to be applied for Specific Problem.
15. A language which is Machine Readable is a Machine Language.
16. Assembler is a program that Converts the Assembly Language to
Machine Language and Vice Versa.
17. Power Builder and FOCUS.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007). Structured Computer Organization.

New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. Introduction to Computers. New Delhi:

VikasPublishing Corporation.

Sanjay Saxena. (2003). A first Course in Computers. New Delhi:

VikasPublishing House.

Govindarajalu, B. (2004) Computer Architecture and Organization.

New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hall Publishing Company Limited.

Lance, A. Leventhal. (1984). Introduction to Microprocessors. New

Delhi:Prentice Hall of India.

Microsoft Corporation Editorial Style Board. (2004). Technical

Publications New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.

Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.

Radhakrishnan. (1987). Textbook on Computer Programming.

Coimbatore: Pratheeba Publishers.

Mahesh, K. Goel. (1987). Programming in BASIC. New Delhi:

SterlingPublishers Private Limited.

**************

55
 UNIT 3 PROGRAMMING LOGICS AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Algorithm
Flow Chart

Use of Flow Chart

Systems Analysis

Strategies for Systems Analysis

Modem Structured Analysis

Defining a System
System Life Cycle

Computer Learning Strategies

Learning Strategies

Constructivism
Cooperative Learning

Collaborative Learning

Similarities between Cooperative and Collaborative

Classrooms

Engaged Learning
Developing Intrinsic Motivation

Multiple Intelligence
Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Programming logic is the fundamental idea in learning and using

computers. The sequential order of instruction and the execution
following a logical reasoning help the process of learning. Programming
logic is the process needed for thinking process which is needed for

56
students. Since teachers need to develop thinking skills among their
students, they must be made aware of the programming logics and
leaning strategies. This unit discusses the basic steps in programming,
the developmental process in the form of algorithm and flowchart and
the way the system is designed.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about algorithm and understand the

techniques of flowcharting
 understand the systems analysis and design

 understand the learning strategies using computers

 identify and understand programming logics.

ALGORITHM

Computer is a System that operates in a systematic manner. It always

follows the order of execution and never fails in its operation, and it gives
out wrong answers only when it is given wrong data and instruction. The
operations are so designed to follow logical sequences and it seldom
makes mistakes due to the mismatching of hardware and software.
When data are input to the computer, the raw data need to be arranged
according to the requirements. The instruction namely, the program,
need to be designed in a proper way to make it flaw less. Hence the
designing of the hardware and software need to be done in utmost care.
More over computers are made to operate when repetitive job need to
be done. So the flaw in one operation gets repeated for all other
application there by making the very purpose to be unsolved creating
chaos. The process becomes meaningful when it is carried in a proper
manner. The entire programming needs to carry the following order.

Algorithm is the schematic codes of describing the stepwise solutions in

finding the solution to any problem. Very often it is considered the rough
draft or the skeletal sketch of the routes of arriving at the results of any
problem. It is a predetermined set of instructions for solving a specific
problem in a limited number of steps and it is also regarded, as the
scripts of an individual who set out for the solution.

In mathematics, computing, linguistics related subjects; an algorithm is a

sequence of finite instructions, often used for calculation and data

57
processing. It is formally a type of effective method in which a list of well-
defined instructions for completing a task will, when given an initial state,
proceed through a well-defined series of successive states, eventually
terminating in an end-state. The transition from one state to the next is
not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as probabilistic
algorithms, incorporate randomness.

The concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of

decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems
come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules. In logic,
the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be mea sured, as
it is not apparently related with our customary physical dimension. From
such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the
unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete and
abstract usage of the term.
Precise instructions for a "fast, efficient, good" process that specifies the
"moves" of "the computer" (machine or human, equipped with the
necessary internally-contained information and capabilities) to find,
decode, and then decide arbitrary input integers/ symbols and produce,
in a "reasonable" time, output-integer y at a specified place and in a
specified format.

Example: An Algorithm to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers

Step 1:Start

Step 2:Let the value of Sum and N equals Zero

Step 3:Let N=N+1

Step 4:Let Sum = Sum + N

Step 5:If N is lesser than 50 then repeat step 3
Step 6:Print the value of Sum

Step 7:Stop

FLOW CHART

The flowchart is a chart that diagrammatically represents the flow of data

through an information processing systems, the operations carried out
and the sequence in which they are performed. The program flowchart
can be considered like blueprint of a building. As a blueprint is drawn
before starting construction of a building, a programmer prefers to draw
a flowchart prior to writing a computer program. As in the case of the

58
drawing of a blueprint, the flowchart is drawn according to defined rules
and using standard flowchart symbols prescribed by the American
National Standard Institute, Inc.

A flowchart is a graphical or diagrammatical representation of how a

process works, shows at a minimum, sequence of steps. Several types
of flowcharts exist.

Some are: The most simple, high level, and a detailed version. The
detailed, one indicates the people involved in the steps i.e, deployment
or matrix.

As a whole, flow charting has been around for a very long time. A flow
chart can be customized to fit any need or purpose. For this reason, flow
charts can be recognized as a very unique quality improvement method.

3.2.1 USE OF FLOW CHART

A flowchart helps to clarify how things are currently working and how
they could be improved. It also assists in finding the key elements of a
process, while drawing clear lines between where one process ends and
the next one starts. Developing a flowchart stimulates communication
among participants and establishes a common understanding about the
process. Flowcharts also uncover steps that are redundant or misplaced.
In addition, flowcharts are used to identify appropriate team members, to
identify who provides inputs or resources to whom; to establish
important areas for monitoring or data collection; to identify areas for
improvement or increased efficiency, and to generate hypotheses about
the causes. Flowcharts can be used to examine processes for the flow
of patients, information, materials, clinical care, or combinations of these
processes. It is recommended that flowcharts can be created through
group discussion, as individuals rarely know the entire process and the
communication contributes to improvement. A flowchart is described as
"cross functional" (i.e.,) when the page is divided into different swim
lanes describing the control of different organisational units. A symbol
appearing in a particular "lane" is within the control of that organisational
unit. This technique allows the analyst to locate the responsibility for
performing an action or making a decision correctly, allowing the
relationship between different organisational units with responsibility
over a single process.

Flowcharts are very much helpful in designing and documenting

complex processes.It is considered as the quality improvement tool.
Four particular types of flow charts have proven useful when dealing

59
with a process analysis: top-down flow chart, detailed flow chart, work
flow diagrams, and a deployment chart. Each of the different types of
flowchart tend to provide a different aspect to a process or a task.
Flowcharts provide an excellent form of documentation for a process,
and quite often are useful when examining how various steps in a
process work together.

Fig: 3.1 Flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural number

60
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the unit.

1. What is an Algorithm?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2. What is the Purpose of Flowchart?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

3. Mention two uses of Flow Chart.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

SYSTEM S ANALYSIS

Systems analysis is the dissection of a system into its component pieces

to study how those component pieces interact and work. We do a
systems analysis to subsequently perform a systems synthesis. Systems
synthesis is the re-assembly of a system's component pieces back into a
whole system-it is hoped an improved system. Through systems
analysis and synthesis, we may add, delete, and modify system
components towards our goal for improving the overall system. Moving
from the theoretical definition to something a bit more contemporary,
systems analysis is a term that collectively describes the early phases of
systems development. There has never been a universally accepted
definition. And there has never been agreement on when analysis ends
and design begins. To further confuse the issue, some methodologies
refer to systems analysis as logical design. Typically, each
organization's methodology of choice determines the definition for that
organization. For a long time systems analysis had been defined as
those phases and activities that focus on the business problem,
independent of technology. Specifically, we redefine systems analysis as
follows.

Systems analysis is (1) the survey and planning of the system and
project, (2) the study and analysis of the existing business and

61
information system, and (3) the definition of business requirements and
priorities for a new or improved system. A popular synonym is the logical
design. This definition corresponds to the first three phase's olden
methods. The phase "configure a feasible solution" would be considered
part of systems analysis by some experts. We prefer to think of it as an
analysis-to design transition phase. Systems analysis is driven by
business concerns, specifically, those of system users. Hence, it
addresses the DATA, PROCESS, INTERFACE and GEOGRAPHY
building blocks from a system user perspective. Emphasis is placed on
business issues, and not on the technical or implementation concerns.

STRATEGIES FOR SYSTEM S ANALYSIS

Traditionally, systems analysis is associated with application

development projects, that is, projects that produce information systems
and their associated computer applications. Your first experiences with
systems analysis will likely fall into this category. But systems analysis
methods can be applied to projects with different goals and scope. In
addition to single information systems and computer applications
systems analysis techniques can be applied to strategic information
systems planning and to the redesign of business processes. There are
also many strategies or techniques for performing systems analysis.
They include modern structured analysis, information engineering,
prototyping, and object-oriented analysis. These strategies are often
viewed as competing alternatives. In reality, certain combinations
complement one another. Let's briefly examine these strategies and the
scope or goals of the projects to which they are suited.

MODERN STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

Structured analysis was one of the first formal strategies developed for
systems analysis of information systems and computer applications.
Modem structured analysis is still one of the most widely practiced
techniques. Systems analysis is a process centered technique that is
used to model business requirements for a system. The models are
structured pictures that illustrate the processes, inputs, outputs, and files
required to respond to business events. "Process-centered" means the
initial emphasis in this technique is on the Process building blocks in our
information system framework. The technique has evolved to also
include the DATA building blocks as a secondary emphasis Structured
analysis was not only the first popular systems analysis strategy; it also

62
introduced an overall strategy that has been adopted by many of the
other techniques-model-driven development. Model-driven development
techniques emphasize the drawing of models to define business
requirements and information system designs. The model becomes the
design blueprint for constructing the final system.

Modern structured analysis is simple in concept. Systems and business

analysts draw a series of process models called data flow diagram that
depict the essential processes of a system along with inputs, outputs,
and files. Because these pictures represent the logical business
requirements of the system independent of any physical technical
solution, the models are said to be a logical design for the system.

DEFINING A SYSTEM

A collection of components that work together to realize some objective

forms a system. Basically there are three major components in every
system, namely input, processing and output. In a system the different
components are connected with each other and they are interdependent.
For example, human body represents a complete natural system. We
are also bound by many national systems such as political system,
economic system, educational system and so forth. The objective of the
system demand is that some output is produced as a result of
processing the suitable inputs.

SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

System life cycle is an organisational process of developing and

maintaining systems. It helps in establishing a system project plan,
because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes that is
required in developing a system.

System development life cycle means combination of various activities.

In other words we can say that various activities put together are
referred as system development life cycle. In the System Analysis and
Design terminology, the system development life cycle means software
development life cycle.

Following are the different phases of software development life

cycle:

 System study
 Feasibility study

63
 System analysis

 System design
 Coding

 Testing
 Implementation

 Maintenance
The different phases of software development life cycle is shown below

System Study

Feasibility
Maintenance
Study

Software
Implementatio Development System Analysis
n
Life Cycle

Testing System Design

Coding

Fig: 3.2 Software Development Life Cycle

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the Unit
4. What is meant by System Analysis?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
5. What is the purpose of Systems Analysis?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
6. What are the Software Development Cycle?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

64
Phases of system development life cycle

Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of
systemdevelopment life cycle in detail.

(a) System Study: System study is the first stage of system

development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what actually the
physical system is? In practice, the system study is done in two phases.
In the first phase, the preliminary survey of the system is done which
helps in identifying the scope of the system. The second phase of the
system study is more detailed and in-depth study in which the
identification of user's requirement and the limitations and problems of
the present system are studied. After completing the system study, a
system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the
system) and placed before the user. The proposed system contains the
findings of the present system and recommendations to overcome the
limitations and problems of the present system in the light of the user's
requirements.

To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would say

that system study phase passes through the following steps:
 problem identification and project initiation

 background analysis
 inference or findings

(b) Feasibility Study: On the basis of result of the initial study,

feasibility study takes place. The feasibility study is basically the test of
the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user's
requirements, effective use of resources and of course, the cost
effectiveness. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the
problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the
cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy.

(c) System Analysis: Assuming that a new system is to be developed,

the next phase is system analysis. Analysis involved a detailed study of
the current system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is
a detailed study of various operations performed by a system and their
relationships within and outside the system. During analysis, data are
collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled
by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire
are the tools used for system analysis. Using the following steps it
becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system under
consideration.

65
Keeping in view the problems and new requirements, we workout the
pros and cons including the new areas of the system. All procedures,
requirements must be analyzed and documented in the form of detailed
data flow diagrams (DFD), data dictionary, logical data structures and
miniature specifications. System Analysis also includes sub-dividing of
complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store
and manual processes.

The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:

1. Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the

user requirements.

2. Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the

new system and their relationship with each other.

3. Function network which are similar to function hierarchy, but they

highlight the functions which are common to more than one
procedure.

4. List of attributes of the entities which are the data items that need to
be held about each record.

(d) System Design: Based on the user requirements and the detailed
analysis of a new system, the new system must be designed. This is the
phase of system designing.It is a most crucial phase in the development
of a system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:

1. Preliminary or General Design 2. Structure or Detailed Design.

Preliminary or General Design: In the preliminary or general design,

the features of the new system are specified. The costs of implementing
these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the project
is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.

Structure or Detailed Design: In the detailed design stage, computer

oriented work begins in earnest. At this stage, the design of the system
becomes more structured. Structure design is a blue print of a computer
system solution to a given problem having the same components and
inter-relationship among the same components as the original problem.
Input, output and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In the
design stage, the programming language and the platform in which the
new system will run are also decided.

There are several tools and techniques used for designing. These tools
and techniquesare:

 Flowchart

66
  Data flow diagram (DFD)

 Data dictionary
 Structured English

 Decision table
 Decision tree

(e) Coding: After designing the new system, the whole system is
required to be converted into computer understanding language. Coding
the new system into computer programming language does this. It is an
important stage where the defined procedures are transformed into
control specifications by the help of a computer language. This is also
called the programming phase in which the programmer converts the
program specifications into computer instructions, which we refer as
programs. The programs coordinate the data movements and control the
entire process in a system.

It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This

helps in fast development, maintenance and future change, if required.

(f) Testing: Before actually implementing the new system into

operations, a test run of the system is done by removing all the bugs, if
any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the
whole programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and run
on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should match the
expected results
Using the test data following test run are carrie d out

Unit test: When the programs have been coded, compiled and brought
to working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared
test data. Any undesirable happenings must be noted and debugged
(error corrections).

System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of
the system and when errors are removed, then system test is done. At
this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is
executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the resu lts
or output of the system is analyzed. During the result analysis, it may be
found that the outputs are not matching the expected out of the system.
In such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are
fixed and further tested for the expected output. When it is ensured that
the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own
actual data so that the system could be shown running as per their
requirements.

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(g) Implementation: After having the user acceptance of the new
system developed, the implementation phase begins: Implementation is
the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. During
this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded on to the user's
computer. After loading the system, training of the usersstarts.
Main topics of such type of training are
 How to execute the package

 How to enter the data

 How to process the data

 How to take out the reports

After the users are trained about the computerized system, manual
working has to shift from manual to computerized working. The following
two strategies are followed for running the system:

Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the systems
Le computerized and manual are executed in parallel. This strategy is
helpful for the following reasons

1. Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerized

system.

2. Failure of the computerized system at the early stage, does not affect
the work of the organization, because the manual system continues to
work, as it used todo.

Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed in parts. Some
part of the new system is installed first and executed successfully for
considerable time period. When the results are found satisfactory then
only other parts are implemented. This strategy builds the confidence
and the errors are traced easily.

(h) Maintenance: Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the

system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in
its working environment. It has been seen that there are always some
errors found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also
means the review of the system from time to time. The review of the
system is done for knowing the full capabilities of the system, knowing
the required changes or the additional requirements and for studying the
performance.

If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be

set up to carry out the change. The new project will then proceed
through all the above life cycle phases.

68
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

7. What is meant by System Study?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. What are two Stages of Systems Design?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. What is the use of Systems Test?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
10. How does parallel run help the Systems Analyst?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

COMPUTER LEARNING STRATEGIES

The most powerful form of learning, the most sophisticated form of staff
development, comes not from listening to the good words of others, but
from sharing what we know with others. Learning comes more from
giving than from receiving. By reflecting on what we do, by giving it
coherence, and by sharing and articulating our craft knowledge, we
make meaning on what we learn.

LEARNING STRATEGIES

Any learning process becomes meaningful when it incorporates the

states, Inquiry Process and Questioning. While using computer to solve
any problem or to do any kind of operations, it is essential to have an
approach of Inquiry; Inquiry on the environment, Inquiry on the
requirement and Inquiry on the availability of sources.

This is done in the following steps:

69
  Identify and Focus-On a problem

 Develop-Research Questions
 Develop-A Plan and Schedule

 Gather and Organize - Data

 Analyze and Evaluate-Data

 Synthesize - The Data

 Apply-The Solution

 Make - A Presentation
 Evaluate

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is the fundamental needs of using computers. Computers

are employed in solving a problem and to bring about meaningful and
useful products of usage inthe form needed by the user.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Within a cooperative learning environment the teacher's role differs

drastically from the traditional role. Here the teacher acts as a facilitator,
selecting and specifying the objectives of the lesson, making decisions
about the learning groups, explaining tasks and goals, maintaining the
effectiveness of the interpersonal and groups skills, providing assistance
when needed, as well as evaluating the student's achievemen ts.

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

This type of learning is popular among the students at present. A student

centered environment. Students are in control of their own learning.
Power and responsibility is primarily student centered. The teacher is a
facilitator and guide. The students are the decision makers. The learning
experience is often competitive in nature. Learning may be co-operative,
collaborative or independent. Students work together to read a common
goal. Students willingly help each other sharing/exchanging skills and
ideas. Students compete with their own previous performance, not
against peers. Learning extends beyond the classroom. The content and
the way information processed and used become more important.
Students master knowledge through drill and practice.

70
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN COOPERATIVE
AND COLLABORATIVECLASSROOMS

1. Both approaches stress the importance of active learning.

2. In both situations the teacher acts as facilitator.

3. In cooperative and collaborative classrooms teaching, the

learning experience are shared by both the student and the
teacher,
4. Both effectively enhance higher order cognitive skills.

5. In both situations greater emphasis is placed on students'

responsibility taking charge of her or his learning.

6. Both involve situations where students must articulate ideas in

small groups

7. Both help students develop social and team building skills.

8. Cooperative and collaborative classrooms have helped to

increase student success and information retention.

9. Both utilise student diversity.

The terms Constructivism, Collaborative Learning, Project based

learning, Problem based learning, Independent Learning, Engaged
Learning and Self-directed Learning are sometimes used almost
synonymously because there are similarities in the way these
philosophies are put into practice.

We may ask question, "What are the common characteristics of

Constructivism, Collaborative Learning, Independent Learning and Self-
directed Learning?

Each of these teaching philosophies encourage the development of

autonomous learners who are motivated to become, and responsible for
being, in control of their own learning processes. Regardless of whether
students work in groups (Collaborative Learning) or alone (Independent
Study) students learn how to take responsibility for their own learning.

The consequence of this approach is seeing students who are more fully
engaged in the learning process, and this empowers students. "Engaged
Learning" is active involvement. This is highly relevant learning and the
skills are transferable to the process of real life problem solving. In
employing these strategies we are equipping our students with life-long
learning skills.

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 ENGAGED LEARNING

Engaged Learners are responsible for their own learning, energized by

learning strategies. Students are "Engaged" when conducting authentic
and multi-disciplinary tasks. Students participate in interactive learning,
work collaboratively and learn through exploration.

DEVELOPING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

The teacher's role has changed in recent years. There has been a shift
of emphasis from instructional techniques to developing learning
techniques. Our role is no longer that of the chalk and talk. Today our
role leans more towards facilitator or guide. Our role is to increase
student motivation and develop the skills or strategies that make a
student more competent and to structure the learning environment so
that students are able to take ownership of their own learning.
Fortunately, many of the strategies that "empower" and "engage"
students also lead to increased motivation. The focus here is on the
strategies that teachers may use to develop and maintain motivation in
school age students.

Motivation and achievement have long been recognized to have a close

cause effect relationship, as of course have ability and achievement.
The anticipated relationship is the higher the ability, and the higher the
expected achievement levels. However, logically, this premise might
appear to be, it does not always prove to be the case. It is therefore
understandable that research into the connection between motivation,
ability and achievement has focused on the underachieving gifted
student because they are the examples that are most difficult to explain.
In fact the term underachievement is often defined as "a student whose
ability and performance are significantly discrepant." Consequently,
underachieving and unmotivated are often considered synonymous.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

Students are focused with multiple avenues and are challenged to meet
any kind of crisis in multiple directions which are complex also. The
present learning has reached the art of emotional intelligence and the
students are expected to be competent in many areas. Learning
computer skills should match these requirements of the present day's
students and the teaching learning community has to accommodate
accordingly.

72
 Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit,

11. What are the States of Learning Process?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12. Define Cooperative Learning.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

13. State any two Similarities Between Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
14. How does Engaged Learning help the Students?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

15. What is Multiple Intelligence?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

LET US SUM UP

Learning Computer Science influences the learning strategie s of an

individual in different ways. Algorithm and flow chart help to develop the
problem solving ability. Since they involve logical sequencing of things,
learning becomes better and sharpened. System analysis too helps in
the development of learning. The analysis of the system's hardware and
software follow certain order and the different phases describe the
strategies. Learning computers and solving problems thru computers
involve several people which need to exercise cooperative, collaborative
and engaged learning. Thus leaning computers help in the making of an
individual's learning.

73
GLOSSARY

 Algorithm - a process or set of rules to be followed in

calculations or other problem-solving operations, especially by a
computer:
 Flow chart - A flowchart is a visual representation of the
sequence of steps and decisions needed to perform a process.
Each step in the sequence is noted within a diagram shape.
 Learning strategies - Learning strategies refer to methods that
students use to learn
 Systems analysis - Systems analysis is a problem-solving
method that involves looking at the wider system, breaking apart
the parts, and figuring out how it works in order to achieve a
particular goal.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Algorithm is a step wise solution to a problem.

2. The purpose of a flow chart is to provide a complete understanding

of the solution to a problem even to a lay person.

3. Mention 2 uses of flow chart.

a. Gives direction

b. Provides the details of the solution

c. Provides the details of the I/O devices.

4. A detailed study applying scientific methods of study to understand

the problem environment in order to provide solution is Systems
analysis.
5. To make a detailed scrutiny over a problem situation.

6. System study, Feasibility study, System analysis, System design,

Coding, Testing, Implementation and Maintenance form the
developmental cycle.
7. A detailed study on the environment.

8. Preliminary or general design

Structure or detailed design

9. System tests confirm whether the output match the requirements

10. 1. Manual results can be compared with the results of the

computerized system.

74
 2. Failure of the computerized system can be detected at the
early stage.

11. Inquiry Process and Questioning

12. Cooperative learning is a group learning very often guided by the

teacher.

13. Both effectively enhance higher order cognitive skills. In both

situations great emphasis is placed on students responsibility for
taking charge of her or his learning

14. Students are "Engaged" when conducting authentic and multi-

disciplinary tasks. Students participate in interactive learning, work
collaboratively and learn through exploration.

15. Students are focused with multiple avenues and are challenged to
meet any kind of crisis in multiple directions which are also
complex. The efficiency of the students to cope up in complex
situation is Multiple Intelligence.
SUGGESTED READINGS

Rao, D.B. (2007). Education for All: The Global consensus. APH
PublishingCorporation.

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007). Structured Computer Organisation.

NewDelhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Radhakrishnan. (1987), Textbook on Computer Programming.

Coimbatore Pratheeba Publishers

Mark Elsom Cook. (2001). Principles of Interactive Multimedia. New

Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Masani, N.K. (1985). Principles of Basic COBOL and

FORTRANProgramming, Chennai: Progressive Corporation
Private Limited.

Seymour, C. Hirsch. (1983). Basic Programming. New Delhi: Prentice

Hallof India Private Limited,

75
 UNIT 4 VALUES OF LEARNING COMPUTERS

Introduction

Objectives
Scope of Computer Uses

Transports
Railways

Roadways
Passenger Information Display System (PIDS)

M2M in Wireless Networking Solutions

4.4.5 Vehicle Emissions Inspection

Airways
Seaways

Engineering
Computers in Industry

Computers and Architecture

Computers and Chemical Engineering

Computers and Mechanical work

Computers and Space Science

Trade
Business Applications

Management Information System and Accounting

Computers for Entertainment

Science and Medicine

Computers and Bioscience

Computers and Education

Strategies in Computer Oriented Education

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

76
INTRODUCTION

Computers are to be found everywhere and their role in the world is

constantly expanding, making computer science an exciting and rapidly
growing area that offers a diverse range of career paths. A degree in
computer science opens up many car opportunities for example,
industry, business, and health care. Graduates can find themselves
working on topics such as aids for the disabled, medical imaging,
industrial control; they could be designing graphical interfaces, building
video-based information systems, and constructing custom solutions for
a wide variety of problems. Graduate teachers help their wards giving
exposure to find jobs in the market. So the teachers must acquire
knowledge on the utility areas of computers and must learn what kind of
skills are needed what kind of job. This unit will provide a brief account
of certain areas where computers are used.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about computers and understand the utilities

of computers
 understand the developments of computers and their values
 understand the principle involved in computing in the different
fields
 understand and identify the usage of computers in Education
field

SCOPE OF COMPUTERS USES

There are also opportunities to work in exciting emerging new

applications areas such as internet applications development, e-
commerce, and assistive health care for the disabled, systems
technology, graphics and games programming. Graduates find
employment as web developers, programmers, computer technicians,
network administrators and also in areas such as sales, business
applications and software localization. There is therefore a demand all
over the world for professionals trained in the use of computing software
and hardware and the dynamic nature of computing means that there is
always potential for designing novel and exciting products andservices.
Since computers are used in every field there is a high demand of
computerprofessionals and computer science studies help people to find

77
 any kind of computer related job according to the level of study. In
today's hectic world of traffic, emergency services rely more and more
on having accurate information to save time and lives. Given below are a
few fields in which computers are used.

TRANSPORTS

As population increases high demand of transportation facilities are

needed. As technology develops transport vehicles take up newer
shapes, incorporate hi-tech gadgets for efficiency and to meet
competition. Hence the usage of computer becomes inevitable in
transportation. As a technical device computers are used in vehicles for
effective vehicle control. Besides such general usages, Computers are
used for the following 3 main reasons and there are also specific
purpose systems using computers.

RAILWAYS

Indian Railways is one of the biggest railway sectors in Asia. The entire
railways are enacted by computerized systems. From ticket process till
traffic control computers are engaged for effective performances. From
East to West and from South to north of the Nation, any passenger can
get a ticket to board any train from anywhere in the country. Electronic
billing and electronic tickets have made the way much easier. Ticket
booking and online booking are done using computers. Rail Engines
operate on electronic signalling.

ROADWAYS

Road Transport is also controlled by computerized system. Ticket

issuing machines help the passengers to get their tickets fast and prior
booking is possible using computers. Passengers are guided by the
electronic boards to board their respective vehicles without making any
enquiry, Packaging and Parcelling of goods for transportation is made
easy by computers.

PASSENGER INFORMATION DISPLAY SYSTEM (PIDS)

For all mass transportation systems, efficiently communicating important

information to all passengers is very important. Arrival times, departure
times and weather conditions are all vital subjects, and to transmit such

78
real-time data, the system must have a reliable backbone. By adopting
Advantech's fast dual-LAN serial communication products as the core of
their display solution, computerized PIDS can now control and transmit
real-time information from the control center to all local stations,
providing accurate, valuable data to all passengers.

M2M IN WIRELESS NETWORKING SOLUTIONS

Mobile communication technology has become essential in the

Transportation Industry due to the popularity of many new M2M
applications. M2M concepts can be implemented in real-world
environments with advanced solutions, for example, many M2M
applications are highly beneficial in the Transportation industry for Fleet
Management, real-time vehicle locations, monitoring vehicles arriving or
departing, dispatching vehicles, and monitoring vehicle travelling
speeds.

VEHICLE EM ISSIONS INSPECTION

Vehicles have become an integral part of our daily lives, but rarely do
many of us consider the impact our vehicles emissions have on the
environment. The rate of vehicles on the roadways is increasing
exponentially. In order to protect the environment, governments have
been paying special attention to the waste emissions of vehicles and
computers are used in detecting and controlling vehicle emission.

Besides these all kinds of transports in surface, sea and air media are
very much facilitated by computers. In surface transport, the
automobiles, vehicles and trains are used to carry people and goods
from one spot to another. Here computers play vital role in maintaining
the customer details, issue tickets, receipts and maintain inventory,
ledgers and records of transaction. Any kind of travel can be reserved
earlier from home through online and with e-tickets people can travel
from any place to any destination. Cancellation too is possible using
electronic processing.
In ships for Cargo and passengers, particulars of travel and
transportation is better processed and maintained by computers; also
the sea route and direction are accurately provided by computers.
Similarly the flight control, direction, reservation and air cargo
transaction are better processed by computers.

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AIRWAYS

Flight control and flight management is effectively used by the help of

computers. Passenger's flight reservation is done online. Any flight from
any country to any destination can be arranged from being at home
through internet. Ground Flight control and operations, baggage
maintenance clearance and flight pass and transition are managed by
computers.

SEAWAYS

Navigating ships in the proper direction is done with high accuracy with
the help of computers. Data transfer from the middle of the sea to the
land and to the rescue operations are controlled by computers. Shipping
cargo and unloading goods at the right destination are maintained by
computers besides the official routines done bythe computers.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.

1. Write about any two uses of Computer.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2. What is meant by PIDS?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. What is M2M Communication?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

80
 ENGINEERING

The key field in any industry is engineering. From mechanical

engineering till bio technology and Nano technology engineering only
computers make their work efficient. Without computers any amount of
high quality of product becomes inactive. It is computers that give life for
the machinery and mechanism. The future of manufacturing will be
determined by the efficiency with which it can incorporate new
technologies. The current process in engineering manufacturing systems
is often adhoc, with computerized tools being used on a limited basis.
Given the costs and resources involved in the construction and
operation of manufacturing systems, the engineering process must be
made more efficient. New computing environments for engineering
manufacturing systems could help achieve that objective. In much the
same way that product designers need computer-aided design systems,
manufacturing and industrial engineers need sophisticated computing
capabilities to solve complex problems and manage the vast data
associated with the design of a manufacturing system. In order to solve
these complex problems and manage design data, computerized tools
must be used in the application of scientific and engineering methods to
the problem of the design and implementation of manufacturing
systems. The intense Global competitive situation has committed
manufacturing organizations to reduce their product development and
production cycles. It has also accelerated product innovation to satisfy
market demands. Thus there is an urgent requirement to develop
products with increased functionality at reduced cost. All these are
effectively met and changed due to the use of computers. Following are
the specificuses of computers in Industry and Engineering:

 Product Innovation
 Styling
 Mechanical systems design
 Components engineering
 Digital prototyping
 Design validation
 Value Engineering
 Reverse engineering
 Re-engineering
 Detail design engineering
 Engineering change management
 CAD support
 Engineering Design consultancy manufacturing

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Thus the utility of computers in different kinds of engineering are
industrial and plant engineering, materials processing and quality
engineering,environmental engineering mathematical
modelling/simulation, statistical process control and computer science,
economic and cost analysis and management science.

The following are a few of the benefits of using computers:

1. Huge data storage of different types

2. Reduced time for production
3. Global engineering workforce to ensure the product development
cycle
4. Full implementation of digital technologies in the product
development phase
5. Increased profitability by reduced product development cost.
COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRY

Computers have had a major impact in industries where products are

designed and manufactured. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is used to
develop products. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is used to
product them.

Product design: Designing complicated products can require the efforts

of thousands of people working together. This framework is greatly
enhanced through the use of computerized design.
Factories: Factory floors becoming increasingly populated by
computers used for many purposes including inventory control and
planning and process control computers are also used to run robots that
create, finish, assemble and test products and theircomponents.

COMPUTERS AND ARCHITECTURE

Computers have made the path of building construction to be simple and

easier. We find effective construction planning with the use of computers
and also the designing are well done by computers. The house making
and interior designing is also aided by computers.

COMPUTERS AND CHEM ICAL ENGINEERING

By the dawn of computers one of the important fields that are helped by
the computers is the chemical industries. The highly technical and
accurately valued chemical compounds and components are effectively
provided by computers. Since proper mixing of compounds in

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appropriate measures are accurately done using computers the products
are flawless and utmost suited and solve the purpose completely.

Paramedical Sciences: This field goes in bond with the medical field
and the use of computers is inevitable. Any kinds of medical aids and
equipments are designed processed and produced with high accuracy
using computers.

COMPUTERS AND MECHANICAL WORK

All kinds of mechanical processing that was done mechanically are now
replaced by computers. Today almost all the devices and instruments
are equipped with computerized chips. From wrist watch till inductio n
stove all gadgets are embedded with electronic chips and the processing
becomes fast, neat and desirable. The gadgets also become small,
simple and technically accessible and monetarily affordable. We are also
provided with robots that could do risky jobs replacing human and
execute the jobs at zero level errors.

COMPUTERS AND SPACE SCIENCE

The first usage of computers was done in the defence field to hit the
enemies flying objects with highest accuracy. Now the usage of
computers is beyond the flying objects to hit and find the nature of the
celestial objects. Computers are used in Space science for the following
reasons:

Study the space to get the specific information for specific purposes
depending on the subjects required.

Study the celestial bodies,

 To set up and maintain the space researchcentres

 To forecast weather reports
 To study the earth and sea surfaces for prediction of natural
hazards
 To design, maintain and launch space crafts
 To set up satellites for multiple and specific purposes
 For effective terrestrial and celestial communications
 For defence purposes
 For flight and maritime navigation

83
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

1. What is CAD?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2. What is CAM?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

3. Write any two benefits in Production by the use of

Computers.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

TRADE

When computers were used for common purposes it was the area of
commerce and trade that used the computers first to a large extent. The
act or process of buying selling, or exchanging commodities, at either
wholesale or retail, within country or between countries is called trade.
As the population grow, the trade too grows with multi varied technique
in production of goods, Quality maintenance and marketing of goods. In
all these areas of trade computer finds important role in promoting,
retaining and developing the trade. Computers play a vital role in
transporting goods, transaction using money manipulation, billing,
producing receipts vouchers and invoices Cost estimation, labor rates,
cost data and budget templates, economic, cost analysis and
management science, procurement details, orders and delivery
particulars, marketing trends and strategies are better analysed and
performed accordingly using computers Inventory control becomes
efficient using computers.

A few of the trade and commerce applications as follows:

4.6.1 BUSINESS APPLICATIONS

This is one of the oldest areas of applications of computers apart from

civil and mechanical engineering in business. Today from simple

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dataprocessing application to complete corporate management,
everything is carried out by computers.

 Sales forecasting and control

 Payroll preparation
 Order processing and stores control
 Word processing
 Business management
 Personal management information
 Cost accounting
 Manufacturing information control
 Banking and credit operations
 Modelling and planning of the world's economy
Transaction Processing:

Most business activities involve transactions with suppliers, employees

or customers. Computers can make these transactions possible.
Home -based workers: Now that it's so easy to connect a computer at
home to all of the computers at the office store and more working at
home.

Desktop publishing: Using desktop publishing or even sophisticated

word processing programs, price lists, newsletters and even book-length
manuals.Financial application, Financial and analysis is performed
throughout the company from to management on down. People can
analyze investment sales expenses, markets and other aspects of the
business using both numbers and graphs. Tele marketing, electronic
survey electronic transcription, and ecommerce is the art of today's
business technique.

4.4.2 MANAGEM ENT INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ACCOUNTING

Information System:

In order to remain competitive, organizations depend heavily on

Information Systems Management Information System (MIS) is used the
most common form of information system. Amanagement information
system (MIS) is a system that provides the information necessary to take
decisions and manage an organization effectively MIS is supportive of
the institution's long-term strategic goals and objectives. MIS is viewed
and used at many levels by management: Operational, Tactical and
Strategic.

85
Accounting Information System (AIS) identifies, collects, processes, and
communicates economic information about an entity to a wide variety of
users. Such information is organized in a manner that correct decisions
can be based on it. Every accounting system is essentially a part of the
Accounting Information System (AIS) which, in turn is a part of the
broader system, viz. the organization's Management Information system.
The informational needs emerge from the business processes stratified
into functional areas where accounting is one of them. An organization
operates in a given environment surrounded by the suppliers and
customers. The informational needs emerge from the business
processes stratified into functional areas where accounting is one of
them. The accounting information system (AIS) receives and provides
information to the various sub-systems of the institutional/ integrated
MIS.

COMPUTERS FOR ENTERTAINMENT

Computers are used in entertainment to create or enhance a production.

The tools have become so sophisticated that it's becoming almost
impossible to distinguish between the real and artificial in film and
photography, Visual communication has become the life style of every
sector of the society. Mass media and advertisement sectors cannot
exist if the computers are taken out from the industries.

Movies: Computers are widely used to create special effects in big-

budgets movies. They are also extensively used behind the scenes to
edit film during the productionprocess.

Music: Both composing of music and production of music devices are

effectively done with the use of computers. Music software allows you to
edit recorded music or even create your own with the computer
connected to stereo or synthesizer you can be your own composer and
audience. Both artists and sound engineers are finding novel
applications for computers in their work.

Animation: In earlier days, Cartoonist, Bugs Bunny, the Road Runner

and Wile E. Coyote were laboriously hand-drawn in the hundreds of
frames needed for cartoon but now computers are doing much of the
repetitious work. Animation pictures have reached such perfection that
we are not able to differentiate whether it is animation or real life
pictures.

Sports: In the most sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets,

create training programs and diet for athletes and suggests game plan

86
strategies based on the competitors past performance. Much of the
graphic arts displays, flashed a scoreboards are generated by
computers. Thus the recent years have witnessed unimaginable levels
of applications of computers in the field of entertainment, movies ,
advertising, television etc., in the following ways.

Office automation and word processing

 Video games
 Computer aided music synthesis
 Computerized audio and video mixing, editing and color mixing
for films
 Development of three dimensional effects of pictures and cartoon
films
 Computerized animated pictures
 Computer aided teaching and literary movement
 Electronic library and information processing, browsing and
surfing through the electronic world wide website through
internet, intranet and extranet
 Multimedia and virtual reality
 Publications and advertisements

Computers in Fine Arts: Computers play a growing role in dance,

photography, pointing and many other arts.

Dance: With computers the movements can be brought manmade robos

also entertains people in line withto life through animation.

Painting: The computer and the web allow us to visit most of the art
museums in the world from our home. Computers are being used by
experimental artists.

Photography: Photos can be digitized by dropping them off at your local

photo store, or with one of the newer digital cameras.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE

Scientific field is the first area that used computers at large. From earth
science to space science no area is left without the use of computers. If
the computers in each field do not work the entire functions of each field
will get paralyzed.

All scientific applications which involve technical operations using

volume of data to be processed and to get accurate values are

87
 effectively operated only by computers. The processing which need to
be repeatedly do jobs and to have it done uniformly are processed only
by computers.

There is a rapid expansion of computer use in medicine for a number of

uses including medical education at all levels, point of service medical
information especially diagnostic, treatment and medication, medical
research, EMR, electronic prescription, billing and the collection of data
for quality care and quality education.

COMPUTERS AND BIO SCIENCE

One of the unimaginable usages of computers is in the field of bio

science. Bio technology, Bio medical engineering, Bio-informatics are a
few of the latest fields in which are shaped by computers. These are the
fields that help the medical field to provide proper and perfect medication
for the human and animal beings.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
7. Write any two areas of Computer uses in Commerce.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

8.What is the Role of Computers in Movie Making?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
9. How do Computers help in Chemical Industries?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

10. Write any two uses on Computers in Space Technology.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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 COMPUTERS AND EDUCATION

Computer and communication technologies can solve two of the

strongest barriers to the teaching and learning, where (place) and when
(time). Computer-based education is gaining more and more popularity
and role in the higher education institutions. Already most of higher
education institutions are active in the offering computer-based classes
for distance education students. The learners are not anymore a specific
group or groups in society. In the information society everybody needs to
be a learner. There is also good opportunity for everybody to be a
learner. There are multiple options of resources for everybody in the
information society. Synthesis of computers and telecommunications
provide options for various design of teaching and process of learning
which can help everybody to learn. In this new pedagogical model,
teaching and learning is not limited to the classroom and lectures, it can
take place in the home, work place, hotel room, and anywhere. In the
future, the individual objective of students, their desired outcome, their
styles of learning are going to have major roles in the design of
curriculum. With internet and advent of information superhighway, a new
definition of teaching and learning is easier to design and implement.
Technology provided the following changes for a more realistic and
productive teaching and learning environment.

 It allows students to have an active role in the teaching and

learning process
 It provides teachers with more options to teach and more time to
evaluate progress of activities.
 It prevents barrier such as when, where, and limited resources,
 It changes teacher-centered to teacher-student-centered, or
student-centred education.
 It changes from process oriented to outcome oriented teaching
and lean
 It helps students to be ready for the tough global economy.
 It helps students to be a more effective member of the
information society
 It provides opportunity for virtual university.
 It provides opportunity for joint study of researchers from around
the world

89
 STRATEGIES IN COMPUTER ORIENTED EDUCATION

 CAI-Computer Aided Instruction

 CAL-Computer Assisted Learning
 CBT-Computer Based Teaching
 Web Learning
 Web Based learning
 Teaching Learning machines
 Interactive learning tools

We should always remember that "Computers supplement and do not

highly contribute to childhood activities and materials, such as art,
blocks, sand, water, books, exploration with writing materials; and
student's higher level activities like demonstration, projects, practice
skills and dramatic play." In other words,the computer is an enrichment
tool for enhancing readiness skills, problem-solving, and creative
expression. It adds another dimension to concrete exploration and
expression.

 MPS - Milk Purchasing System - A program package to keep

track of milk purchases for a cheese factory, to price milk
according to quality, and to make payments to milk producers.
 RESV-A Reservation Database program to keep records of
reservation date blocks for facilities, list unused facilities and print
reports, confirmation letters, etc.,
 SDB-Student Data Base-for school, grade cards, attendance
records, class roles, homeroom roles, reports on all A's, all A's
&B's, perfect attendance, recess detention, average grades by
teacher, unexcused absences, student lists, blank student
enrolment forms, rolodex card printing, etc.,
 SCHOOL-A program written for the local elementary school
when the school board decided that students must be placed in
teacher's classes at random with each parent allowed to exclude
one teacher for their child. The program input is number of
students, number of classes and capacity for each class as well
as any exclusion number for each student. The master list of
numbers for students and teachers is kept by a separate
individual so that the computer operator only works with supplied
numbers, not with names.
 VIDEO-Video rental store management system. Keep track of
videos by title, and number including multiple copies. Search by
title, actor, category, and rating. Keep records of customers and
rentals, add late charges, print rental slips, keep reserved

90
 records and hold tape for customer, cash register features,
monthly sales reports, print late video list, historical rental
records by video and customer and many other features.
 GAS-A billing and inventory program for a propane or natural gas
sales business. Keeps track of metered and bulk sales, bills
customers, and tracks gas inventory both in bulk storage and in
customer's metered tanks as well as inventory of equipment such
as tanks and meters by size and location. Click below for screen
prints of the natural gas system Management information
systems. Computers and ICT helps a lot in administration.
Computers are used effectively to maintain highly valued data
banks, take decision.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

11. CAI is
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
12. CBT is

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

13.MIS is

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

LET US SUM UP

Use of computers have reached such an extent that no work on earth

can function independently without computers. Using computers help to
have large storage of information for future usage, faster processing,
accurate result and automatic operations. Computers find its services in
multivariate fields like Transports, Engineering, Trade, Science and
Medicine, Space science and Education.

91
GLOSSARIES

 Informationsystem and accounting - Accounting

information systems are a set of interrelated components, that
interact, to achieve a goal. Most accounting information systems
are composed of smaller subsystems and vice-versa, every
organization has goals.
 Passenger information display system - passenger information
display system is an automated system for supplying users of
public transport with information about the nature and state of a
public transport service, through visual, voice or other media.
They are also known as Customer Information Systems and
Operational Information Systems.
 Strategies in computer oriented education - Educational
Strategies. Educational strategies included the use of
downloadable materials, group discussion boards, self-
assessments, experiential activities, and homework assignments.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Banks and Railways

2. Passengers Information Display
3. Mobile to mobile communication.
4. Computer Aided Design
5. Computer Aided Manufacturing
6. Save time in production and designs the product.
7. Accounts maintenance and storing huge data of particulars
8. To give sound effect and to make animation.
9. Measuring and mixing the compounds in proper ratio and to
maintain therecords
10. To take pictures of the space and earth elements and to send
them to earthfor processing, and to predict weather.
11. Computer Assisted Instruction
12. Computer Based Teaching
13. Management Information System.

92
SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Information

Technology, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Pankaj Sharma. (2004). Computer Networking APH Publishing

Corporation

Rajaram, R. (2001), Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering. Scitech Publications.

Krishnamacharyalu, V. (2008) Classroom Dynamics,

NeelkamalPublications. Hyderabad.

Stella Ramchandani. (2008). Modern Methods & Techniques of

Teaching New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors. APH

Jayaprakash Reddy, R. (2007).Methods Publishing Corporation of

Teaching New Delhi:APH Publishing Corporation.

Web Resources

 The Value Of Computer Education Today (indiastudychannel.com)

 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/computer-technology

 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_hardware_softw
are_concept.htm

93
BLOCK - 2 TEACHING OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION

This Block consists of four units on "Teaching of Computer Science".

Unit 5 deals with the purpose and educational objectives of learning
computer science. Unit 6 gives an account on the purpose and
importance of teaching, the different skills and techniques of teaching.
Unit 7 discusses the fundamentals of teaching, writing lesson plans and
their significance. It also gives models of lesson plans for the future
teachers. Unit 8 discusses the qualities of a computer teacher.
Unit 5 explains on the taxonomy of educational objectives. It discusses
the meaning and purpose of education on the whole and specifications
on the learning outcome. A descriptive analysis on the educational
objectives of learning computer science is dealt with. Relevant examples
are cited appropriately.

Unit 6 deals with the basic techniques of teachings. It gives the meaning
and purpose of micro teaching. It is elaborative on the needs of the skills
and gives the structure and the components of different skills in micro
teaching. It also provides example lessons for a few micro teaching skills
with the scheme of micro teaching assessment.
Unit 7 discusses the fundamentals on lesson planning and principles.
The meaning and purpose of lesson plan is discussed in detail. The
steps in writing lesson plan are explained to help the pre-service
teachers to become skilled in lesson plan preparation. The student
teachers are supplied with model lesson plans to help them learn the
actual application

Unit 8 deals with the teacher capabilities required for future teachers. It
gives a detailed account on qualities of a good computer science
teacher. It also discuss on the teacher morale and the factors influencing
teacher morale. An exhaustive discussion is provided for teacher
resources and the construction of computer science curriculum.

94
UNIT 5 TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Education
The taxonomy of educational objectives

Cognitive Domain
Affective Domain

Psychomotor DomainLet
Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested readings

INTRODUCTION

Man learns from womb to tomb. Learning takes place in every individual
in one form or other. The learning acquired in one instant becomes
knowledge gained and when it is applied in another situation it becomes
the skill. More than gaining knowledge application of knowledge is
appreciated. When students learn their subject in schools it is learnt only
as a subject. But when the students are taught the fundamental idea
behind learning every concept, they will be able to enjoy learning.
Students must be exposed to how we learn and how exactly knowledge
is received. To achieve this it is essential that the teachers are taught
along these concepts. Hence this unit is designed to inform and equip
the teachers how to distinguish the knowledge area, what is cognizing,
when it becomes skill and how to make it functional. The unit explores
the objectives of Education citing examples from computer science. As
the unit gets completed the student teacher will be able to attain the
following skills the student teachers will be able to acquire knowledge
about Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

95
 OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire the knowledge on the three different domains in

educational objectives
 understand the importance and outcome of learning
 acquire knowledge on Cognitive domain
 Understand the affective domain components
 Identify the psychomotor areas of learning
 understand and identify the application of objectives attained in
specific area

EDUCATION

It is rightly said that "Education is the only ladder to get fruits from the
tree of knowledge and the education must provide atmosphere for the
learners to learn "Education does not mean teaching people to know
what they do not know, it means teaching them to behave as they do not
behave," says John Ruskin.

In both the saying, the main idea revealed is education is not an external
affair; it has to be a process done within oneself. So whatever
knowledge is gained, it has to inculcate values within mankind such as
values of good behaviors, values of citizenry, values of understanding
etc., This is possible only when the knowledge is gained in the right
sense.

We impart education in order to achieve certain aims and goals. Various

subjects of the school curriculum are different means to achieve these
goals. By aims of teaching computer we mean the broader purpose that
may be fulfilled by the teaching of computer. Aims are like ideas and
their attainments required while the learner engage him/herself with the
art of learning. Their realization in most of the times is not direct but finds
its application often. The aims are based on the educational value of the
subject. Aims and values are inter-related and interdependent. Aims
help in the realization of values possessed by a subject. "Aims enable us
to act with meaning and give direction to the activity." Learning computer
science as subject helps to convert every walk of life into harmonious
form.

Educational objectives describe the goals toward which the education

process is directed. Objectives are usually called standards.
Taxonomies are classification systems based on an organizational

96
scheme. In this instance, a set of carefully defined terms, organized from
simple to complex and from concrete to abstract, provide a framework of
categories into which one may classify educational goals. Such schemes
can:

• Provide a common language about educational goals that can

bridge subject matter and grade levels
• Serve as a touchtone for specifying the meaning of broad
educational goals for the classroom
• Help to determine the similarity of goals, classroom activities and
assessments.
 Provides the frame work that help to prepare the curriculum.

THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL. OBJECTIVES

Education is the transmission of civilization. At present, the educational

aims of the subject computer science at schools are completely
changing from programming of small imperative solutions to modelling,
construction and deconstruction of complex and object oriented systems
of computer science. But there is a big gap between the didactic needs
and the published research results in this field, e.g., the educational
value of computer science, fundamental ideas of computer science,
didactic systems of computer science, understanding of computer
science systems, educational standards of computer science,
international curricula. Computer Science when taught as a subject may
not define the needs minutely but as a net outcome exhibits the needs
and requirements of the end result.

Learning is not a product, but it is a process. At every instance, the

process takes the product of the previous experience as input and keeps
itself on going. Hence it is essential that the product is perfect in every
instance. This kind of ensuring the achievement at every stage is the
objective of learning. But when the subject is taught with the holistic
approach keeping in view of the needs of an individual to grow from
his/her level of concrete understanding to the abstract level of
manipulation, the objectives of learning are definitely achieved. To
emphasis the acquisition of such objectives, the teaching learning
communities need to define the stages of learning and achieving at
every stage and analyze what kind of skills are achieved, when and how.
Educationist categorize the entire learning area into 3 categories
namely, cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

97
 Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
1. Write any one purpose of Education.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

2. What is Educational Objective?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3. Mention the three domains of Educational Objective.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Cognitive Science has changed how educators view learning. The idea
of creating taxonomy of educational objectives was conceived in the
1950s by Benjamin Bloom, the assistant director of the University of
Chicago's Board of Examinations. Bloom wanted to reduce the
extensive labour of test development by exchanging fest items among
universities. He believed this could be facilitated by developing a
carefully defined framework into which items measuring the same
objective could be classified Examiners and testing specialists from
across the country was assembled into a working group that met
periodically over a number of years. The result was a framework with six
major categories and many subcategories for the most common
objectives of classroom instruction, those dealing with the cognitive
domain. To facilitate test development, the framework provided
extensive examples of test items (largely multiple choices) for each
major category. The taxonomy has been used for the analysis of a
course's objectives, an entire curriculum, or a test in order to determine
the relative emphasis on each major category. A goal of Bloom's
Taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all three domains,
creating a more holistic form of education. Since the very beginning of
the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has

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undergone a great deal of change, Much of the empirical framework of
behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun.
Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

Skills in the cognitive domain revolve around knowledge,

comprehension, and"thinking through‖ a particular topic. The cognitive
domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural
patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual
abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in
order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex.
The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the
first one must be mastered before the next one can take place.

Traditional education tends to emphasize the skills in this domain,

particularly the lower-order objectives and six levels in the domain,
moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:

Knowledge

It is the body of facts, principles etc., acquired through human

experience and thought. It also exhibits memory of previously learned
materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers. These
answers questionslike: What is...?

Knowledge of Specifics: In Computer Science the knowledge of

specifics refer to the facts on computer generations, the types of
computers, the programming languagesetc.,

Knowledge of Terminology: The terms like hardware, software, human

ware, firm ware, compiler, printers like laser, thermal, inkjet, artificial
intelligence etc., are a few of the terms.

Knowledge of Specific Facts: Specific facts like translators, high level

languages,assembler, and their applications, also Database and their
versions.
Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics :
Programming follows certain structures. Different types of programming
languages have to follow specific syntax. Knowledge on these help the
learners become skilled programmers.

Knowledge of Convention: Systems analysis and systems design

involves the concept of gathering facts and formulation of views and
ideas.

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Knowledge of Trends and Sequences: The innovation of computers
have ledways of e-learning, M-learning, Virtual learning etc., and the
student teachers need to be aware of the ongoing nature of computer
technology.

Knowledge of Classifications and Categories: We find computer

generation classifications, programming software classification network
categories etc.,

Knowledge of Criteria: Learners need to know when and certain

hardware and software must be used. They must be aware of the
significant use of the knowledge or concept.

Knowledge of Methodology: Algorithm and flowcharting describe the

techniquesof programming. Systems analysis provides the line of action
in solving a problem.Thus every process need to follow a method and
the knowledge of these is essential for teacher trainees.

Knowledge of Universals and Abstractions in a field: Any problem to

be solved gets universal application and programming and their
operations are abstract; butprovide concrete results. Hence such kinds
of knowledge need to be accessed.

Knowledge of Principles and Generalizations: Every programming

language need to be learnt according to their syntax and has to be
applied appropriately.

Knowledge of Theories and Structures: Programming theories,

networking theories, I/O operations etc., are the knowledge to be gained.
Comprehension

Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing,

comparing translating interpreting, giving descriptions and stating main
ideas. It is the capacity for rational thought or inference or discrimination.
It is the power or ability to think, learn, judge appearance wouldor sense
the knowledge that one gains.

Translation: It is the act of changing the shape or form or that be easily

understood by the one who desire to acquire the concept or a matter.

Interpretation: It gives meaning to an artificial or formal language or to

an issue or a problem or facts by assigning a denotation

Extrapolation: It is the process of constructing or extending new data

points outsidea discrete of known data or facts..
Questions like: How would you compare and contrast...?

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Application

It is the act of putting something or using the knowledge gained on the

situation of demand. It is using new knowledge. Solve problems to new
situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules
in a different way
Questions like: Can you organize _ _ _ _ _ _to show...?

Analysis

It is the act of separating up of any whole into its parts, specifically with
an examination of these parts to find out their nature, proportion,
function, inter relationship etc., The State of art examines and breaks
information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make inferences
and find evidence to support generalizations. Followingare the
components of analysis.

Analysis of elements: Systems designing and configuring deals

analysis to a greatextent.
Analysis of relationships: It is very much realized during programming
Analysis of organizational principles: User application programmes
involve thiskind of analysis.

Questions like: How would you classify...?

Synthesis

The term synthesis is a Greek word which is used to mean a process

which combines together two or more pre-existing elements resulting in
the formation of something new, putting together the parts or elements
so as to form a whole concept. It is the act to compile information
together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or
proposing alternative solutions.
The act of synthesis involve

1. Production of a unique communication

2. Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
3. Derivation of a set of abstract relations
4. Questions like Can you predict an outcome?
All these are realized in systems designing and software designing

Evaluation

It is systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of

something of someone using criteria against a set of standards or facts.
Evaluation often is used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest

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in a wide range of activity. It is the systematic collection and analysis of
data needed to make decisions. It presents and defends opinions by
making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work
based on a set of criteria. The decision is based on Judgments in terms
of internal evidence Judgments in terms of external criteria using
Questions like Do you agree with ?

The unceasing growth of knowledge exerts constant pressure on

educators to pack more and more into each course. Thus, these
analyses repeatedly show a marked over emphasis on Knowledge
objectives. Because memory for most knowledge is short, in contrast to
learning in the other categories, such findings raise important questions
about learning priorities.

Along these same lines is the taxonomy's use to assure that objectives,
instructional activities, and assessment, are aligned with one another.
Even when instruction emphasizes objectives in the more complex
categories, the difficulty of constructing test items to measure such
achievement, often results in tests that emphasize knowledge
measurement instead.

The taxonomy has also commonly been used in developing a test's

blueprint, providing the detail for guiding item development to assure
adequate and appropriate curriculum coverage. Some standardized
tests show how their test items are distributed acrosstaxonomy
categories.

For easy understanding given below is the table of cognitive domain with
example for better understanding.

Category Example and Key Words

Knowledge: Recall date or Examples: Requote Syntax Quote

information syntax from the programming rules.

Key Words: defines, describes,

identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches
names outlines, recalls, recognizes
reproduces, selects, states

Comprehension:Understand Examples: Rewrites the principles of test

the meaning, translation, solutions and writing as algorithm.
interpolation,and Explain in one's own words the steps for
interpretation of instructions performing a complex task. Translates

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and problem. State a an equation into a computer flowchart
problem in one's own words and Spreadsheet.

Key Words: Comprehends converts,

defends, distinguishes, estimates,
explains, extends, generalizes, gives
Examples, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, and translates.

Application:Use a concept in Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of

a new situation or equipment by using logical deduction.
unprompted use of an Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning.
abstraction. Applies what Gathers information from the user
was learned in the classroom department and selects the required
into novel situations in the tasksfor training, designing programming
work place. and implementing.
Key Words: analyses, breaks down
compares, contrasts, diagrams
deconstructs differentiates,discriminates
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infer
outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Synthesis: Builds a structure Examples: Write a company operations

or pattern from diverse or process manual and complete the
elements. Put parts together application programs with all needed
or process manual and specifications, design a machine to
complete the to form a perform specific tasks, integrates
whole, with emphasis on training from several sources to solve a
creating a new meaning or problem. Revises and process to
structure. improve the outcome.

Key Words: Categorizes, combines,

compiles, composes, creates, devises,
designs, explains, generates, modifies
organizes, plans, rearranges,
reconstructs, relates, reorganizes,
revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells and
writes.

Evaluation: Make Examples: Select the most effective

judgements about the value solution. Hire the most qualified
of ideas or materials. candidate. Explain and justify a new

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 product, design, application and budget

Key Words: appraises, compares,

concludes, contrasts, criticizes. critiques,
defends, describes. discriminates,
evaluates, explains. interprets, justifies,
relates, summarizes supports

The categories were designed to range from simple to complex and from
concrete to abstract. Further, it was assumed that the taxonomy
represented a cumulative hierarchy, so that mastery of each simpler
category was prerequisite to mastery of the next, more complex one.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
4. What does the Cognitive Domain deal with?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

5. Who framed the components of Cognitive domain of Educational

Objectives?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6 Write the components of Cognitive Domain.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

In addition to devising the cognitive taxonomy, the Bloom group later

framed taxonomy of the affective domain-objectives concerned with
interests, attitudes, adjustment, appreciation, and values. In 1964
Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia framed the components for affective
domain. Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react

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emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy.
Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitude,
emotion and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest
order processes to the highest:
1. Receiving (Attending): The lowest level; the student passively
pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur. This
involves: Awareness, Willingness to receive, Controlled or selected
attention.
2. Responding: The student actively participates in the learning
process, not only attends to a stimulus, the student also reacts in
some way. This involves: Acquiescence in responding, willingness
to respond, satisfaction in response.
3. Valuing: The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon,
or piece of information.

The student can put together different values, information, and ideas
and accommodate them within his her own schema; comparing,
relating and elaborating on what has been learned. This involves:
Acceptance of a value, Preference for a value, and Commitment.

4. Organizing: The student holds a particular values or belief that now

exerts influence on his/her behavior and organize the values for self.

5. Generalized Set and Characterization: Thus the domain includes

the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and
attitudes. The five major categories are listed in the following table
from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category Example and Key Words

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, Examples: Listen to others with

willingness to hear, selected respect to their needs. User
attention. requirements must be properly
listened to have clear understood
of the use environment.

Keywords: asks, chooses,

describes, follows, gives, holds
identifies, locates, names, points
to, selects, sits, erects, replies,

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 uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Active Examples: Participates in the

participation on the part of the discussions among the work
learners. Attends and reacts to a group. Gives a presentation.
particular phenomenon. Learning Questions new ideals, concepts,
outcomes may emphasize models, etc., in order to fully
compliance in responding, understand the user needs. Know
willingness to respond, or the rules and practices them.
satisfaction in responding
Keywords: answers, assists,
(motivation).
aids, complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps, labels,
performs, practices, presents,
reads, recites, reports, selects,
tells, writes.

Valuing: the worth or value a Examples: demonstrates belief in

person attaches to a particular the ideas and process. Is sensitive
object, phenomenon, or behaviour. towards individual and climatically
This ranges from simple or organisational differences
acceptance to the more complex (value diversity). Shows the ability
state of commitment. Valuing is to solve problems. Proposes a
based on the internalisation of a set plan to social improvement and
of specified values, while clues to follows through with commitment.
these values are expressed in the Informs management on matters
learner is overt behaviour and are that one feels strongly about.
often identifiable.
Keywords: completes,
demonstrates, differentiates,
explains, follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
reads, reports, selects, shares,
studies, works.

Organisation: organises values into Examples: recognises the need

priorities by contrasting different for balance between
values, resolving conflicts between infrastructure, user environment,
them, and creating and unique and responsible behaviour.
value system. The emphasis is on Accepts responsibility for ones
comparing, relating, and behaviour. Explains the role of
synthesising values. syntagmatic planning in solving
problems. Accepts professional

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 ethical standards. Resolves
conflicts and encourage
cooperative and collaborative
work ethics. Creates a life plan in
harmony with abilities, interests,
and beliefs. Priorities time
effectively to meet the needs of
the organisation.
Keywords: adheres, alters,
arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalises, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders,
organises, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.

Internalising values Examples: shows self-reliance

(Characterisation): has a value when working independently.
system that controls their Cooperates in group activities
behaviour. The behaviour is (displays team work). Uses an
pervasive, consistent, predictable, objective approach in problem
and most importantly, solving. Displays a professional
characteristics of the learner. commitment to ethical practice.
Instructional objectives are Revises, judgements and changes
concerned with the student‘s behaviour in light of new
general patterns of adjustment evidence. Values people for what
(personal, social, emotional) they are, now how they took.

Keywords: acts, discriminates,

displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices,
proposes, qualifies, questions,
revises, serves, solves, verifies.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

Instructional objectives and derived questions/tasks typically have

cognitive/affective elements, but the focus is on motor skill development.
The suggested areas for example are hardware operations,
maintenance and proper application of software and get the desired

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output from the computers. Other areas include manipulates skills
required in business training, industrial technology, and performance
areas in science, art and music. Education has to tend to emphasize
cognitive development at the expense of affective and psychomotor
development. The well-equipped and fully skilled person needs
development in all three domains. Kibler and Simpson suggest the
components of psychomotor domain.

In the psychomotor domain, performance may take the place in many

forms andthey are as follows:

Reflex movements. Identification and analysis of the working conditions

of components of the computer.

Basicfundamental movements. Loco motor movements, non-

locomotormovements, and manipulative movements. Identify the norms
and principles of theworking of the Input output devices and the other
peripheral devices.
Perceptual abilities.Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile
discrimination and coordinated abilities. Fixing the problem and finding
the alternatives in the operation in producing the required output through
computers.

Physical abilities. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility needed for

the people who work with the computers. The computer professional
must be prepared devote time and spend it for the constructive process
of systems designing and software development.

Skilled movements. Simple, compound and complex adaptive skills.

Many people may do things correctly but skilled people exhibit their
efficiency in an appealing manner. Computer education provides such
kind of skills.

Non discursive Communication. Expressive and interpretive

movement. More than manipulating data, what is expected of computer
professionals is to provide the user required data in an expressive and
impressive manner. It involves all the classification namely cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.

Thus the psychomotor domain includes physical movement,

coordination, and of the motor-skill areas Development of these skills
requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories of
psychomotor domain are listed from the simplest behavior to the most
complex in the following table:

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 Category Example and Keywords

Perception: The ability to use Examples: Detects the bugs in the

sensory cues to guide motor programs. Identify the defective
activity. This ranges on sensory parts in the hardware designs.
stimulation, through cue selection Locate where the problem arises
to translation and plan to rectify it. Adjusts the
hardware components for the
needed results and time the
systems anddesigns according to
one's needs

Keywords: chooses, describes,

detects, differentiates, distinguishes,
identifies, isolates, relates, selects

Set: Readiness to act. It includes Examples: Knows and acts upon

mental,physical, and emotional asequence of steps in a
sets. These three sets are manufacturingprocess. Recognize
dispositions that predetermine a ones abilities andlimitations. Shows
person is response to different desire to learn a newprocess
situations Sometimes called (motivation). Demonstrates
mindsets). theresults for further progress.

Keywords:Begins displays,
explains, moves, proceeds, reacts,
shows, states volunteers

Guided Response: The early in Examples: Performs or execute a

learning a complex skill that program or a design manufactured
includes imitation and trained and for adequacy and gathers
error. Adequacy of performance is information for further progress from
achieved by practicing. the knowledge society. Follows
instructions to build a model.
Responds to the instructions while
learning to operate a system.

Keywords: copies, traces, follows

react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the Examples: Use a personal

109
intermediate stage in learning a computer Handle the I/O Devices,
complex skill. Learned responses Run a program and get the results
have become habitual and the as hard or soft copies.
movements can be performed with
Keywords: assembles, calibrates
some confidence and proficiency.
constructs, dismantles, displays
fastens fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates measures, mends,
mixes, organizes sketches.

Complex Overt Response: The Examples: Operates a computer

skilful performance of motor acts quickly and accurately. Displays
that involve complex movement competence while programming and
patterns. Proficiency is indicating torun the program to get the
by a quick, accurate, and highly required result.
coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of
energy.This category includes Keywords: assembles, builds,
performing without hesitation, calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
andautomatic performance. displays, fastens, fixes, grinds.

Adaptation: Skills are well Examples:Responds effectively to

developedand the individual can unexpected experiences.
modify movementpatters to fit Modifiesinstruction to meet the
special requirements. needs of the learners. Perform a
task with a machine that it was not
originally intended to do (machine is
not damaged and there is no
danger in performing the new task).
Keywords: adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes, and
revises.

Examples: Constructs a new

Origination:Creating new theory,Develops a new and
movementpatterns to fit a comprehensive training
particular situation orspecific programming. Creates a new
problem. Learning outcomes gymnastic routine.
emphasize creativity based upon
Keywords: arranges, builds,
highly developed skills.
combines, composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiate, makes,
originates.

110
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit

7. What are the components of Affective Domain?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

8. Who framed the components of Affective Domain of Educational

Objectives?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. Write the components of Psychomotor Domain.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
10. Who developed the components of Psychomotor Domain?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

LET US SUM UP

Education is the means through which an individual gets knowledge and

understanding, analyze things that comes in the way, apply his skill and
achieve his/her livelihood and reputation. Depending upon the
acquisition of knowledge and skill and the manner in which the skill is
attained, educationist has arranged it in a hierarchy which is known as
Taxonomy of Educational objectives. The educational objective consists
of the 3 major domains namely Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor.
The cognitive domain deals with the knowledge and its attainment. The
affective domain deals with the feeling of an individual and psychomotor
involves the motor skills. Thus the school children while learning
computer science subject must attain the components of the entire
domain to claim to have learnt the subject.

111
GLOSSARY

 Affectivedomain - The affective domain can significantly

enhance, inhibit or even prevent student learning. The affective
domain includes factors such as student motivation, attitudes,
perceptions and values.
 Cognitive domain - The cognitive domain involves knowledge
and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural
patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of
intellectual abilities and skills.
 Educational objectives - Learning objectives for specific sessions
describe the intended learning outcome from attending a learning
session on a specific topic.
 Psychomotor domain - The psychomotor domain refers to
the use of motor skills, coordination, and physical movement.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. To make learners be equipped for better living styles.

2. To help the learners achieve life skills through formal learning
3. Cognitive, affective and psychomotor are the 3 domains of
educational objectives.
4. Cognitive domain deals with knowledge part
5. Benjamin Bloom
6. Knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
7. Receiving, responding, valuing, Organizing and internalizing.
8. Benjamin Bloom, Krathwol and Massia
9. Perception, Readiness, Guided Response, Mechanism, Complex
overt response, Adaption, and origination
10. Kibler and Simpon

SUGGESTED READINGS

Deepak Dayal. (2008). Modern Methods of Teaching Mathematics New

Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.

Roo, D.B. (2007) Education for All: The Global Consensus. New Delhi

APH Publishing Corporation.

112
LokeshKowl. Methodology of Educational Research. New Delhi: Vani
Educational Books

Mangal, S.K. Statistics in Psychology and Education. New Delhi: Tata

McGraw Hill Publishing Company.

Jayaprakash Reddy, R. (2007) Methods of Teaching. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Stella Ramchandani. (2008). Modern Methods and Techniques of

Teaching. New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors.
Vashist, S.R. Theory of Educational Evaluation. New Delhi: Anmol

Publications Ltd.

113
 UNIT 6 GENESIS IN TEACHING COMPUTERSCIENCE

Structure

Introduction
Objectives
Teaching Process

Micro Teaching
Purpose and Importance

Micro-Teaching Cycle
Steps in Micro-Teaching

Micro Teaching Skills

Skill of Introducing a Lesson

Skill of Probing Question

Skill of Explaining

6.5.4 Skill of Demonstration

6.3.5 Skill of Using Black Board

Model Micro Lesson PlanLet

Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answer to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

The art of teaching is the art of assisting in discovery. Education is man

making and teaching has to bring out those capacities that are within
mankind. Hence the teaching process must aim at helping the students
understand and learn from their environment. It demands the efficiency
of the teacher to provide such kind of environment to provoke learning.
Hence the teacher has to equip with those skills that are needed to
teach their wards of different attitudes. This is a complex process and
the skills can be achieved only by slowly practicing in small scales. This
unit aims to provide such kinds of abilities in developing teaching skill for
the future teachers.

114
OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge on the teaching and teaching skills

understand the concept of Micro-teaching
 understand the principles underlying Micro-teaching
 analyze the complex process of teaching and the purpose of
Micro-teaching
 understand the types of Micro-teaching for developing teaching
skills.

TEACHING PROCESS

Teaching is the process to show or help a person or people to learn how

to do something. It is an art to impart knowledge and understanding to
the students who desire to gain them. It imparts knowledge and skills to
the aspirant. Teaching is often referred to in the context of class room
activity of a school premises. The person who professes knowledge is
known as teacher. Though every individual has the capacity to share
ideas; not all can become teacher since it involves more complex and
conscious state of art. A teacher is necessarily a learner, but the art of
teaching involves the skill of imparting the learnt concept into the minds
of the learners in the proper and effective manner. This cannot be
achieved in a single act or in a single day. It has to be developed day by
day.

MICRO TEACHING

The pre service teacher needs to attain such an efficient multi skilled art
slowly and one by one. This technique of mastering the skills in slow
pace with small interval of time for a small unit of information to a small
group of recipient is known as micro teaching. Micro-teaching is a
teacher training technique which helps the teacher trainee to master the
teaching skills. It helps the teacher trainee
1. to teach a single concept of content

2. using a specified teaching skill

3. for a short time

4. to a very small member of pupils

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 In this way the teacher trainee practices the teaching skill in terms of
definable, observable, measurable and controllable form with repeated
cycles till he attains mastery in the use of skill.

Microteaching was developed in the early and mid1960's by Dwight

Allen and his colleagues at the Stanford Teacher Education Program.
The Stanford model advocated teach, review and reflect, re-teach
approach, using actual school students. The model has been adapted
for college and university teaching where it has been used by graduate
teacher trainees. It often offers a concerned, focused form of peer
feedback and discussion. A similar model called Instructional Skills
Workshop (ISW) was developed during the early 1970s by British
Columbia's Education Ministry as a training support program for all
college and institute faculty in British Columbia and has now and
throughout Canada, USA and internally. Though there are significant
differences between the two they both share some commonalities and
were designed to enhance teaching. Amicro lesson is an opportunity to
present a sample "snapshot of what hew teach and to get some
feedback from colleagues about how it was received chance to try
teaching strategies that we may not use regularity. This is a good safe
time to experiment with something new or to get feedback on a
technique on which we are not sure about its effectiveness. The core of
this experience is the presentation of 5- minutes micro lessons by each
participant. When one participant presents the lesson as the instructor
the other participants become the students for that lesson. A timer is
used to keep to the strictly enforced time limit. No one needs to be
offended if he/she is cut off, it will be necessary to keep to the time limit
so that everyone might participate fully. Because this time limit is strictly
enforced, it might be very helpful for one so practice. The goal is to
abide a sample of a teaching method or style in order to get a fresh
perspective on from the learners. The lesson can be excerpted from the
beginning, middle or end of one course lesson and we will be able to
explain this in setting up the lesson and as part of Microteaching.

116
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Comp are your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit

1. What is Micro Teaching?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2. What is the use of Micro Teaching?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. How does Micro-Teaching helps the Pre Service Teacher?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE

It is obvious that microteaching has a rich potential as a method of

training incommunication skills as well as in teacher education. In
teacher education, microteaching may be used as a supplement to
teaching practice, as part of a gradual process of training from
microteaching to the real classroom, as a form of diagnostic and
remedial training and as a method of enriching the skills of experienced
teachers, Microteaching may also be used in curriculum development in
schools. Microteaching provides an opportunity to try out some materials
with students and teachers. The results may be analyzed and the
materials modified if necessary and some of the videotapes obtained
may also be used in seminars and workshops with teachers to provide
examples of different ways of using the same materials. Recently
microteaching has become an important method of staff training and
development for lecturers who are working in further and higher
education. Lecturing, small group teaching and tutorials are complex and
skills demanding activities. These teaching methods may be analysed
and training programmes must be devised to improve them.

Since micro teaching is a teaching technique, its utilities are vital. Micro
teaching is essential since it provides the following factors to the learner.

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1. It provides confidence to the pre service teachers.
2. It helps the trainee to master each skill.
3. It directs the trainees as to how to progress in teaching.
4. It eradicates shyness from them.
5. Helps to master the subject and the skills.
6. Feedback is possible in micro teaching
7. It is an immediate evaluator of teaching
8. Develops love for learning

MICRO-TEACHING CYCLE

The steps generally involved in micro-teaching cycle are

Fig: 6.1 Micro-Teaching Cycle

There can be variations as per requirement of the objective of practice

session.

Plan: This involves the selection of the topic and related content of
such a nature in which the use of components of the skill under
practice may be made easily and conveniently. The topic is
analysed into different activities of the teacher and the pupils.
The activities are planned in such a logical sequence where
maximum application of the components of a skill are possible.

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Teach: This involves the attempts of the teacher trainee to use
the components of the skill in suitable situations coming
up in the process of teaching learning as per his/her
planning of activities. If the situation is different and not
as visualised in the planning of the activities, the
teacher should modify his/her behaviour as per the
demand of the situation in the class He should have the
courage and confidence to handle the situation arising
in the class effectively.

Feedback: This term refers to giving information to the teacher

trainee about his/ her performance. The information
includes the points of strength as well as weakness
relating to his/her performance. This helps the teacher
rainee to improve upon his/her performance in the
desired direction.

Review: It is a good practice for the teacher trainee to review his

lesson for better performance if his first previous
teaching was not up to the mark. For this purpose he
has to identify the flaw pointed out by the peer group
analyze the defects and set to re do the entire process.

Re-plan: The teacher trainee re plans his lesson incorporating the

points of strength and removing the points not skilfully
handled during teaching in the previous attempt either
on the same topic or on another topic suiting to the
teacher trainee for improvement.
Re-teach: This involves teaching to the same group of pupils if the
topic is changed or to a different group of pupils if the
topic is the same. This is done to remove boredom or
monotony of the pupil. The teacher trainee teaches the
class with renewed courage and confidence to perform
better than the previous attempt.

Re-feedback: This is the most important component of Micro-teaching

for behaviour modification of teacher trainee in the
desired direction in each and every skill practice.

Any new trainee will be able to rectify the problems in teaching by the re-
teach technique and will be able to make him give better performance
after teaching the micro lesson twice. If not the teaching cycle has to be
repeated.

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 STEPS MICRO-TEACHING

The Micro-teaching programme involves the following steps

Step I Particular skill to be practiced is explained to the teacher

trainees in terms of the purpose and components of the skill
with suitable couple

Step II The teacher trainer gives the demonstration of the skill in

Micro-teaching in simulated conditions to the teacher
trainees.

Step III The teacher trainee plans a short lesson plan on the basis of
thedemonstrated skill for his/her practice.

Step IV The teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of

pupils. Hi/Her lesson is supervised by the supervisor and
peers.

Step V On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor

gives feedback to the teacher trainee. The supervisor
reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill and draws
attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he/she
could not do well.

StepVI In the light of the feed-back given by the supervisor, the

teacher trainee replans the lesson plan in order to use the
skill in more effective manner in the second trial.

Step VII The revised lesson is taught to another comparable group of

pupils.

Step VIII The supervisor observes the re-teach lesson and gives re-
feedback to the teacher trainee with convincing arguments
and reasons.

Step IX The teach, re-teach cycle may be repeated several times till
adequate mastery level is achieved

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit
4. Write any two purposes of Micro Teaching.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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 5. What are the steps in Micro Teaching Cycle?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. When do the trainees Reteach?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

MICRO TEACHING SKILLS

More teaching is the initial state of the teaching procedure. Teaching

process involves combination of multiple skills that are practiced at the
micro level teaching. Following is a few of the teaching skills given by Dr.
B.K. Passi in his book "Becoming Better Teacher; Micro-teaching
Approach":
1. Writing instructional objectives

2. Introducing a lesson
3. Fluency in questioning

4. Probing questioning
5. Explaining

6. illustrating with examples

7. Stimulus variation

8. Silence and non-verbal cues

9. Reinforcement

10. Increasing pupil participation

11. Using black board

12. Achieving Closure

13. Recognizing attending behavior

S.No. Skill Components

1. Probing Questions Prompting, seeking further

information, redirection, focusing,
increasing critical awareness.

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2. Explaining Clarity, continuity, relevance to
content using beginning and
concluding statements, covering
essential points.

3. Illustratingwith Simple, relevant and interesting

examples examples appropriate media, use
of inductive and deductive
approach.

4. Stimulus variation Body movements, gestures,

change in speech pattern, change
in interaction style, pausing,
focusing oral-visual switching.

5. Reinforcement Use of praise words and

statements, accepting and using
pupils' idea, repeating and
rephrasing, extra vertical cues,
use of pleasant and approving
gestures and expressions, writing
pupils' answer on the black board.

6. Classroom Call pupils bynames, Makenorms

Management of classroom behaviour, attending
behaviour reinforced, clarity of
direction, check non attending
behaviour, keep pupils in Eye
Span, check inappropriate
behaviour immediately.

7. Use of blackboard Legible, neat and adequate with

reference to content covered.

Table 6.1 Components of Certain Teaching Skills

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 SKILL OF INTRODUCING A LESSON

The progress of a lesson and its effectiveness depends primarily on how

efficiently it has been introduced. While introducing the lesson the
teacher becomes aware of the task that he/she has to execute, prepares
the students for receiving and integrating themselves with the lessons.
The skill has the following components:

1. Securing attention. The teacher undertakes such

activities that may raw and maintain attention of the whole
class to the lesson.
2. Assessing motivational level. The level of attention is
often related to the nature of motivation the learners
have. Usually the learners are expected to have an
optimum level of motivation at the beginning which may
fluctuate with the effectiveness of teaching.
3. Linking with past learning experience . This helps in
sustaining both motivation and attention.
4. Specifying the points to be taken up for teaching . The
main points ofunits of the contents may be specified while
introducing the lesson. This will help the students to get
prepared for what they are expected to learn.
5. Using appropriate devices. Using a good illustration,
example, appropriate teaching aids, demonstration of
experiment helps in drawing attention and arousing
motivation. It is to be ensured that such aids are different
from those used during lecturing or explaining.

Teaching Aid-As may be required for a lesson and a particular

component.

While a lesson is introduced by a trainee, the peer observer observes

and give feedback with the help of a rating schedule which constitute the
components of the particular skill. Following is a schedule for the skill of
Introducing. Asimilar format can be redesigned according to the
competency of the Teacher.

Observation Schedule for the Skill of Introducing a Lesson

Name of the Student Teacher: Roll No:

Topic: Class:
Name of the Supervisor: Date:

Time Duration: Teach/Re-teach:

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Components Not at all Very Much

Teacher used previous knowledge

of the pupils 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The device used was appropriate 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

There were instances of lack in continuity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Teacher uttered irrelevant statements and

Questions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Almost every question of the teacher was

followed by correct pupil responses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

On the whole, the introducing of the lesson

was effective 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Comments (if any):

6.3.2 SKILL OF PROBING QUESTION

The skill of questioning is a range of questions. Benjamin Bloom (1956)

suggested that the same information can be handled in more or less
demanding ways-students can be asked to recall facts, to analyze those
facts, to synthesize or discover new information based on the facts, or to
evaluate knowledge. Now there is even greaterrange of challenging
questions.

A few types of questions are listed below.

Inference Questions. These questions ask students to go beyond the

immediately available information.

Example: The teacher may ask a student to write a program for a

particular class problem. The problem can be further modified to make
the pupils think.

Interpretation Questions. If inference questions demand that students

fill in miss information, then interpretive questions propose that they
understand to flowchart to program employ.

Example: The process of coding from algorithm these types of

questions while on the process.

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Transfer Questions. Ifinference and interpretation questions as a
student to deeper, transfer questions provoke a kind of breadth of
thinking, asking student.

Example: coding and decoding of assembler program make up these

kinds of questions.
Reflective Questions. When teachers ask reflective questions, they are
insisting that students ask themselves "How do I know I know?"; "What
does this leave not knowing?" "What things do I assume rather than
examine?" Such question may leave a class silent, because they help to
think.

Following is a schedule for the skill of Probing questioning. A similar

format can be redesigned according to the competency of the Teacher.

Observation Schedule for the Skill of Probing Questioning

Name of the Student Teacher:Roll No:

Topic: Class:
Name of the Supervisor: Date:

Time Duration:Teach/Re-teach:
Components Not at all Very Much

Teacher used prompting questions to lead the

pupils to the expected response 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The teacher used questions for seeking

information of the responses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The teacher used questions to refocus the

Pupil responses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The teacher redirected questions to

the pupil questions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The teacher used questions to increase critical
awareness of the pupils about their responses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

7. Mention any three Micro Teaching Skills.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. What is the purpose of Skill of Introducing?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. What are the components of the Skills Probing Questions?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

SKILL OF EXPLAINING

Explanation is a key skill. The skill of explanation is complex. To explain

is to give understanding (to another person). It leads from the known to
the unknown; it bridges the gap between a person's knowledge or
experience and new phenomena; it may also aim to show the
interdependence of phenomena in a general manner. It assists the
learner to assimilate and accommodate new data or experience. It
should be simple, clear, concise and interesting In general it should not
be rambling, long or dull. However, what is to be explained may be
complex and abstract. Effective explanation requires careful and
sensitive planning. It requires the recognition of a number of essential
characteristics when putting it into operation. Here we are considering
only 3 major characteristics.

Planning

Establish clearly, in advance, the major point or points you wish to

communicate to your pupils. These may be ideas, rules, relationships,
generalization, etc., Establish links between ideas. Obtain information
from pupils about their knowledge, experience, and interest to guide
your planning. Your explanation must appeal to your class. Decide the
means by which explanation is likely to be effective.

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Be prepared to modify your plans in the light of feedback from pupils
during the lesson. Adapt to pupil needs. Be brief. Think how much you
recall after 10 minutes.

Operation

When carrying out the explaining skill consider other skills on which
explanation partly rests (e.g. teacher liveliness). Follow the following
steps.

 Structure the lesson as introduction, elaboration, summary

 Emphasis the main points, so that their importance is clear.
 Show the relationship between the main points.
 Determine (if necessary) the general principles involved.

In Summary there are 7 considerations for effective explanation.

Incorporate

1. Is the explanation understood?

2. Does it interest your class?

3. Does it cover the main elements?

4. Did you respond to your pupils understanding?

5. Did you classify their responses?

6. Are illustrations interesting?

7. Are illustrations relevant?

Effective explanation relies on illustration, analogy and the use of

examples. These are central to teaching new ideas and to obtaining
feedback as to whether the idea have been understood. Examples may
be used to provide concrete instances or information within the learner's
experience and understanding, to lead pupils perceive common
features, and to abstract generalizations appropriate to all the specific
instances. To test understanding of an idea, concept or principle, it may
be applied to particular situations.
CLOSURE

The main purpose is to signify that the task or learning sequences

complete. The aim is partly social, i.e., to end the lesson, but more
importantly it also to consolidate what has been learnt and focus
attention on the main points. This is its cognitive link. It is important
pupils leave with a sense of achievement so that they feel the lesson
was worthwhile and hence are interested next time. This is theso called
social link and is important if we are to encourage our pupils for further

127
work Effective closure does not mean just summarizing but it also
involves putting anew question that pupils can think about i.e., it must
interest and reinforce. It is vital in doing this that pupils link the
conclusion with the main part of the lesson. Remember closure does not
only occur at its end of the lesson. Like "set" it should be usedafter each
major section, e.g. after viewing a section of video or on completing an
exercise In order to close a lesson, or a part of a lesson, we may:

1. review the main points which have been made. It is important to be

brief and well-focussed.

2. return to the original question posed at the beginning of the lesson

and apply the new knowledge gained.

Following is a schedule for the skill of Explaining. A similar format can be

redesigned according to the competency of the Teacher.

Observation Schedule for The Skill of Explaining

Name of the Student Teacher: Roll No:

Topic: Class:
Name of the Supervisor: Date:

Time Duration: Teach/Re-teach:

Components Not at all Very Much

Used many explaining links 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Used beginning statements 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Used concluding statements 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Put a large number of questions to test

pupils understanding 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Many questions put to test pupils

understanding were followed by

correct pupil responses 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Used irrelevant statements 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Lacked Continuity in explaining 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Lacked fluency in explaining 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Use vague words and phrases 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Comments (if any):

128
 SKILL OF DEMONSTRATION

Demonstrations are done to provide an opportunity in learning new

exploration and visual learning tasks from a different perspective.
Demonstration is done with actual experiments that could provide
practical knowledge to the students. For example when teaching the
operations of a printer, the teacher needs to study about the mechanism
first to make his/her demonstration easy and meaningful so that during
the demonstration process the teacher does not stammer .
Demonstrations can be exercised in several ways.
Characteristics of good demonstrators:

1. Be familiar with the experiments/studies being undertaken by the

class and any potential difficulties. Ideally, you should carry out the
experimental work before the class so you are familiar with the task
and results.

2. Get experienced with the experts, technical staff in particular, who

have run these studies before. They will help you to identify potential
problems and deal with any questions from students that you cannot
answer.

3. Give clear instructions, understand the assessment tasks associa ted

with the practical and be familiar with safety procedures. Ask the
academic in charge of the class about any briefings that the students
receive. If you are expected to give these identify the learning
objectives of the session, any potential safety issues, and the key
features of the assessment and introduce these clearly in a short
presentation.
4. Be available to answer questions and offer feedback where required.

5. Maintain control. Very often practical work has associated risks.

Make it clear that disruptive behavior is not acceptable. Ask open
questions on the work they have done to ensure it has been
completed.

Following is a schedule for the skill of Demonstration. A similar format

can be redesigned according to the competency of the Teacher .

Observation Schedule for the Skill of Demonstration

Name of the Student Teacher: Roll No:

Topic: Class:
Name of the Supervisor: Date:

Time Duration: Teach/Re-teach:

129
Components Not at all Very Much

The aid(s) was/ were adequate and

relevant to the topic 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The aid(s) was/were adequate and

relevant to the age level of the pupils 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

There is evidence that the demonstration was

made clear to the class 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

All the aids were keptbefore the class

started, out of the view of the class but within

the reach of the teacher 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The demonstration was visible to all 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The light was adequate 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The objects used were introduced and

described when necessary 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Teacher did not talk unnecessarily during the

Demonstration 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Pupil's observation v was guided where ever

Needed 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Important observation data were recorded

on the blackboard 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Pupils were helped to infer from data 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Pupils were helped to participate in doing

the demonstration 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Comments (if any):

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.

10. What is the purpose of Explaining?

130
 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. Give two components of Explaining.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12. Identify two lessons for using Demonstration in the Class.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

SKILL OF USING BLACK BOARD

The term "blackboard" was used from around 1815 to 1825 Anew
American term for Black Board is "chalkboard" being introduced during
1935 to 1940. The blackboard was introduced into the US education
system in 1801. Achalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface
on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulphate,
known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were
originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone.
Modern versions are often green or brown and are thus sometimes
called a green board or brown board instead. Black Boards are used
more in teaching to help the students understand the concepts visually
and clearly, Blackboards have disadvantages: they produce dust, the
amount depending on the quality of chalk used. Some people find this
uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and there has been speculation
about links between chalk dust and respiratory problems. The dust also
precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment
such as computers. However, these alternative methods of displaying
information have drawbacks of their own.

Following is a schedule for the skill of Using Black Board. A similar

format can be redesigned according to the competency of the Teacher.

Observation Schedule for the Skill of Using Blackboard

Name of the Student Teacher: Roll No:

Topic: Class:

Name of the Supervisor: Date:

Time Duration: Teach/Re-teach:

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Components Not at all Very Much

Legibility of Handwriting

Every letter is distinct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Adequate spacing is there between two letters 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Adequate spacing is there between two words 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The slant ness of each letter is closest to the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The size of the letter is large enough to be read

from the far end of the room 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The size of the letter is just bigger than the small

letters and not so big as to form an obstacle in

reading 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
All the capital letters are of the same size 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

All the capital letters are of the same size 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The thickness of the lines is of the same width

Neatness in blackboard work 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The words and sentences written are parallel

to The base of the blackboard 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

There is adequate spacing between the lines

There is no overwriting 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Only the relevant matter which is under

the focus of classroom discussion

is retainedon the board 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Appropriateness of written work on the

blackboard. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

There is continuity in the points being

presented on the blackboard.
The points written on the blackboard are

brief and simple 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Only the important points are underlined to

draw the pupils attention 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Coloured chalks are used suitably 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Diagrams/Illustrations are developed

long withthe lesson 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

The diagrams are simple, large, clear and

proportionate in size 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

There are no unnecessary details in the

Diagrams/illustrations 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Miscellaneous points

Tick mark ( √)either Yes' or 'No' against each of the points below.
The teacher

checked the glare on the blackboard Yes No

checked before the use whether the black Yes No

board is clean Yes No

checked after use whether the blackboard

is clean Yes No
was ready with an adequate number

of chalks Yes No
did not come between the blackboard was

being used Yes No

avoided squeaking noise of the chalk while writing Yes No

applied adequate pressure while writing on the

blackboard Yes No
did not pollute the air while clearing Yes No
did not commit mistake either in spelling or

diagrams/illustrations Yes No
Comments (if any):

133
 MODEL MICRO LESSON PLAN

Writing a micro lesson is subjective and depends on the individual skills.

Following is an example of a micro lesson but this is not a
general/universal structure.

SKILL OF QUESTIONING
OBJECTIVES

I. To enable the student teacher to acquire knowledge of getting

started with Linux
II. To enable the student teacher to understandthe login and logout
process of
III. To enable the student teacher to attain the skill of questioning in
getting startedwith Linux
TEACHING AIDS: White board, Marker pen and computer (preferred
with LCEprojector)
MICRO LESSON

Teacher: Today, we are going to learn about the login and logout
process of Linux.

Teacher: Suppose you are going to your friend's house and knocks
the door. Will she immediately open the door?

Pupil: No
Teacher: Why?

Pupil: Because she will check whether the person is known to her
or not.

Teacher: Absolutely right. So, how she will verify whether you are a
known person or not.

Pupil: By seeing through windows or the identification mirror fixed

on the door.

Teacher: Good. You are correct. So only the known persons will be
allowed inside her house and others will not be allowed Am
I right?

Pupil: Yes.
Teacher: Why she is doing all these things?

Pupil: For security purpose.

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Teacher: Excellent. In the similar way, computer also checks its user
for security. Is it clear? Am I right?

Pupil: Yes.
Teacher: How does computer verify?

Pupil: Through login name and password.

(The answer is written on the Board)

Teacher: How do we get the login and password?

Pupil: By registering with the computer.

Teacher: Do we register every time we use computer.

Pupil: No. only during first time.

Teacher: Right. So only by giving the login and password, we can

enter and work with the system. Am I right?
Pupil: Yes.

Teacher : In the same way, we should also give our login and
password to use Linux operating system.
Teacher : In Linux, you should login as name@local host name.

(The teacher writes on the Board and also uses the login
name in thecomputer to check)
Teacher : Is the syntax clear?

Pupil: Yes

Teacher : One more important thing to be remembered is that Linux is

case sensitive operating system. So you should be careful
with lower case and upper case character.

(A demo is given using computer)

Teacher : After giving login name, what will be the next step?

Pupil: Giving password.

(password is written on the board and also given to the

computer)

Teacher : In Linux, we give password after $ symbol. (E.g,)

anu@homeanuradha
Teacher : Now you entered and started your work. After finishing your
workdo you directly which off the computer?

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 (The teacher gives a few commands and then tries to
explain how to log out using computers)

Pupil: No, we will logout the process first and turnoff the computer

Teacher : Yes How do you logoff your windows operating system

computer?
Pupil: We click logoff.

Teacher : Yes In Linux, we type exit for logout. Are you clear with the
concept?
Pupil: Yes.
Teacher : This is how we will login and logout of Linux.

(With this the micro teaching using skill of questioning gets

over)

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit
13. What is the use of Black Board?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

14.How does the Black Board help the teacher-trainees?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

LET US SUM UP

In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or

academy. The act of teaching is attained in a slow but systematic way.
The process involves a technique called micro teaching also. Micro -
teaching is a teacher training technique which helps the teacher trainee
to master the teaching skills. It helps the teacher trainee

 to teach a single concept of content

 using a specified teaching skill
 for a short time

136
  to a very small member of pupils

In this way the teacher trainee practices the teaching skill in terms of
definable, observable, measurable and controllable form with repeated
cycles all he attains mastery in the use of skill.

Writing instructional objectives, Introducing a Lesson, Fluency in

Questioning, probing questioning, explaining, illustrating with examples,
stimulus variation, silence and non-verbal ques, reinforcement,
increasing pupil participation, using black board, achieving closure,
recognising attending behaviour are a few of the micro teaching skills.

GLOSSARY

 Micro teaching - Micro-teaching is a teacher training and faculty

development technique whereby the teacher reviews a recording
of a teaching session, in order to get constructive feedback from
peers and/or students about what has worked and what
improvements can be made to their teaching technique.
 Skill of Demonstration - Skills demonstration portion of the
competency evaluation from a pool of evaluation tasks ranked
according to difficulty and a system for maintaining integrity.
 Skill of probing question - The skill of Probing
Questioning involves going deep into a student‘s response by
asking a series of subsequent questions. It helps the students to
give a correct and complete answer. This skill requires the
teacher to put a series of questions about the answer given to
the first question.
 Teaching Learning process - Teaching and learning involves the
process of transferring knowledge from the one who is giving to
the one who is receiving. Teaching process cannot be performed
if there is one element that is missing among the three of
the teaching and learning elements. There is what we called as
elements of teaching and learning processes

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Micro-teaching is a teacher training technique which helps the

teacher trainee to master the teaching skills.
2. Micro teaching helps the teacher educators to identify the teaching
skills of thepre-service teachers, helps the peers to identify the
areas of mistake in teaching and develops the teaching skills of the
pre-service teacher.

137
3. Trains the pre service teacher and gives them confidence to
perform better inthe future. It is a directive technique
4. (1) Gives self-confidence (2) It helps the student teacher to rectify
his/herteaching.
5. Plan-Teach-Feedback Review.
6. When the trainee is not able to make effective teaching in the
scheduled time or when the objectives are not attained re-teaching
is done.
7. Skill of probing questions, skill of introducing and skill of
demonstration.
8. It trains the trainees to effectively introduce any concept while
teaching
9. Seeking questing, provoking the curiosity in learning, redirecting
and focusingthe Questions and to provide awareness to the
concept.
10. To teach volume of information in a short time span effectively.
11. Planning, using links and summarizing or concluding
12. Teaching about 1. Printers 2. Internet explorer.
13. Provide a detailed result of teaching. Students are reinforced with
the learning material by visual appearance.
14. Gives confidence to the trainees. Help them to summarize the
lesson

SUGGESTED READING

Rao, D.B. (2007) Education for All: The Global consensus. New De
APH Publishing Corporation.

Siddiqi, M.H. (2008). Techniques of Teaching, New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Jayaprakash Reddy, R. (2007). Methods of Teaching. New Delhi: Ap

Publishing Corporation.

Stella Ramchandani. (2008), Modern Methods and Techniques of

Teaching New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors.

Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Singh Y.K. (2007). Micro Teaching, New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation.

138
UNIT 7 SCHEM E FOR TEACHING

Structure

Objectives
Introduction

Need and Importance of Lesson Plan

Writing Educational Objectives

Principles in Writing Lesson plan

How to write a Lesson Plan?

Model Lesson Plan

Lesson Plan 1

Lesson Plan 2
Unit PlanLet Us
Sum Up
Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Planning pre-supposes an ability to foresee events and capability for

analysing situations and solving problems. A plan is a list of actions
arranged in whatever sequence is thought likely to achieve an objective.
Lesson plan is an activity written prior to the class room activity.
Planning without action is futile and we need not worry about but action
without planning is fatal and it is realised to its full course when it is
practiced inside class room. Hence teachers need to be very careful and
cautious in planning a lesson before teaching. This unit deals with the
need, importance and the techniques involved in planning a lesson for
class room teaching.

139
 OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to,

 acquire knowledge about the meaning and importance of lesson

plan
 understand the importance of lesson plan
 understand the importance and outcome of learning
 attain the skill of writing lesson plans.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF LESSON PLAN

The word lesson comes from "lectio", a Latin word which means "t he
action of reading (out)". The word was also used for the text. Lesson
plan in general is the structure of teaching. The detail of the plan vary
with some being a simple list of what is going to be taught in a lesson,
and some include much more details, such as a time plan and the
learning aims and objectives. Student teachers are usually advised to
give a great amount of detail into the written plan. This ensures that the
plan will be cohesive, that all the components of a successful lesson are
taken into in consideration. Further, the lesson details must include
factors such as motivation and thought provoking questions. Another
reason for including a great amount of detail is that student teachers are
often required to submit lesson plans in advance to their mentor
teachers in order to receive feedback on their ideas. Lessons are
generally taught in a classroom. It is an insight gained by a learner into
previously unfamiliar subject matter. Since lessons are imparted to the
young minds and for the first time learning of the matter, careful planning
of concept and delivery mode is a must.

A daily lesson plan is developed by the teacher to guide the class room
instruction. Planning the instruction is much more difficult than delivering
the instruction. Planning is when you look at the curriculum standards
and develop lesson content that match those standards. All details
should be written down to assist the smooth delivery of the content. The
extent of the detail will vary depending on the number of years of
experience that the teacher has and the number of times he/she has
taught the lesson. Obviously a teacher with several or many years of
experience may have plans that are much less detailed than beginning
teachers. Writing lesson plan is mandatory in every school. A lesson
plan is a written description to teach academic content. A lesson plan
helps teachers organize their objectives and methodologies. A lesson
plan determines the purpose, aim, and rational of class time activity. It

140
also provides focus for the lesson you are presenting. A lesson plan is a
fairly detailed plan of instruction. It helps you think through the best way
to present the information to the students. You will need to develop clear
and specific objectives. Planning and writing lesson plan is individual
ability but strictly adhering to the concept prescribed in the curriculum.
Any individual trainee or a school teacher can construct the classroom
teaching according to her/his own way of delivering the lesson. It is a
good practice when the lesson plan is drafted following certain
principles.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the unit.
1. What is the purpose of Lesson Plan?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __

2. How does Lesson Plan help the Teacher?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _

WRITING EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Objectives are stated in operational/behavioral terms that define

expected learneroutcomes and indicate what the participant/ student
should be able to do at theconclusion of the activity.

Steps in Writing Educational Objectives:

Step I: Write your objectives according to what is expected of the

learner, not what you will do.

It could be as follows

1. Upon completion of this course, the students will be able to

define the concept of algorithm.
2. By the end of the class the students will acquire knowledge on
Printers.
3. On completion of the lesson the students will be able to apply the
Input commands in writing program.

141
Step 2: Write the behavior or verb of your objective clear and
measurable. Behaviors can be written on different levels.

Knowledge Understanding Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

define translate interpret distinguish compose judge

repeat restate apply differentiate plan appraise

record discuss employ appraise propose evaluate

list describe use calculate design rate

recall recognize demonstrate experiment formulate compare

name explain dramatize test arrange value

relate express practice compare assemble revise

identify illustrate contrast collect score

operate criticize construct select

schedule diagram create choose

inspect set up assess

organize estimate

manage measure

Table 7.1 The Verbs used for Cognitive Outcome

Changing levels, as described in the table, requires some modification in

the teaching techniques and time required. As a general rule, knowledge
level behaviors can be taught in a short period of time while objectives at
the evaluation level will take much longer periods of time. Your course
will probably be concerned only with the knowledge and comprehension
levels.

Step 3: Make the content of your objective as specific as possible. The

subject matter i.e., the content can be simplified according to the ability
of the students, the proper teaching aids will be specified for the
effective delivery of the concept and supplementing facts need to be
provided to make the students understand the concept better.

142
 PRINCIPLES IN WRITING LESSON PLAN

1. Planning. First of all decide what has to be taught. This should be

developed based upon the school standards. The teacher need to be
aware of the level for which the lesson has to be taught. When the topic
is decided, the method of teaching can be decided. The lesson plan
correctly aligned with the expected standards helps to prove its
worthiness and necessity. It also helps in assuring that the students are
being taught what is required.

2. Frame Objectives. Develop clear and specific objectives to make

sure the lesson plan teaches exactly what has to be taught. Here
objectives are not the activities that will be used in the lesson plan. They
should instead be the learning outcomes of those activities. Objectives
should also be directly measurable the teacher must be able to tell that
the objectives are met with or not. More than one objective can be
written for a lesson plan. To make objectives more meaningful, both
broad and narrow objectives can be included. The broad objectives
would be more like goals and include the overall goal of the lesson plan.
Example: To familiarize with writing BASIC program.

The specific objectives would be more like the students will identify
where to apply the IF-THEN Command.

3. Aids to be used. Whatever material are to be used in the class

during instruction, they need to be presented in the lesson plan. Be
specific here to make sure the teaching will have everything needed.

4. Previous Knowledge to be tested and motivation to be carried

out. The teacher may also want to write an Anticipatory Set, which
would be a way to lead into the lesson plan and develop the students
interest in learning what is about to be taught.
5. Developing the lesson. Now the teacher needs to write the step-by-
step procedures that will be performed to reach the objectives. These
don't have to involve every little thing the teacher will say and do, but
they should list the relevant actions the teacher needs to perform.

6. Application of concept learnt. After the procedures have been

completed, provide time for independent practice i.e., makes them apply
the concept learnt.
7. Summarize. Just before moving on to the assessment phase
summary or closureof the lesson needs to be planed. A good practice
will be to trace back the anticipatoryset of activities and question on
them.

143
 8. Evaluation. Then write the assessment/evaluation. It is a good
practice to find whether the objectives were reached or not in the class
itself. The key in developing assessment is to make sure that the
assessment specifically measures whether the objectives were reached
or not. Thus, there should be a direct correlation between the objectives
and the assessments.

9. Feedback and remedial teaching. Adaptations should also be made

for students with learning disabilities, backwardness dyslexia etc., It's
also a good idea to include a "Connections" section, which shows how
the lesson plan could be integrated with other subjects. Putting a lot of
work into this can develop complete thematic units that would integrate
related topics into many different subjects. This repetition of topics in
different subjects can be extremely helpful in ensuring retention of the
material.

HOW TO WRITE A LESSON PLAN

Writing lesson plan is individual and it gives sense of satisfaction to the

teacher .Here are certain steps that can be followed but the teachers
can make their own choices.

The following important components must be included in all lesson

plans:

Preplanning

 It is important to know the subject matter you will be teaching.

 List the important facts, key concepts, skills, or vocabulary terms that
you intend to cover.
 Indicate what you intend to teach
 Identify the aims or outcomes you want the students to achieve.
 Have a clear idea of what you want the students to learn.
 The objective must contain a behavior, the content, the condition,
and the criterion, so that you can write, in detail, what is learned and
how well the students learn it.
 The objective of a lesson is that the students demonstrate a specific
skill.
 Make sure you will be able to tell if the objective was met.
 Must include broad and narrow objectives. The broad objective is the
overall goal of the lesson plan. The narrow or specific objective
would be what it teaches the students to accomplish.
 Indicate what is to be learnt.

144
 Objectives demonstrate how well the students have learned or
understood the lesson presented.
 Objectives should also be directly measurable. Gather evidence that
the students did the task, e.g., quizzes or assignments.
 Write objectives that describe learning outcomes.
 List all the equipment to be used by the student and the teacher.
 Describe how the equipment will be used.

Lesson Setup

 Decide on the signal for attention, e.g., Good Morning. Let‘s get
started or eyes on me.
 Explain the rules and procedures, e.g. raising hands or not talking at
once.
 The statement of behavior expectations should be written in positive
language
 Language must be age appropriate, specific, and clear.
 Ex your expectations for learning at each transition of the lesson,
rather than stating them all at the beginning.
 It shows the students how this lesson connects with yesterday‘s
lesson.
Introducing the Lesson

 Check what has already been learnt.

 State the objectives of the lesson.
 Motivate and get students focused on the lesson.
Developing the Lesson

 Provide a detailed, step-by-step description of everything you will do

 Include a description of how you will introduce the lesson.
 Tell the actual techniques you will use.
 Plan frequent and varied opportunities for the students to be
involved.
 Include specific things that the student will do during the lesson.
 Check for student understanding.
 Use multiple methods to check for student understanding
 Describe how can this material be presented to ensure each student
will have good learning experience?

Furthering of the Concepts

 Provide practice opportunities prior to evaluation.

 Monitor this practice session and give the students feedback.
 Describe how to provide opportunities to practice during and
following the lesson

145
 Extended practice often takes two forms:

1. Homework
2. Follow-up practice at school.
 Provide a great deal of additional practice in real-world applications.
 Make sure the student can use the lesson learned in various
settings.

Summarizing

 Review the key points of the lesson

 Give students opportunities to draw conclusions from the lesson.
 Describe when the students can use this new information.
 Preview future lessons.
 Have students describe their problem-solving process.
 It should be a meaningful end to the lesson.
 This is a time for students to show their work.
 The closing can create a smooth transition from one lesson to the
next lesson
Assessment/Evaluation

 You must evaluate the objectives that were identified.

 Provide students with the opportunity to practice the activity you
will be assessing them on
 Describe the ways you will provide opportunities for the students
to practice.
 A clear description of the method that will help you accurately
determine whether or not the students have mastered the lesson
objective.
Assignment/Follow-Up

It is very important that the students are provided with some follow up
work as a continuity of the teaching to ensure the retention of learning.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.
3. What are Educational Objectives?

146
 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4. Write any four verbs of Educational Objectives to be used in

Lesson Plan for Cognitive Achievement.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5. State any two Principles Involved in Writing Lesson Plan.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

MODEL LESSON PLAN

Following are the lesson plan models to help the student teacher
practice writinglesson plan
LESSON PLAN-1

NAME OF THE STUDENT TEACHER: Ms. Priya

NAME OF THE SCHOOL : St. Andrews Higher

secondary School

CLASS : XI Standard
SUBJECT : Computer Science

TOPIC : MARQUEES tag in HTML

DATE : 17/8/2008

NUMBER OF STUDENTS : 40
TIME DURATION : 45 minutes

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE

To enable the students acquire knowledge about some more tags in

HTML

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOME

1. To enable the students acquire knowledge on MARQUEES tag

2. To enable the students understand the concept of ADDING
PICTURES to the document.
3. To enable the students understand sound tags
TEACHING AIDS: Blackboard, Chalk piece, Printouts.

147
Specification Teaching Technique Pupil's Activity Teaching
Aids

Testing What is used to Heading tags 1<H1> to <H6> are

previous displayheading in used to display in six different
knowledge different sizes? predefined font sizes.
previous

What is the use of <HR> The<HR> tag is used to draw a

tag and SIZE attribute? horizontal line across the window.
The SIZE attribute specifies the
thickness of a line.
What are the attributes
(i) BG color
used add to colors in the
document? (ii) Background
(iii) Link

(iv) Vlink
(v) Alink

What is the use of <BIG> <BIG> and <SMALL> tags allow us to

and <SMALL> tags? display the text in the next bigger or
smaller font size.

(i)FACE to specify font type.

(ii) COLOR to specify color.

(iii) SIZE to specify the font size.

List out the attributes

used

in<FONT> tag.

Marquees tag:

Have you seen text

scrolling across

148
 television screens and
advertisement
boarding?You can also
Introduction add such text to your
document using the Yes,
<MARQUEE tag. To use
this tag, enclose the text
within the start and end
tag of the marquee tag.
Can you give the start
and end tag of the
marquee?

Can you give the

example?

Motivation Good. This will make <MARQUEE>... <MARQUEE>

thetext "sample text" sampletext </MARQUEE>
scrollfrom one end of the
window to the other. It is
important to note that the <MARQUEE><BGCOLOR="Red"
MARQUEE tag only
DIRECTION="Right‖>Sample Text Chart
works with internet
<MARQUEE>
explorer. Two attributes
that are used with the
<MARQUEE> tag are
BGCOLOR and
direction. Can you say
what is meant by
attributes?

Good. BGCOLOR
attribute specifics the
background color and
DIRECTIONspecifies the
direction to which the
text should scroll.

Application Give one example. <MARQUEE><FONT>COLOR="Red"

149
 This will display a red SIZE-7 Sample Text</ MARQUEE> Chart
strip on which the text
"Sample text" will scroll
from left to right. The
<MARQUEE> tag can
also be used with the
FONT tag for better
effects. Their ability to display pictures makes
HTML document interesting.
Give one example.

Acquire Adding pictures to

knowledge thedocument:

Whatmakes
HTMLdocuments
interesting?

Remember To add a picture to your

document, first ensure
that the picture is
available in the same
folder as your HTML
files.

Next make sure that is in

the GIF or the JPEG file
format. GIF and JPEG
are the two most
commonly used file
formats used to store
images.

Recall Can you give the Graphic Interchange Format

expansionfor GIF?

Good. These files have Joint Photographic Experts Group

the extention.gif. These
files are compact and
most of the images on
the web are in this

150
 format.

Developing JPEG stand for what?

the Lesson These files have the
extension jpg or jpeg.
These files are most
compact than the GIF
files. Another difference
between the two is that,
GIF files can contain only
256 different colours,
whereas, JPEG files can
contain up to 16 million
different colours in an
image.

Now, you can use the

<IMG> tag to add such
images to your
document.

The image tag is always <HTML>

used with the SRC
<HEAD>
attributes which specifies
the name of the image <TITLE MY FIRST HTML DOCU
file. The syntax for this is, MENT</TITLE>

</HEAD>
IMG SRC <BODY>sample?
"Filename>Can you give
-<H1>ZEN CAR</ Chart
one example?
HI>

<IMG>
SRC CARPIC.GIF/</IMG>

</BODY>
</HTML>

Acquire The result of this

Knowledge program will be
displayed as shown in
the figure.

151
Recall Two attributes that
havefrequently used with
the IMG tag are ALT and
ALIGN. Frequently users
view web pages without
images. This is either
because they have a
browser that cannot
display images or
because downloading
images takes too long. In
such cases, the ALT at
tribute is used to display
an alternate message.

Application In such cases, the ALT

at tribute is used to
display an alternate
message. <IMG SRC carpic.gif ALT="picture of
Maruti Zen" >
Can you give one
example to modify the
<IMG tag?

Now the browser will dis

play the message
"picture of Maruti Zen"
whenever the mouse is
placed on the picture.

The ALIGN attribute is

used to tell the browser
where the image should
be in relation to the
page. By default, it is
text on the aligned to left.
<IMG SRC carpic.gif ALT="picture of
Can you give one Maruti Zen" >
example for this?

This will place the image Chart

on the left with the text ALIGN=‖LEFT‘>
on the left as shown in <MG
the figure. SRC="carpic.gifALT="pictureMaruti

152
 Zen>

Acquire <IMG SRC="carpic. This will place the picture on the right.
Knowledge gifALT"pictures of
MarutiZen" ALIGN-
RIGHT">

Developing What is the result of

the Lesson thiscoding?
See the figure.
SOUND TAGS:

Sound files are stored on

the computer in many
different formats. The
most common of these
are the wave format (with
the extension.au) and
the MIDI format (with the
extension.mid). To add
sound to your document
you can use one of the
sound files available on
your computer. Create
one using the multimedia
accessorieson your
computer or use one of
files available on the
internet. To find these
files, search under
sounds. Sites like audio
Browser Sound Files
collection (http://
Acquire
www.webplace.com/html/
Knowledge
sounds htm) offer a wide
selection.

Once you have located

the sound file, to add it to
your document, you can
use <BGSOUND>-tag.

153
 With the <BGSOUND>
tag, the SRC attribute
specifies the name of the
file and LOOP specifies
the number of times the
file should be played.

Review Can you give one ex Pointswritten

ample? on the Black
Board
Notethat the
<BGSOUND tag only in
Internet Explorer. MARQUEE tag in used to display text
scrolling across the window and is
What is the use of
used only in Internet Explorer.
<MAR- QUEE tag?
The <IMG> tag is used to add images
to the document. The SRC attribute
specifies the name of the image to be
attached ALT attribute specifies the
Give note on <IMG tag.
alternate text to be displayed with the
image. The ALIGN attribute specific
files the alignment of the picture in
the window.

<BGSOUND> tag can be used in

Internet Ex., ground sound to the
document. With the <BGSOUND> tag
the SRC attributes in used to specify
the name of the file. The LOOP
attribute specifies the number of
times the sound should repeat.

Assignment Give notes

<BGSOUND> tag.

1. Write HTML code to

explore toadd back

154
 display the message
"Hurry- The Best
Millennium Offer"

2. Create a greeting card

wishing your friend
Happy Birthday. Add a
picture. You can either
download the picture
from the Internet or use
one of the pictures sound
should repeat in the
clipart gallery on your
computer. You can also
a simple picture using
paint and add it to your
page.

3. Modify the above

written code and add a
sound file to your page.

4. Select an Indian
personality you admire.
Design a HTML page
about him/her. Download
his picture from the
Internet and add it to
your page.

LESSON PLAN-2

NAME OF THE STUDENT-TEACHER: Ms. Janet

NAME OF THE SCHOOL:Somambal Higher Secondaryschool

CLASS: XI Standard

SUBJECT: Computer Science

TOPIC: Network Topology
DATE: 20/9/2020

NUMBER OF STUDENTS: 50
TIME DURATION: 45 minutes

155
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE

To enable the students understand the network topology

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOME

1. To enable the students to acquire the knowledge of Network

Topology.
2. To enable the students to understand the types of Network Topology.

3. To enable the students differentiate the topologies and to identify their

Applications.
TEACHING AIDS: Blackboard, Chalk, Chart.

Specification Teaching Technique Pupil's Teaching Aid

Activity

Testing the What are the general LAN, WAN, Blackboard,

previous types of Networks used MAN Chan, Chalk
knowledge of today?
the student.
What is the expansion for Local Area
these?
Network Wide
Very good Area Network
Metropolitan
Yesterday we discuss
Area Net work
about Network and its
type. Now we are going to
see about Network
Network
Topology.
Topology
(Chart)

Introducing The Network Topology is

the structure or layout of
the communication
channels that connects
the various computers on
the network

156
 Each computer in the
network is called node.

There are a number of

Node is
factors that determine
pointed from
topoloty suitable for a
the chart
given situation.

Some of the important

consideration is the type
of nodes, the expected
performance, type of
wiring(physical link) used
and the cost.

Did you know that the *Type of

Explaining/ac network can be laid out it nodes
quiring different ways?
Knowledge *Expected
Yes, the five common performance
network topologies are Yes * Type of
star. ring, bus, hybrid and
*Network
FDDI.
Topologies
*Star

*Ring
*Bus

*Hybrid
*FDDI

Recall What is the first topology?

Yes, in a star network all Star Net work

computers and other
communication devices
are connected to a central Star
hub,

Explaining Such as a file server or UTP

host computer usually by >Unshielded
an unshielded twisted pair Twisted Pair
(UTP) cables. written on

157
 This is shows that how BlackBoard
the star topology was
working.

What is the second

topology? Chart

In a ring network Ring Network

computers and other
communication devices
are connected in a
continuous loop.

Electronic data are Ring Network

Recall passed around the ring in
one direction, with each
node serving as a
repeater until it reaches
right destination. There is
Bus Network
no central host computer
or server.

What is third network?

In a bus network all

communication devices
are connected to a
common cable called bus.

There is no central
computer or server. The
Explaining data transmission is
bidirectional
Hybrid
What is the fourth type Network
network topology? Chart

A hybrid network is a
combination of star, bus
Recall and ring networks suited
to the need.

What is the fifth topology

FDDI Network
What is the expansion of
Recall FDDI?

It is fiber distributed data

158
 interface. FDDI Network
>Fiber
AFDDI network is a high
speed networking using Distributed
fiber optic cable. Data Inter
face
It is used for high-tech
purposes such as
electronic images high- ->Electronic
resolution graphics and images>High
digital video.
resolution
The main disadvantage is graphics
its high cost.
->Digital video
What are the five common Star, bus,
Explaining topologies? ring, hybrid
and FDDI
Recall
Control hubAll
Where the computers and
communication devices
are connected in star
network?

communicatio
Explaining What is bus network? n de vices are
connected to
a common
cable.
Recall
It is a
What is hybrid network? combination
of star, bus,
ring network
Review Read and write all the
definitions of five common
topologies.

Assignment

159
 As per the above models are not the only methods, the lesson type
gives a general structure of the lesson plan. Every individual teacher has
his/her own technique of writing the lesson plan according to their desire
and expertise.

UNIT PLAN

The exact format chosen for a lesson plan will be driven by school
requirements and personal tastes of the teacher, in that order. Unit plans
follow much the same format, but are intended to cover an entire unit of
work, which may be delivered over several days or weeks. In today's
teaching style, the individual lesson plan may not be required. Specific
objectives and timelines may be included in the unit plan, but lesson
plans are more flexible. A Unit plan is the draft of planned subject matter
following the hierarchy of conceptual development for a stipulated time
span aimed a selected students group i.e., for standard IX or XIetc., It is
a structure for the teaching faculty that guides what to be taught and
how to be taught. The unit plan is so structured that the whole syllabus is
divided into small workable sections including the topics related. This
makes the students follow the lessons in small steps and master the
lesson. These units help the students understand the concepts with
interest and with utmost attention with case of learning strategy. The
lesson of smaller units when collected together completes the lesson as
a whole one. Thus a number of lessons may be required to complete
one teaching unit. Each lesson is part of the whole unit and leads to the
development of the next lesson in the unit. While planning a Unit, due
care should be taken with regard to the nature of subject-matter the
conditions under which it is to be taught, the needs of the pupils, etc.,

Steps involved in developing a teaching unit.

I. Planning: Proper planning in connection with the Lesson unit,

Time span and Objectives must be made.
II. Motivation: What kind of motivation is befitting for the present
concept has to be decided based on the previous knowledge of the
students.
III. Presentation structure: Presentation structure involves the
hierarchy in the development of the lesson. It progress from simple
to complex and from the known lesson to the unknown.
IV. Organization: Itclearly depicts the logical flow of the conceptual
ideas to beimparted. It emphasis the important concepts and the

160
 focusing areas of thelesson. It also provides the space for the
teaching aids and the way of presenting them.
V. Summarization: Summing up of the lesson is important since it
gives the totality of the lesson taught. It gives the complete
knowledge of the lesson covering all the components and the
relations with other concepts if any.
VI. Review: Review of the lesson is a form of reinforcement of the
lessons learnt Scheming for It is a Cross check mechanism for the
teachers as well the students.
VII. Evaluation: This is the feedback mechanism of the lesson taught.
It helps both the teacher and the taught to check if they progress in
the right direction.

Following is a model lesson of the unit plan, yet this is not universal plan
and it is subject to the expertise and experience of the teachers
concerned. The unit plan contains one lesson with a span of 5
subsections constituting 9 lessons in 14 periods.

Unit Lesson Plan

Subject: Computer Science Class:XI

Name of the Unit: Computer Network

Major Objectives of the Unit:

1. Students learn the nature and types of computer networks.

2. Students are motivated to observe, identify and practice the network

features

3. Students learn about the different network in order to effectively

access theresources
4. Students learn and practice the different strategies in learning

Subject Number Number Scope of the Content Teaching Aids

matter! of of Period
Content Lessons

161
Network and 1 1 Definition, Scope and Concept ofNetwork in
Scope of Importance of Network, Charts; Demousing
Network use of Network studentsNetwork
andlive examples.

Topology of 2 4 Definition of different Charts and pictures

Network Topology namely Bus, of Bus, Mesh, Ring,
Mesh, Ring, Star Tree Star Tree and Hybrid
and Hybrid types and Topology of Network
their utilities Live examples with
the help of
students can be
exhibited.

Types of 2 4 Different types of Charts and pictures

Network Network namely LAN about LAN that
LAN-MAN, CAN, PAN comprises building
WANGAN and Client an office and a
Servers campus.
Pictures depicting
satellite connection.

Internet and 2 3 Definition of Internet, Pictures and Charts

Intranet and Extranet of Internet and their
their uses
Educational utilities. Compute
implications display using LCD
projectors to teach
the internet uses
Actual net browsing
can be done.

World Wide 2 2 Meaning of www and Online browsing

Web their scope. Definition using LCD is ideal for
of website and web teaching besides
page & their Relevant charts can
Educational be used.
Implication. Two well-
known websites can be
shown.

162
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
6. Write any three objectives to Teach Floppy Disk.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7. What are the points to be kept in Mind for Summarization?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8. Define Unit Plan.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

LET US SUM UP

Lesson plan is a draft of the subject material to be taught to a set of

students belonging to a particular class. The lesson need to be planned
well so that the teacher will be able to impart it to the students with ease
of performance and also to identify, collect and exhibit the necessary
teaching equipments to help the students understand better. The
schematic planning is called the lesson plan. A systematic approach in
writing a lesson plan helps the successful completion of the lesson. A
well planned lesson also set objectives to ensure the outcome of the
lesson. Objectives are the expected behavior of the students on
completion of the lesson. Very often Benjamin Blooms cognitive
objectives are set as the learning outcome. The model lesson gives an
idea of how to write lesson plan.

163
GLOSSARY

 Educational objectives - An educational objective states what the

student will learn and be able to accomplish by the end of
instruction. It describes a specific behavior which will lead to the
desired goal. It is specific and measurable.
 Lesson plan - A lesson plan is a teacher‘s daily guide for what
students need to learn, how it will be taught, and how learning
will be measured. Lesson plans help teachers be more effective
in the classroom by providing a detailed outline to follow each
class period.
 Summarizing - Summarizing means giving a concise overview of
a text‘s main points in your own words. A summary is always
much shorter than the original text.
 Unit plan - Unit Planning (for units you‘ll actually use) Teaching
with a unit plan makes your weekly lesson planning a snap

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A lesson plan is a written description to teach academic content.

2. A lesson plan helps teachers organize their objectives and
methodologies A lesson plan determines the purpose, aim, and
rational of class time activity.
3. Expected learning outcome is educational objective.
4. Define, repeat, record and list.
5. Planning and framing objectives.
6. 1. To acquire knowledge on the physical structure of floppy disk
2. To understand the working principles of floppy disk.
3. To understand the storage capacity of floppy disk.

7. Review the key points of the lesson. Give students opportunities

a conclusions from the lesson. Describe when the students can
use this new information.

8. Unit plans are the plan of teaching activities intended to cover

an entire unit of work, which may be delivered over several days
or weeks.

164
SUGGESTED READING

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Computing New

Delhi: Vijay Nicole Publishers.

Rao, D.B. (2007). Education for All: The Global Consensus. New Delhi:

APH Publishing Corporation. Siddiqi, M.H. (2008), Techniques of

Teaching New Delhi: APH PublishingCorporation.

Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.
Jayaprakash Reddy, R. (2007). Methods of Teaching New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Stella Ramchandani. (2008). Modern Methods and Techniques of

Teaching, New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors.

Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Singh, Y.K. (2007). Micro Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation

165
 UNIT 8 COMPETENCY IN TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

The Teacher
Teacher Morale

Factors that Influence the Teacher Morale

Special Qualities of a good Computer Science Teacher

Responsibility of Computer Science Teachers

Home Environment

Teacher Guide
Use of Textbooks for Teachers

Use of Textbook for Students

Teacher Resources

Library
Need for Library Networks

Inflibnet
Delnet

Virtual Universities
Tele-Conferencing

Electronic Forums
Sharing of Expertise

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

The computer science field is growing in multiple directions in variety of

fields. Teaching and learning about computers and using computers is
ever new demanding inquisitive attitude. Hence the teaching learning

166
community must be vigilant to be accommodative to the technological
changes. The teacher, the student, the curriculum and the infra-structure
of the educational institutions must perfectly match the demands of the
technological thrust. This unit discusses those attributes that are needed
for a techno craft society. It deals with the teacher capabilities required
for a good teacher, their responsibilities, the teacher‘s guide, teacher
morale, the library and the other resources needed for a good teacher.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about the qualities of a computer science

teacher
 understand the capabilities of a computer teacher
 acquire the teacher competency resources
 Understand the meaning and importance of Computer Science
Curriculum.
THE TEACHER

It is said "A good teacher is like a candle-it consumes itself to light the
way for others"

In a completely rational society, the best of us would be teachers and

the rest of us would have to settle for something less, because passing
civilization along from one generation to the next ought to be the highest
honor and the highest responsibility anyone could have" (Lee lacocca
American industrialist).

"A teacher's purpose is not to create students in his own image, but to
develop students who can create their own image."
"Teaching should be full of ideas instead of stuffed with facts."

Thus teacher and teaching are recognized to a great extent and

computer science teachers need to be competent, constantly learning
and widening the horizons of their learning. The computer field is ever
widening and the computer teacher needs to be vigilant and must be
accommodative according to the vibrations of the technology and the
"Edutechnos" (Educational technology). A good teacher should never
cease students. Hence he/she should grow with the students and the
society to win theconfidence of the students.

167
TEACHER MORALE

A teacher's purpose is not to create students in his own image, but to

develop students who can create their own image.
What the teacher is, is more important than what he teaches.

-Karl Menninger

Good teachers are costly, but bad teachers cost more. Morale has been
considered as a feeling, a state of mind, a mental attitude, and an
emotional attitude. Teacher morale effect a lot in the teaching learning
environment for the above said teacher expectations. A teacher with
sound mind and body can impress a lot on the students. Hence the
teacher morale plays a vital role in impacting student morale.

There is also a concept as the feeling a teacher has about his/her

profession on how he/she perceives him/herself in the organization.
Another author conceptualizes morale as "the professional interest and
enthusiasm that a person displays towards the achievement of individual
and group goals in a given job situation" When a healthy school
environment exists and teacher morale is high, "teachers feel good
about each other and, at the same time, feel a sense of accomplishment
from their profession".

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TEACHER MORALE

School Environment: A healthy school environment and high teacher

morale are related. The School authority's ability to create a positive
school climate and culture can affect teacher morale. As Adams states,
"Principals, who control many of the contingencies in the work
environment and are the source of much reinforcement for teaching
behavior, are the keys to improving the morale and self -esteem of
teachers."

Many researches on job satisfaction among teachers identified "more

administrative support and leadership, good student behavior, good
school atmosphere, and teacher autonomy" as working conditions are
associated with higher teacher satisfaction. Favorable workplace
conditions were positively related to teacher's job satisfaction regardless
of whether a teacher was employed by a public or private schoo l, an
elementary or secondary school, and regardless of teachers'
background characteristics or school demographics.
Parent Support: Parental support boosts the morale of the teachers. As
home and school are said to supplement each other, the parental

168
recognition are the indices driving force for the good performance of the
teachers.

Student response and enthusiasm: Teachers' perceptions of students

and student learning can also affect their morale of the teachers.
Students are the primary factor that influence on both the professional
enthusiasm and discouragement of the teachers. Teachers almost
universally treasure student responsiveness and enthusiasm as a vital
factor in their own enthusiasm. Because of their relative isolation from
other adults, teachers have little opportunity to share their successes
with colleagues and administrators. This results in greater reliance on
student responsiveness for teachers‘ professional satisfaction.
Stress: Stress also affects morale. It can "result in emotional and
physical fatigue a reduction in work motivation, involvement, and
satisfaction" Feeling overly and stressed can result in erosion of one's
idealism, sense of purpose, and enthusiasm. Though teachers are adult
and matured enough to with stand any kind of issues, as they move with
young people, their performance need to be perfect to project as role
model for the students. Hence teachers need to be regarded to a great
extent. Being the highest source of inspiration the teacher morale must
be important for the following reasons.

Student Learning: Miller notes that teacher morale "can have a positive
effect on pupil attitudes and learning. Raising teacher morale level is not
only making teaching more pleasant for teachers, but also learning more
pleasant for the students. This creates an environment that is more
conducive to learning."

Student Achievement: Morale and achievement are also related.

Ellenberg found that "where morale was high, schools showed an
increase in student achievement‖.

Teacher Health: Low levels of satisfaction and morale can lead to

decreased teacher productivity and burnout, which is associated with "a
loss of concern for and detachment from the people with whom one
works, decreased quality of teaching depression, greater use of sick
leave, efforts to leave the profession, and a cynical and dehumanized
perception of students.Thus the morale of teachers can have far-
reaching implications for student learning the health of the organization,
and the health of the teacher"

169
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below,

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.

1. State a definition of Teacher.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
2. What is meant by Teacher Morale?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. How does the School Environment Influence Teacher Morale?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4. How can the Parent Increase the Teacher Morale?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

SPECIAL QUALITIES OF A GOOD COMPUTER SCIENCE

TEACHER

A good computer science teacher is essentially a good learner. Since

Computer field and technology is ever developing unless the teacher
keeps his/herself up dated with the latest trend the entire learning will be
obsolete.

A computer teacher must be initiative, enthusiastic, collaborative and

seamless in her/his activities. A computer science teacher is a tireless
person to help the students‘ needs to learn new things. The teacher
must be vigilant and discharge the role of informational personality to
help the students learn the newer things. An ideal teacher needs to be
well conversant about using the language. It is indispensable to create
awareness and congenial atmosphere on the part of a teacher. The
following are the different ways to improve lecture. To manage&
intersperse lecture with opportunities to challenge and discuss what is
being delivered. To break the students into groups for exercises which
develop& lecture themes and need to be reported back and analyzed.

170
To use case & studies, which challenge students to apply the teaching,
they are being given.

RESPONSIBILITY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE TEACHERS

(1) They should develop love for reading and accessing knowledge
worldwide which will stimulate the students to develop meaningful
learning habits (2) They should be well-versed in latest trends in the field
and computer related books so that they may suggest books for the
students. They should adopt suchmethods of teaching and give
assignments in such a way that the students maybe encouraged to
supplement their class work by external reading and learning.

HOME ENVIRONMENT

Environment in the home also profoundly influence the development of

study habits Worldwide is the latest arena for learning which gives room
for unhealthy learning practices. Hence it is essential that the parents
are informed and directed along the safe accessing of internet browsing
attitude to escape the web threats. Teacher role in these related fields
are vital and inevitable.

TEACHER GUIDE

As teachers are bound to teach the prescribed syllabus in a year to fall

in line with the academic expectations, the teacher has to follow a set
objectives and content of subject matter. This gives the general guide
lines for the teacher. But as computer science teacher, teacher can get
the additional facts on the topics from many resources.

USE OF TEXTBOOKS FOR TEACHERS

Text books substitute for gaps in teacher knowledge and skills. Also
textbook complement, existing skills, by providing more able teachers
with a resource that increases their effectiveness. Textbooks promote
delivery of more complete and coherently organized curricula,
particularly in situation where there is a shortage of teachers and where
teacher training is limited in school. Textbooks enable the teacher to
make better use of time spent on teaching. Textbooks enable the
teacher to assign higher quality home work

171
USE OF TEXTBOOK FOR STUDENTS

Textbooks provide a basic exposure to students to return material

otherwise unavailable in the environment. Textbooks enable students to
learn independently of the teacher, particularly through completion of
homework.

Thomas and Kobayashi view the importance of the textbook from three
perspectives:

1. The most common conception of a text book, in the eyes of both

teachers and students, it that it contains authoritative knowledge.
The text's content is not only true, but they are of such great value
that learners should commit them to memory
2. A second conception of textbooks is that they offer records of prior
events which will influence future events, so textbooks can help
learners envision the future.
3. From a third perspective, a textbook reflects a particular view point
or set of values from which to perceive life.

A textbook guides the students in learning in the school and at home. A

student uses it continuously and constantly. This feature distinguishes it
from a general and reference book which a student consults once a
while. Each word of the textbook has not only to be read by every
student but is also expected to be understood. A textbook enables a
student to learn through his own efforts. Atextbook provides an
opportunity 10 a student to reflect and evaluate. A student can find the
specific information be needs in a book. He can review material he has
read from time to time to clear up uncertainties. He can move ahead as
quickly or as methodically as his individual capacities for comprehension
permit. A textbook plays a vital role in generating educational interaction
in the classroom between the teacher and the learner and also between
the learner and other co-learners as a result of which learning occurs in
a group.

172
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the unit.

5. Mention any two qualities of a Good Computer Science

Teacher.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
_

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_

6. What is the role of a Computer Science Teacher in the Class

Room?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7. Mention any two guides for a Computer Science Teacher .

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. What is the use of Text Books for the Teacher?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. How the Text Books are Helping the Students?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

TEACHER RESOURCES

The primary resource for any teacher is the text book since it gives an
exhaustive knowledge to be imparted to the students and it has been
discussed earlier in the same chapter. The following are a few of the
latest trends that help the computer teacher to become subject
competent.

173
 LIBRARY

From the days of printing technology and the knowledge explosion,

libraries play a major role in imparting valuable resources of knowledge
needed for all kinds of people. Library plays an important role in the
making of a good teacher. It provides vast and a variety of information in
depth for a class room teacher. As reading makes a man, computer
industry gets good men only if they are good learners. We can also fore
see a draw back in using computer books from the library. As the field is
ever widening and new technology in the field of hardware and the
software out dates the current techniques every now and then, not all
schools and college can afford to update their libraries in every term or
semester. The concept of networking brings in help to meet such needs.

NEED FOR LIBRARY NETWORKS

There are generic social and organizational forces that drive the
development of Networks: in particular the pursuit of effective centralized
control over far-flung operations scattered in heterogeneous settings. In
an academic community, networks may foster the building up of value
consensus, setting up minimum standards of performance and
contribute to homogenizing the knowledge base of all the members.
Typically the prime uses of computer information networks in the
academic field like electronic mail, databases strengthen the sharing of
thought words and their fine-tuning through intense peer-to-peer
communication. The networks help elite groups to develop and maintain
shared ideologies without having to enter into cooperative relationships.

Development in library network in India Forced by circumstances and by

design there has been a spurt in activities on library network
development in the recent past. Some of the factors responsible for
promotion and support of such efforts in India have been
 Increased awareness of the need for resource sharing
 Resource crunch.
 Increased computer installations or access facilities in library
environment enhancement of computer literacy among library
professionals
 Improvement in computer communication facilities within and
across geographical regions, and availability of general data
networks like NICNE (Planning Commission), INDONET (CMC
LADERNET (Department of Electronics) and more recently the 1 -

174
 NUT (Department of Telecommunications) VNNL forInternet &
Private Service providers like Reliance, TATA Telecom etc.,
 Creation of facilities for e-mail by networks above mentioned
VSNl, NET (network of the Council of Scientific &Industrial
Research set up by DOO and the ICNET. SPRINTMAIL
(SPRINTRIG) etc., in the private sector

In India, library networking efforts using computer communication

technologies started during the late 1980's with the initiation of
metropolitan/city network like:

1. Development of Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) in cities like

Bombay (BONET), Calcutta (CALBINET), Delhi (DELNET),
Madras (MALIBNET) Pune (PUNENET). Ahemdabad (ADINET),
Mysore (MYLIONET). Hyderabad (HYLIBNET) and Bangalore
(HALNET) and Bangalore (BALNET).
2. Development of countrywide networks like the INFLIBNET (for
Universitylibraries).
3. Development of sectors facilities like the BTISNET
(Biotechnology Information System Network), and the proposed
ones for oil and natural gas, management science and
environment.
4. Development of National Consortia like INDEST, UGC infonet
CSIR Consortium etc.,
Following are two examples of library networks in India

INFLIBNET

Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre is an Autonomous

Inter University Centre (IUC) of University Grants Commission (UCC)
involved in creating infrastructure for sharing of library and information
resources and services among Academic and Research Institutions
INFLIBNET works collaboratively with Indian university libraries to shape
the future of the academic libraries in the evolving information
environment.

DELNET

DELNET was started at the India International Centre Library in January

1988 and was registered as a society in 1992. It was initially supported
by the National Information Systern for Science and Technology
(NISSAT), Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,

175
Government of India. It was subsequently supported by the National
Informatics Centre, Department of Information Technology, Ministry of
Communications and Information Technology, Government of India and
The Ministry of Culture, Government of India.

DELNET has been established with the prime objective of promoting

resource sharing among the libraries through the development of a
network of libraries. It aims to collect, store, and disseminate information
besides offering computerised services to users, to coordinate efforts for
suitable collection development and also to reduce unnecessary
duplication wherever possible.

VIRTUAL UNIVERSITIES

The term "virtual university‖ is used to describe any organisation that

provides higher education programs through electronic devices such as
the computer. Some of the Universities are real institutes that provide
online learning as part of their extended university courses while others
provide courses only on-line.

Some of these organizations exist only as loosely tied combines of

universities, institutes or departments that together provide a number of
courses over the Internet, television or other media, that are separate
and distinct from programs offered by the single institution outside of the
combine. Others are actual organizations with a legal framework, yet
named virtual because they appear only on the internet, without a
physical location aside from administration units. Still other virtual
universities can be organized through specific or multiple physical
locations, with some having actual campuses to receive program
delivery through technological media that is broadcast from another
location, where real professors give televised lectures.

The goal of Virtual Universities is to provide access to that part of the

population who would not be able to attend a physical campus, for
reasons such as (1) distance -where students live too far from a physical
campus to attend regular classes (2) need for flexibility-some students
need the flexibility to study at home whenever it is convenient for them to
do so.

Program delivery in a virtual university is administered through

information communication technology such as web pages, e-mail and
other networked sources.

176
 TELE-CONFERENCING

A videoconference is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies

which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and
audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called visual
collaboration and is a kind of groupware. It differs from videophone in
that it is designed to serve a conference rather than individuals.
Videoconferencing uses telecommunications of audio and video to bring
people at different sites together for a meeting. This can be as simple as
a conversation between two people in private offices (point-to-point) or
involve several sites (multi point) with more than one person in large
rooms at different sites. Besides the audio and visual transmission of
meeting activities, videoconferencing can be used to share documents,
computer-displayed information, and whiteboards.

ELECTRONIC FORUMS (E-FORUM)

The value of exchanging ideas via electronic discussion forums is rapidly

becoming known in the education community. Where teachers are often
isolated from colleagues, electronic forums allow teachers to connect
with others whose situations, interests, and needs are similar. Most of
the participants of the forum are college or classroom teachers who offer
their experience, knowledge, and insight on the education of their
subject and culturally diverse students in the form of classroom
strategies and activities. As with any specific teaching suggestion,
efficacy will vary depending on the school and classroom environment,
the individual's teaching style, and the students with whom it is used.
The intention of this exchange is not to suggest general teaching
guidelines, but rather to share practical suggestions that teachers who
work with academically and culturally diverse students may choose to
use and or adapt in their classrooms. Though some of the suggestions
relate only to particular teaching many of these ideas can be
implemented in different fields and for different situations.

It depends on the individual ability and interest of the teachers to find out
the electronic conferences, online learning, electronic forums and small
groups of electronic learning to upgrade their knowledge and share their
expertise with the community and worldwide.

177
SHARING OF EXPERTISE

The present day teacher's job does not end within four walls. Their
expertise has to be shared with others. Every individual teacher is
unique in his/her thought process and any valid, meaningful, useful and
acceptable thoughts need to be shared for the welfare of the society.
The advancement in the technology, the attitudinal changes in the
people and the ever increasing needs of the society make multivariate
and unique experiences for every teacher which becomes case studies
that need to be shared with others. As teachers move with hundreds of
students and different types of opportunities, each of their experiences
can be considered knowledge for others. The latest ICT tools and the
other network facilities can take their experiences around the world. The
different types of networks, teleconferencing. Videoconferencing,
electronic forums, virtual universities and e-journals provide them arena
to share their expertise. E-tutoring, e-mentoring, online teaching and
web logs are a few of the personalized features that could make them
exhibit their individual efficiency. These kinds of sharing will not only
boost their economy but will also help them earn job satisfaction and
help in the nation building.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
10. What is meant by Teacher Resources?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. What is the purpose of Library?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12. What is the purpose of Library Network?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

178
LET US SUM UP

As teaching is regarded as a noble profession, teachers are considered

to be the first role model for a growing child. So the teacher should be
sound in the subject knowledge and be confident of the delivery
mechanism. Teacher morale must be boosted so as to make the
students benefit optimum from them. The school environment, the
parental support, the student's cooperation, the health and the
psychological aspects of the teachers have greater influence in building
teacher morale Under healthy environment the computer teacher can
make efficient teaching providing all the opportunities for their wards.
Teacher efficiency is also decided by the teacher resources and teacher
resourcefulness, Proper infra structures and proper exposure to the
techno sophisticated arena will help them achieve greater heights. The
text books, the libraries and the latest electronic facilities enrich their
profession and encourage them to share their expertise. Teachers also
play a vital role in curriculum designing and implementing. Carefully
designed curriculum keeping in view of the principles will always help the
students achieve overall growth in the educational field. The systematic
sequencing of the computer science curriculum make the students a
complete computer professionals.

GLOSSARY

 Inflibnet - INFLIBNET stands for "Information and Library

Network". The Library Network is a major medium of resource
sharing. A library network is a network of two or more
interconnected libraries. These libraries exchange electronic
information among themselves and are interconnected.

 Teacher guide - Teacher Guides are often our

Master Guides, the ones who oversee our life path.
 Teacher morale - According to Webster's Dictionary (2010),
morale is a person's mental state that is exhibited by assurance,
control, and motivation to perform a task.
 Virtual universities - A virtual university is an online learning
institution that uses the Internet to deliver classes and seminars.

179
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A good teacher is like a candle.

2. Teacher Morale has been considered as a feeling, a state of
mind, a mentalattitude, and an emotional attitude in teaching
learning environment.
3. More administrative support and leadership, good student
behavior, positive school atmosphere, and teacher autonomy"
as working conditions are associated with higher teacher
satisfaction.
4. Parental recognition is the indirect driving force for the good
performance of theteachers.
5. Hard work and enthusiasm, learning and collaborative.
6. Facilitator in the class room and in the laboratory
7. Text Book, Library and internet features.
8. Provide the syllabus and directs the teaching methods and
technology
9. Provide study materials and exercises.
10. Those things that help the teacher get knowledge and
technology to help theirwards are called teacher resources.
11. It is the treasure house of knowledge that is needed for the
teachers to equipthem for teaching
12. Library network helps the library users to share the library
resources.
13.
SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Internet for Everyone. New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Deepak Dayal. (2007). Modern Methods of Teaching. New Delhi: AP

Publishing Corporation.
Mishra, R.C. (2008). Encyclopedia of Modern Education New Delhi: AP

Publishing Corporation.

www.wikipedia.org
www.uncisco.org

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Web Resources

 https://teaching.charlotte.edu/sites/teaching.charlotte.edu/files/media/files/file/Go
alsAndObjectives/Bloom.pdf

 https://blog.oup.com/2014/02/genesis-computer-science-dasgupta/

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239860346_Computer_Science_Educa
tion_and_Key_Competencies

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BLOCK 3 NETWORKING AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

INTRODUCTION

This Block consists of four Units on Networking and Applications of

Computer. Unit 9 deals with the meaning and purpose of networking.
The latest networking strategies of the technology society is also
discussed in the unit. Unit 10 gives an account on the purpose and
importance of computer applications in teaching and learning
environment. Unit 11 discusses the strategies of teaching and learning
using computers. It discusses the purpose and principles of computer
Assisted Leaning. Unit 12 provides the needed information on setting up
a computer laboratory and the methods of maintaining the laboratory.
Unit 9 explains on networking. It elaborates on the meaning and need
for networking and the purpose accomplished in network applications.
The concept related to the latest network categories gives insight to the
modes and techniques of information retrieval. The exhaustive
discussion on web based technologies provides explorative area of
knowledge resources for teacher trainees.

Unit 10 provides a great deal on the use of computers in Education. It

explores the different sectors of educational fields and details on the use
of computers. The academic and non academic uses of computers are
discussed in depth, categorizing all the levels of education namely
schools, colleges and university. It also records the use of computers in
research fields. It also gives a clear picture of capacity building in
students by learning computer science from school level.

Unit 11 discusses the learning strategies using computers. It gives the

developmental process from Programmed learning till computer Aided
Instruction It deals with the purpose and Principles of Programmed
learning and the two types of Programmed learning. The unit gives an
account on Computer Assisted Learning their strategies and features. It
also provides the steps involved in CAL preparation and evaluation of
CAL.

Unit 12 discusses on the need and importance of computer laboratory.

The unit also gives a glimpse on computer laboratory management. A
clear understanding needed for a computer science teacher in the
laboratory procedures, maintenance and functions such as to set a
computer laboratory, frame the laboratory policies and procedures,
equip the computer laboratory with the needed devices, arranging
practical for the students and to evaluate the practical works are given in
detail.

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 Unit 9 NETWORKING

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

What are Networks?

Need for Networks

Importance of Networks
Types of Networks

Wide Area Network

Global Area Network (GAN)

Client Server Network

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Internet

Intranet
Extranet

Present Internet Status

9.3.4Internet and the Workplace

Video-Conference
Multimedia

World Wide Web

Webpage

Website
Dynamic Website

Static Website
E-Tutor

Virtual Learning
Virtual University

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 E-Mail

E-Chatting
AdvantagesLet Us
Sum Up Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

The global information technology scenario today demands only skilled

professionals especially in IT and Computer related jobs. Today every
organisation in any field expects people with wide knowledge and
collaborative and communicative ability of soft skills. In order to achieve
this and to help the future students be competitive the present teachers
have to learn more about comp techsi.e., computer technology as a
device and the techniques to operate the device. They must be made
aware of the emerging technologies also which can be achieved only
with the help of computer networks. This unit deals in detail with the
latest network facilities needed for learning society.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about the different types of networking

 understand the use and importance of networks acquire knowledge
about world wide web
 acquire knowledge about virtual learning
 understand the advantages of electronic methods of learning

WHAT ARE NETWORKS?

Network is a connection between two or more units connected together

to achieve common purpose. In the era of global processing we need to
have network systems for various purposes to solve and supply various
needs. Invasion of computers have provided a multi-faceted
sophistication to solve any kind of human issues in effective way. These

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things are achieved through network in which computers are connected
in different ways that are known as network topology.

Fig: 9.1 Detail Network Diagram

There are six basic types of topology in networks:

1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology: The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of
the network are connected to a common transmission medium which
has exactly two endpoints and this is the 'bus", which is also commonly
referred to as the backbone.
Bus Topology:

Fig: 9.2 Bus Topology

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Star Topology: The type of network topology in which each of the
nodes of the network is connected to a central node with a point-to-point
link in a "hub spoke fashion, the central node being the 'hub' and the
nodes that are attached to the central node being the spokes". All data
that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted to this
central node, which is usually some type of device that retransmits the
data to some or all of the other nodes in the network, although the
central node may also be a simple common connection point without any
active device to repeat the signals.

Fig: 9.3 Star Topology

Ring Topology: The type of network topology in which each of the

nodes of network is connected to two other nodes in the network and
with the first and last nodes being connected to each other, forming a
ring. All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network travels
from one node to the next node in a circular manner and the data
generally flows in a single direction only.

Fig: 9.4 Ring Topology

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Mesh Topology: This type of network allows any number of subscribes
to have a Networking communication. The value of fully meshed
networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers,
assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, to and
including all the endpoints, is approximated

Fig: 9.5 Mesh Topology

Tree Topology: The type of network topology in which a central ‗root‘

node is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in
the hierarchy with a point-to-point link between each of the second level
nodes and the top level central root node while each of the second level
nodes that are connected to the top level central ‗root‘ node will also
have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy
connected to it, and with a point-to-point link, the top level central ‗root‘
node being the only node that has no other node above it in the
hierarchy Each node in the network having a specific fixed number of
nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the
number, being referred to the ‗branching factor‘ of the hierarchical tree.

Fig: 9.6 Tree Topology

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Hybrid Network Topologies: The hybrid topology is a type of network
topology that is composed of one or more interconnections of two or
more networks that are based upon the same physical topology, but
where the physical topology of the network resulting from such an
interconnection does not meet the definition of the original physical
topology of the interconnected networks.

NEED FOR NETWORK

Any kind of operation function and application wing computers are based
on human methods of thinking and acting. As the way man thinks, so
does he make the computer function. But when it is mechanized, the
process becomes so perfect with little human intervention and makes us
think that the computers do everything of their own. Man lives in a social
set up where he interacts with many people and carry out certa in jobs in
association with other people and form close contact within a group and
continue the contact till a job is completed. In other word he does a job
with a network of people. This ides when extended to mechanical
processing and electronic processing using computers the concept of
computer network is developed. Here the interaction is between
computers with limited human intervention. A computer network is
multiple computers connected together using a telecommunication
system for the purpose of communicating and sharing resources. It is a
network of data processing nodes that are interconnected for the
purpose of data communication.

IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKS

Man cannot live isolated and needs to contact, communicate and

collectively carry out many activities for personal and societal benefits.
Network place an important role in supporting the activities, supplying
the needed information and materials supplement the processing by the
timely mechanism, directing towards the right destination and to achieve
the objectives. The ultimate aim of any process is to achieve perfection
in the desired outcome. When there exits limitations with human efforts,
computerisation helps to supplement his needs and a network of
computerisation helps him to achieve his desires to a greater level. Thus
the role of computer networks came into existence. The inter connection
of computers that can be accessed from one to another in order to
support, supplement and retrieve useful resources is called computer
network.

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

1. What is a Network?
______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______
2. What is the purpose of Computer Networks?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______

3. List two reasons for you to use Network.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______

TYPES OF NETWORKS

When people started using computer networks for effective processing

the concept was carried out in multivariate operations and depending
upon the area, purpose and location the network is categorized as Local
Area network, Wide Area Network, Metropolitan Area Network. Personal
Area Network, intranet, extranet etc.,

WIDE AREA NETWORK

A wide area network is a network where a wide variety of resources are

deployed across a large domestic area or internationally. An example of
this is a multinational business that uses a WAN to interconnect their
offices in different countries. The largest and best example of a WAN is
the internet, which is a network comprised of many smaller networks,
The Internet is considered the largest network in the wor ld and uses
routers and public communications links. It covers a broad area (i.e, any
network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries). It involves communication through the use of a
wide range of different technologies. These technologies include Point to
Point WANs such as Point-to Point Protocol (PPP) and High-Level Data
Link Control (HDLC), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer

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Mode), and Sonet (Synchronous Optical Network) . The difference
between the WAN technologies is based on the switching capabilities
they perform and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of
information. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the
Internet. A WAN is a data communications network that covers a
relatively broad geographic area and often uses transmission facilities
provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies, and
Railways in our country.

GLOBAL AREA NETWORK (GAN)

A Global Area networks (GAN) specifications are in development by

several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, a GAN is
a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc., The key
challenge in mobile communications is "handing off the user
communications from one local coverage area to the next.

CLIENT SERVER NETWORK

Aclient server network is where every client is connected to the server

and each other Client-server networks use servers in different
capacities. These can be classified into two types. Single-service
servers, where the server performs one task such as file server, print
server, etc, while other servers cannot only perform in the capacity of file
servers and print servers, but they also conduct calculations and use
these to provide information to clients. Computers are linked via
Ethernet Cable can be joined either directly (one computer to another),
or via a network hub that allows multiple connections.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A local area network is a network that spans a relatively small space and
provides services to a small number of people. The first LAN was
invented by a Law Doctor in 1978. Depending on the number of people
that use Local Area Networks, a peer-to-peer or client-server method of
networking may be used. A peer-to-peer network is where each client
shares their resources with other workstations in the network. Examples
of peer-to-peer networks are: Small office networks where resource use
is minimal and a home network.

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 It covers a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of
buildings, such as a school, or an airport or an industry. This is a
network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or
building. Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethe rnet
technology. For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for
users to interconnect local devices like, printers and servers and to get
connected to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in the library are
typically connected by cables running the protocol through a system of
interconnected devices and eventually connect to the Internet. The
cables to the servers are typically on enhanced cable that support at 1
GB. All user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalogue.
Each workgroup can get to its local printer but the printers are not
accessible from outside their workgroup.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

Ametropolitan network is a network that is too large for even the largest
of LAN‘s but is not on the scale of a WAN. It also integrates two or more
LAN networks over a specific geographical area (usually a city) so as to
increase the network and the flow of communications.

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

This type is a computer network used for communication among

computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that
are used in a PAN are printers fax machines, telephones, PDAs and
scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically about 20-30 feet but this is
expected to increase with technology improvements.

CAM PUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)

CAN is a computer network made up of an interconnection of Local Area

Networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be
considered one form of s metropolitan area network, specific to an
academic setting. In the case of a university campus-based campus
area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings
including academic departments, the university library administrator's
office and student residence halls. A campus area network is larger than
a local area network but smaller than a wide area network (WAN). The
main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students accessing
internet and university resources. This is a network that connects two or

191
more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical
area such as a college campus, industrial complex, office holding, or a
military base. A CAN may be considered a type of MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network), but is generally limited to a smaller area than a typical
MAN. This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of
networks for a contiguous ALAN connects network devices over a
relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home
usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will
contain a few small LANs and occasionally a LAN will span group of
nearby buildings.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

4 What is WAN?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
5. What is PAN?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

6. What is CAN?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

INTRANET

The Internet is a specific internet work. It consists of a worldwide inter

connection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks
based upon the networking technologies of the IP suite. It follows from
Advanced Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by
the US Defence department. The Internet is the communications
backbone underlying the World Wide Web. Participants Internet use a
diverse array of methods for several hundred documents that of
standardised, protocols compatible with the IP suite and an addressing
system administered by the Internet Assigned Number Authority and
address registries The launch of Internet has a long story and a few are

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 the following facts. A 1946 comic science fiction story "A logic named
Joe" written by Murray Leinster drafted the Internet and many of its
strengths and weaknesses. However, it took more than a decade to
make it into reality.

Sputnik launched by the USSR spurred the United States to create the
Advanced Research Projects Agency, known as ARPA, in February,
1958 to regain a technological lead. ARPA created the IPTO
(Information Processing Technology Office) to further the research of the
SAGE (Semi Automic Ground Environment) program which had
networked country-wide Radar systems together for the fir time. In 1957
the first production PDP-1 computer conducted the first public
demonstration of time sharing. The opening of the network to
commercial internet began in 1988. The US Federal Networking Council
approved the interconnection of the NSFNET to the commercial system
in that year and the link was made. Other commercial electronic e-mail
services were soon connected, including Tele-mail and CompuServe.

A network involves connecting two or more distinct computer networks

or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is
called an internet. It is two or more networks or network segments
connected using devices. Any interconnection among or between public,
private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be
defined as an internet work. In modern practice the interconnected
networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three types of
internet work, depending on who administer and who participate in them:
1. Intranet
2. Extranet

3. Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet.
If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected
from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorisation. The
Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet,
although it may serve as a portal for access portions of an extranet.

INTRANET

An intranet is a set of networks, with the use of internet protocol and IP-
based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications that are
under the control of a single administrative entity. Most commonly, an
intranet is the internal network of an oganisation. A large intranet will

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typically have at least one web server to provide Networking users with
organisational information. An intranet is a form of computer network of
utility using internet technologies to securely share any part of an
organisation's information or operational systems with its employees. It
is a more extensive part of the organisation's computer infrastructure
and private websites are an important component feature of internal
communication and collaboration. An intranet is built from the same
internet concepts and technologies like client server and internet
protocol. Any of the well-known Internet protocols may be found in an
intranet, such as web services, e-mail and file transfer protocol. Internet
technologies are often deployed to provide modem interfaces to legacy
information systems hosting corporate data. An organisation's intranet
does not necessarily have to provide access to the Internet.

Benefits of Intranets:

Workforce Productivity: Intranets can also help users to locate and

view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and
responsibilities. With the help of a browser interface, users can acces s
data held in any database which the organisation wants to make
available, anytime and subject to security provisions. From anywhere
within the company workstations, employees' ability is increased to
perform their jobs faster, more accurate, and with confidence that they
have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided
to the users.

Time: With intranets, organisations can make more information available

to employees on a touch of a key file, employees can link to relevant
information at a time which suits them rather than being deluged
indiscriminately by emails.

Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for

communication within an organisation. From a communications
standpoint, intranets are useful to communicate strategic initiatives that
have a global reach throughout the organisation. The type of information
that can easily be conveyed for the purpose of the initiative and what the
initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results
achieved to date, and who to speak to for more information. By providing
this information on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-
date with the focus of the organisation. Web publishing allows
'cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily
accessed throughout the company using Web technologies. Examples
include: employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies,
business standards, newsfeeds, and even training can be accessed

194
using common Internet standards Because each business unit can
update the online copy of a document, the most recent version is always
available to employees using the intranet.

Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used

as for developing and deploying applications to support business
operations decisions across the internet worked enterprise.

Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser a

maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal
phone requisition forms.

Enhance Collaboration: With information easily accessible by all

authorised teamwork is enabled.

EXTRANET

An extranet is a network or internet work that is limited in scope to a sing

organisation or entity but also has limited connections to the networks of
more other trusted organisations or entities (e.g., a company's
customers may be given access to some part of its intranet yet in this
way an extranet, while at the time the customers may not be considered ,
'trusted from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be
categorised as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although,
by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at
least one connection with an external network. An extranet is a private
network that uses IP and internet connectivity, and possibly the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of an organisation's
information operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers or
other businesses extranet can also be considered an intranet as part of
a company's network that is extended to users outside the company.
The Internet is perceived as a way to business with a pre-approved set
of other companies.

Advantages:

 Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange

(EDI)
 Share product catalogues exclusively with wholesalers or those ‗in
the trade‘
 Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts Jointly
develop and use training programs with other companies
 Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of
other companies
 Share news of common interest exclusively

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 PRESENT INTERNET STATUS

Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its

infrastructure, Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial
contracts and by technical specifications the protocols that describe how
to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its
interconnections and routing policies. Around 3 billion people use
internet world wide.

INTERNET AND THE WORKPLACE

The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location,

especially with the spread of un-metered high-speed connections. The
Internet at present is viewed on mobile devices too. The Internet can
now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile
phones, data cards, game consoles and cellular routers allow users to
connect to the Internet from anywhere and there is a cellular network
supporting that device's technology. Within the limitations imposed by
the small screen and other limited facilities of such a pocket-sized
device, all the services of the Internet, including email and web
browsing, are available.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
7. What is Internet?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

8. State two advantages of Intranet.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

VIDEO-CONFERENCE

A video conference is a set of interactive telecommunication

technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way
video and audio transmissions simultaneously. Video conferencing uses

196
telecommunications of audio and video signals to bring people at
different sites together for a meeting. This can be as simple as a
conversation between two people in private offices or involve several
sites or people with more than one person in large rooms at different
sites. Besides the audio and visual transmission of meeting activities,
video conferencing can be used to share documents and computer -
displayed information. Video conferencing provides students with the
opportunity to learn by participating in a 2-way communication platform.
Furthermore, teachers and lecturers from all over the world can be
brought to classes in remote or otherwise isolated places. Students from
diverse communities and backgrounds can come together to learn about
one another. Students are able to explore, communicate, analyse and
share information and ideas with one another. Through
videoconferencing students can visit another part of the world to speak
with others, visit a zoo, a museum and so on, to acquire knowledge.

MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia is media and content that utilises a combination of different

content form. In general, multimedia includes a combination of text,
audio, still images, animation video, and interactivity content forms.
Multimedia is usually recorded and played displayed or accessed by
information content processing devices using computerised and
electronic devices, but can also include part of a live performance.
Multimedia also describes electronic media devices used to store and
experience multimedia content. Multimedia finds its application in
various areas including advertisements, art, education, entertainment,
engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research , etc.,

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information,

an embodiment of human knowledge. i.e., World Wide Web is a way to
share resource with many people at the same time; even if some of
those resources are located at opposite ends of the world. The web is
not the same to everyone. Some people use Netscape, Internet
Explorer, Mosaic or other browsers that support graphics. The members
of the internet community only have access to web information through e
mail. WWW is a system of Internet servers that support specially
designed document. The documents are formatted in a markup
language called HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) that supports

197
links to other documents, as well as graphics audio, and video files. This
means one can jump from one document to another simply by clicking
on the spot provided. Not all Internet servers are part of the World Wide
Web. There are several applications that make one to freely access the
World Wide Web-Two of the most popular are Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft's Internet Explorer World Wide Web is not synonymous with
the internet.

WEBPAGE

A webpage is a collection of documents, images, videos or other digital

assets that is hosted on one or more web servers, usually accessible via
the Internet. A web page is what we see on the screen when we type in
a web address or click on a link. A web page can contain any type of
information, and can include text, color, graphics animation and sound.
All publicly accessible websites are seen collectively as constituting the
World Wide Web (WWW). The web page or webpage is a resource of
information that is suitable for the www and can be accessed through a
browser. This information is usually in HTML or XHTML format, and
provides navigation to other web pages. Web pages may be retrieved
from a local computer or front a remote server. The web server may
restrict access only to a private network, example a corporate intranet or
it may publish pages on the World Wide Web. Web page are requested
and served from web servers using HTTP. Web pages may consist of
files of share text stored within the server's file system or the web server
may Networking contract the (X) HTML for each web page when it is
requested by a browser. The pages of websites can usually be accessed
from a common root URL called the home page, and usually reside on
the same physical server. The URL of the pages organize them into a
hierarchy, although the hyperlinks between them control how the reader
perceives the overall structure and how the traffic flows between the
different parts of the sites. Some websites require a subscription to
access some or all of their content. Examples of subscription sites
include many business sites, parts of many news sites, academic
journals sites, gaming sites, message boards, Web based e-mail,
services, social networking websites, and sites providing real-time stock
market data.

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 WEBSITE

A website is a collection of web pages i.e., documents that are accessed

through the Internet. When someone gives you their web address, it
generally takes you to their website's home page, which should
introduce you to what that site offers in terms of information or other
services. From the home page, you can click on links to reach other
sections of the site. A website can consist of one page, or of tens of
thousands of pages, depending on what the site owner is trying to
accomplish.
People look at Websites for two Primary Reasons:

1. To find information they need: This could be anything from a

student looking for pictures of an animal for a school project or to find
the latest stock quotes or to get the address of the nearest restaurant
Information could be of any subject from medicine to ticket reservation.

2. To complete a task: Visitors may want to buy the latest best-seller,

download a software program, or participate in an online discussion
about a favourite subject.

The main thing to remember in creating a website is that you're not

creating the website for you. You already know about the information or
service you offer. Butyou're creating the site for your visitors. So it
should contain the content the viewers want, and be organized in a way
that makes sense, interesting and inviting.
Organised by function a website may be

→ a personal web site

→ a commercial web site

→ a government web site

→ a non-profit organization website.

On the basis of structure website are of 2 types namely Dynamic

website &Static website.

DYNAM IC WEBSITE

ADynamic Website is one that does not have web pages stored on the
server in the same form as the user will view them. Instead, the web
page content changes automatically and/or frequently based on certain
criteria. It generally collates information on the hop each time a page is
requested. There are two meanings for a dynamic website. The first is

199
that the web page code is constructed dynamically, piece by piece. The
second is that the web page content displayed varies based on certain
criteria. The criteria may be pre-defined rules or may be based on
variable user input. A dynamic website is also called a Web Application
or a Data-driven website because it presents variety of information that
is tailored to a particular user. It may accept a user's input and respond
to the request. For example, a user can enter text into a login form or
keyword search, which prompts the website to fulfil the request and
return a unique result. In addition, the user may be able to perform tasks
that may alter the website itself, such as post a comment or update a
user profile. Examples of these websites are, online banking, on line
shopping, e learning and social networking. Also the website may be
able to make instant decisions on various situations, such as online quiz
scoring or credit card processing. This type of website usually displays
different information depending on the visitor, thus the information is
dynamic. Similar to talking to a customer service representative on the
telephone, a dynamic website will provide personalized, real-time
information and take the appropriate action intended to serve the
customer's needs immediately. The website usually requires advanced
programming and a database, and it often includes admin tools for the
website owner to update the website content frequently and easily, i.e.,
visitors are able to control what information they wish to receive via a
dynamic website, instead of settling for only static content that the
website owner has decided to offer.

STATIC WEBSITE

A Static Website is one that has web pages stored on the server in the
same form as the user will view them. It is primarily coded in HTML
(Hyper-text Markup Language). A static website is also called a Classic
website or a Brochure website because it simply presents pre-defined
information to the user. It may include information about a company and
its products and services via text, photos, Flash animation, audio, video
and interactive menus and navigation. This type of website usually
displays the same information to all visitors, thus the information is
static. Similar to handling out a printed brochure to customers or clients,
a static website will generally provide consistent, standard information
for an extended period of time. Although the website owner may make
updates periodically, it is a manual process to edit the text, photos and
other content and may require basic website design skills and visitors
are not able to control what information they receive via a static website ,

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and must instead settle for whatever content the website owner has
decided to offer at that time.

Check Your Progress

Notes a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

9. What is Multimedia?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. Expand www.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. What is a Website?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12 What are the two types of Website?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

E-TUTOR

In simple words it is just another version of personalised tutoring or one

to one teaching. A knowledgeable person on a particular subject teaches
one or a group of students of another country or within country located at
a distance. This whole thing is done via Internet through specially
designed software that includes electronic whiteboards and chat rooms.
For this the student and the teacher need to have a computer and
access to internet.

E-Tutoring provides LIVE, online coaching, homework help and focused

exam preparation from the best tutors irrespective of geographical
location-all from the comfort and safety of one's home. The results are
higher marks, demonstrably better academic performance and less
stress for both student and parents. Individual student is offered

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personalized learning and individual interaction with a tutor. The
coaching is live using audio and shared white board. The process uses
simple, easy to install technology.

Fig: 9.6 E-tutor instructing a group of students

Advantages:

Tutoring will be from the comfort of your home and at a time convenient
to you. You don‘t have to get tired any more or tight schedules travelling
to tuition and coaching classes. Access to experienced and qualified
teachers across the country is possible. No compromise on quality
anymore. Tutoring in selected subjects and topics according to the
needs in the desired place format that best suits the students.
Homework help and class activity clearance are done immediately.
Learning on an interactive platform using examples and illustrations will
keep students interested. It is flexible, portable and easily accessible.
E-Mentor

E-Mentoring is a means of providing a guide ship to any student on the

globe using online software or email or video conferencing etc., It
stemmed from mentoring programs with the invention of the internet,
and began to gain popularity around 1993. First used for programs
connecting school children with business people. E- Mentoring is now
popular throughout the US, the UK, and some parts of Europe

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 VIRTUAL LEARNING

The global availability of the internet, broad band networks, the arrival of
affordable multimedia PCS digital TV and many other technologies
create a new environment. The new environment has been conducive to
the development of virtual Universities. Virtual learning is a campus less
education processing strategy, which uses information technology (IT)
as the main delivery mode.

VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY

The term "Virtual University" is used to describe any organisation that

provides higher education programs through electronic devices such as
the computer and telecommunication technology. Some of the
Universities are real institutes and provide online learning as part of their
extended university courses while others provide courses only on-line.
Some of these organisations exist only as loosely tied combines of
universities, institutes or departments that together provide a number of
courses ever the Internet, television or other media that are separate
and distinct from programs offered by the single institution. Others are
actual organisations with a legal framework, yet named virtual because
they appear only on the internet, without a physical location cap e
administration units. Still other virtual universities can be organized
through specific or multiple physical locations; with some having actual
campuses to receive program delivery through technological media that
is broadcast from another location where real professors give televised
lectures. The goal of Virtual Universities is to provide access to that part
of the population who would not be able to attend a physical campus, for
reasons such as:

1) Distance where students live too far from a physical campus to

attend regular classes
2) Need for flexibility-some students need the flexibility to study at
home whenever it is convenient for them to do so.

Program delivery in a virtual university is administered through

information communication technology such as web pages, e-mail and
other networked sources. When the term "virtual" was first coined in the
computational sense, it applied to things that were simulated by the
computer like virtual memory. Students taking so called "virtual" courses
are doing "real" work to get their degrees and educators preparing and
teaching those courses spend plenty of "real" time in doing so. That is
students meet rigorous academic learning outcomes and evaluations

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through programs constructed by credible academics according to
standard university-level criteria. Many Virtual Universities are
accredited in the same way as traditional universities and operate
according to the same academic standards. These universities can grant
degrees that will be recognized around the world. Online programs can
be marketed to any person who has on-line access to provide learning
experiences and training in an open access format.

E-MAIL

The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a

way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the
Internet.

The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked files and documents
and other resources, linked by URLs and hyperlinks. These hyperlinks
and URLs allow the service providers and other machines that store
originals, to deliver them as requiring Hypertext Transfer Protocol HTTP
is only one of the communication protocols used on the Internet. Web
servers use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to
share and exchange business logic and data. Software products that
can access the resources of the Web use known as user a-

gents. Individuals, organization, corporate offices etc can won their own
e-mails and access independently with their user account. Every email is
having a "user name" and a secret code to open the mail box which is
known as "password".

E-CHATTING

Having signed an e-mail account, people can further enhance their

virtual operation namely electronic chatting. With micro phone and ear
phone and with chat room account, people can communicate around
globally in a cost effective manner. Minor discussion, news publishing,
exchange of ideas and consultation and counselling are possible using
computer based e-chatting services.

ADVANTAGES

The electronic media, the multimedia, internet, World Wide Web, e

learning, virtual learning and email, etc., help the teaching learning
community to enhance their ability and help in their capacity building. It

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helps the community in the following ways Easy access, convenient and
cost effective. The student can study at his own decided time, he does
not have to go to another place. Many students are shy; they do not talk
or ask questions in the class in fear of being ridiculed. On the net, he is
alone with his teacher. There is no one to make fun. One to one
teaching is always very effective and leaves a fruitful impact on students‘
grades and online tutoring is all about that. Thus the learning

→ ensure standards of practice,

→ ensure high quality,

→ promote a systematic, consistent approach.

→ build sustainability,

→ facilitate collaboration, and so on.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
13. Who is an E-Tutor?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

14. What is E-Mentoring?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
15. State two benefits of E-Tutoring.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

LET US SUM UP

The rapid breakthroughs in new information and communication

technologies will further change the way knowledge is developed,
acquired and delivered. It is also important to note that new technologies
offer opportunities to innovate on course content and teaching methods
and to widen access to higher learning. However, it should be bo rne in

205
mind that new information technology does not reduce the need for
teachers but changes their role in relation of the learning process and
that the continuous dialogue that converts information into knowledge
and understanding becomes fundamental. Higher education institution
should lead, in drawing on the advantages and potentials of new
information and communication technologies, ensuring quality and
maintaining high standard for education practices using the internet
features and facilities, accessing information around the globe.

GLOSSARY

 Dynamic website - A dynamic website or dynamic web page

contains information that changes, depending on the viewer, the
time of the day, the time zone, the viewer's native language, and
other factors.

 e-tutor - E-tutoring refers to online-tutoring. The word ‗tutor‘ is

most frequently used ―to include, amongst others, academics,
faculty, instructors, corporate trainers, animateurs, facilitators,
moderators, subject specialist and learning support staff.
 Intranet - a local or restricted communications network,
especially a private network created using World Wide Web
software.
 Multimedia - the use of a variety of artistic or communicative
media.

 Virtual learning - Virtual learning is a learning experience that is

enhanced through utilizing computers and/or the internet both
outside and inside the facilities of the educational organization.
The instruction most commonly takes place in an online
environment.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Network is the connection of 2 or more units to solve a common

problem or issue.
2. The connection between 2 or more computer called computer
network solves the purpose of sharing information.
3. Share ideas and Global accessing of information.
4. Wide Area network.
5. Personal Area Network.
6. Campus Area network.

206
7. Network of computer network is called internet.
8. Cost effective and easy business operations.
9. Multimedia is a tool with combination of text, audio, still images,
animation, video, and interactivity content forms.
10. World Wide Web.
11. A web page is a page that we see on the screen when we type in a
web address, click on a link, or put a query in a search engine.
12. Static and Dynamic.
13. A teacher who teaches students thru online or internet is a E-Tutor.
14. Personalized teaching thru internet is E-Mentoring.
15. a. Students own time.
b. Access to world class teachers.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon (2004). Internet for Everyone. New Delhi:
VikasPublishing Corporation.

Rajaram, R. (2001), Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering. Chennai: Scitech Publications.
Saravanan, T. (2008). The World of Internet. New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation.

Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry New Delhi: Tata Mc.Gr Hill
Publishing Company Limited.

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007). Structured Computer Organisation New

Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Rajaram, R. (2003). Programming in Java2. Scitech Publications Private

Limited. Chennai.

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVT.Ltd.

207
UNIT 10 COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Computer Application Educational Institutions

Computers in Schools

Academic Usage
Non-Academic Usage

Computers in Colleges
Academic Purposes

Non-Academic Purposes
Computers in University

Academic Aspects
Non-Academic Aspects

Computers in Research Activities

Maintaining Students RecordsLet Us
Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Man is an ambitious creature and he always wants to achieve higher

than his current status. His needs are ever changing and his thirst for
power is never ending.We live in the information age where knowledge
is power. The technological advancement and the Industrial
competitions gear everyone to be active on the wheels of revolutions. As
a result, according to the theory of the survival of the fittest, the fittest
person who is accommodative and adaptive in nature emerges as a
successful person in the midst of accelerating changes, rapidly
advancing technology and sudden thrust to a global scene. It is
education that gives birth to the development of technology and it the
technology that gives an ever changing dimension to the educational

208
 sectors As a result changes and challenges are inevitable in education
industries.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about the different usage of computers in

Education
 understand the use of computers in academic and administrative
functions
 acquire knowledge about Research in computers
 acquire knowledge about the different types of records to be
maintained inthe computer laboratory.

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The global changes have its own effect on the Educational Institutions to
a great extent. "Education is the process of man making" says swami
Vivekananda. Hence he preached that we should learn (from the West)
the technical and scientific advance and better methods of organisation
and work. One of the major objectives of the National government and
International Organisations like World Education Form and United
Nations is "Education for all". Also the World Education Forum (Senegal,
2000) has emphasized "quality education for all". The Educational
management, applying the Industrial management techniques and
incorporating the available resources must ensure quality in education,
its sustenance and enhancement. Customer satisfaction is the key for
upgrading the quality and the customers of Educational Institutions are
the Students.

The challenges faced by the higher education in the knowledge era

primarily revolve around

- providing wider accessibility

- ensuring continuing relevance of course and
- quality assurance

The challenges are met with confidence by the education industries with
the help of computers.

Computers have become the life line of the present generation. The
educational Institutions are not exceptional to the usage of computers.
Schools all over the county are demanding teachers who are ready to

209
initiate the process of Computer Assisted Instructions and initialize
integration of technology with education. Keeping in mind the interest
and psychology of modern learner, many universities started to
Integrated Technology with Education. The National Curriculum
Framework (NCF 2005) and Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education (2006) prepared by National Council for Teacher Education in
collaboration with National Council of Educational Research and
Training, have urged to focus upon integration of technology with
education. Evolution in the field of Communication Technology has
brought in tremendous changes for using Educational Technology in
teaching learning. Particularly Computer has occupied a prominent place
in the technological aspect of teaching learning process with its potential
design, aiding in carrying on the process efficiently with more visual
effects and also sophistication in software and hardware with time and
evolution of internet and World Wide Web. The increase of computer
usage in schools primarily has enhanced student learning.

In its broader sense computers are used in educational Institutions in the

following two major categories as academic activities and non-Academic
activities, teaching learning activities and administrative purposes.
For Administration Purposes:

Educational Institutions use computers for administration in the following

areas.
Maintenance of

 Records of students personal, academic and financial

 Records of employees of school both teaching and non-teaching
 Accounts of the institution
 Decision making process
 Storage with minimum paper work
 Informatics on the current regulations of government and affiliating
school boards and related authorities
 School/Institution canteen's billing
 Fees collection and maintenance of fees record Circulation of
instruction/notices and getting it in printed form
 Preparation of school magazine.
For Academic Progress

 Computer Science in the modern society

 Basic computer hardware Software application packages (like word
processors, spread sheets, multimedia, etc.,) and their utility in
education.

210
 Development of Question Bank and interactive quizzes for
evaluation Using Internet as communicative and research tool
 E-learning & Web Based Learning
 Copyright issues and the related issues Computer Assisted
Instructions
 Computers Enhanced Teaching Learning Process
 Integration of Technology with Education
 Lesson plans demonstrating use of computers in teaching

These factors are inclusive and also extend in a varied manner to satisfy
the cur needs according to the need and infrastructure of the Institutions.
Following is the Figure to list the broad perspectives of computers in
educational Institutions

COMPUTERS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Academic Activities Administrative purpose (Non-academic activities)

1.Teaching Aid 1. Fees collection

2. Learning tool 2. Preparation of Timetable

3. Sharing System 3. Accounts maintenance

4. Question Bank maintenance 4. Storing data

5. Online testing 5. Application of financial

6. Online coaching Packages 6. Auditing

7. Preparing Lesson 7. Examination purposes

8. Evaluation practices 8. Publishing results

9. Publishing magazine
Fig: 10.1

COMPUTERS IN SCHOOL

Computers have been used in schools since the first Apples were
introduced in the 1970's. However their impact was limited then because
there weren't enough of them and educational computer programming

211
was poor. As technology has advanced educational software has
become a major influence at all levels from elementary schools to
universities. The ability to connect computers and students together over
a network such as the Internet opens up fantastic educational
opportunities.

Elementary and secondary schools are using computers to play

multimedia educational programs and to teach kids to explore the web
for information.

Computers are especially valuable for students with special needs. A

computers voice recognition capabilities and its connection to the
internet make it possible for special education users to participate
learning experiments from which they may have previously been
excluded.

―nano technology is knocking at the door. We should be aware of the

trends of technology to nurture the young minds" said APJ Abdul Kalam.
So education bedded with technology can solve intricate edu cational
atmosphere.

ACADEMIC USAGE

Let us examine the sayings on the purpose of computer literacy at

school.

―Computers improve both teaching and student achievement" .

―Computer literacy should be taught as early as possible, otherwise

students will be behind.".

―To make tomorrow's work force competitive in an increasingly high-tech

world, learning computer skills must be a priority"

―Work with computers, particularly using the Internet, brings students

valuable connections with teachers, other schools and students, and a
wide network of professionals around the globe. Those connections
spice the school day with a sense of real-world relevance, and broaden
the educational community‖

In his book "Mindstorms", S.Papert a computer educationist clearly

points out the reason for introducing computer education in Schools.

― I began to see how children who had learned how to program a

computer could use very concrete computer models to think about
thinking and to learn about learning and in doing so, enhance their
powers as psychologists and as epistemologists."

212
― I believe that the computer as a writing instrument offers children an
opportunity to become more like adults, indeed like advanced
professionals, in their relationships to other intellectual products and to
themselves."

"Increasingly, the computers of the very near future will be the private
property of individuals, and this will gradually return to the individual the
power to determine patterns of education. Education will become more
of a private act. There will be new opportunities for imagination and
originality"

Using Computer Technology teachers can work closely with students

and other educators to reach educational goals and standards. Teachers
will then be inclined and encouraged to incorporate online projects in the
curriculum. A technology conscious teacher can be paired with another
teacher to complete a collaborative project together.

For both teachers and students of technology education, the prescribed

need to continue with teaching strategies that are associated with the
norms of industrial arts-type subjects. It is the balance teachers create
between teacher-centered and student-centered pedagogies within their
technology classrooms that influence the students‘ perception in the
learning situation, and ultimately effect what they learn in technology
education. Learning managed activities is always dynamic.

NON-ACADEMIC USAGE

The schools use computers for effective administrative processing. From

the students‘ admission till the results are published computers help in
the speedy process and pleasing publication of results. Students
admission applications are printed by computers, fees collection and
maintenance are processed by computers. The cumulative records and
case studies are kept in the computers, Staff and students data are
stored in the computers Student's progress cards and reports are
processed by computers and salary computations are done using
computers. Office automation is the boon for the present official routines.
All kinds of certificates are produced by computers. Computers help in
schools and colleges for administrative purposes. Only after the use of
computers in administration, much of the non-academic office, have
become simpler and easier.

Computers and the Administration in the Following Ways:

 Records of students for personal, academic, financial purposes

can be maintained

213
  Records of employees of school can be stored
 Accounts of the institution is processed and maintained
 Decision making process is much helped by computers. As the
computers are capable of storing volume of data, any kind of
data needed for the authority can be provided in fraction of
seconds
 Aid to memory with minimum paper work
 Eye on current regulations of government and affiliating school
boards and related authorities
 School canteen for billing
 Fees collection and maintenance of fees record
 Circulation of instruction/notices and getting it in printed form
 Preparation of school magazine.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
1. Write about any two uses of Computers in School.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2. What kind of Educational Administration is Rendered by

Computers?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. What are the Challenges Faced by the Higher Education at

Present?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

COMPUTERS IN COLLEGES

At present computers are used in a more diversified ways particularly for

educational purposes. For all the hardware and software purposes of
college activities computers play a vital role. Let us discuss a few of
them in the following passages.

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ACADEMIC PURPOSES

College academy is helped by the computer usage in the following

areas.

Instructional Purposes: Instructing the students using PowerPoint

slides, Word documents or Web pages and using hyperlinks for better
concept clarity, helps improving pronunciation of students by using
microphones, headphones, speakers, specially prepared software and
special dedicated websites. Video conferencing that and email helps in
better communication, hence better concept clarity. Also concept of E-
tutor has given access to teachers instantly and given teachers a better
chance to earn. Current syllabus can be viewed through website of the
concerned school board; made available to students ifteacher has made
a website and uploaded using Internet; and updating-using web could be
done easily. Inspiring students to express their imagination using Paint
Brush, Photo shop, Flash and Dream Weaver etc., Encouraging the
students to surf web and gather relevant information.Readymade
software could give practice material to students.

The rapid breakthroughs in new information and communication

technologies will further change the way knowledge is developed,
acquired and delivered. It is also important to note that new technologies
offer opportunities to innovate on course content and teaching methods
and to widen access to higher learning. However, it should be borne in
mind that new information technology does not reduce the need for
teachers but changes their role in relation of the learning process and
that the continuous dialogue that converts information into knowledge
and understanding becomes fundamental. Higher education institution
should lead, in drawing on the advantages and potential of new
information and communication ensuring quality and maintaining high
standard for education practices and outcomes in a spirit of openness,
equity and international co-operation by:

1. Engaging in networks, technology transfer, capacity building,

developing teaching materials and sharing experiences of their
application in teaching training and research, making knowledge
accessible to all.
2. Creating new learning environments, ranging from distance
education facilities to complete virtual higher education institution
and systems, capable of bridging distance and developing high-
quality systems of education thus serving social and economic
advancement and democratization as well as other relevant
priorities of society, while ensuring that these virtual education

215
 facilities, based on regional, continental or global networks,
function in a way that respects cultural and social identities.
3. Noting that, in making full use of information and communication
technology(ICT) for educational purpose, particular attention
should be paid to removing the grave inequalities which exists
among and also within the countries of the world with regard to
access to new information and communication technologies and
to the production of the corresponding resources.
4. Adopting ICT to national, regional and local needs and ensuring
technical, educational management and institutional system to
sustain it.
5. Closely following the evolution of the knowledge society in order
to ensure high quality and equitable regulations for process to
prevail.
EDUSAT is the first Indian communication satellite built exclusively to
serve the educational sector. It is mainly intended to meet the demand
for an interactive satellite -based distance education system for the
country. It can be used in the field of Higher Education for enhancing to
access to education, creating awareness and motivating students.
Learning from a remote area is possible through EDUSAT and anyone
can access any kind of information from the experts concerning their
subject of interest.

Fig: 10.2 EDUSAT

The picture gives one form of Edusat where there could be interaction
using webcam.

216
M-Learning (Mobile Learning): When learning occurs exclusively
through websites it is called online education. When learning is
transported to mobile services such as cell phones or PDAS, it is called
M-Learning. It can be viewed in any form of teaching or lea rning that
happens when the user is interacting through the mobile service. Now a
day's mobile phones become more powerful with amazing speed . So,
educational institutions are using mobile communications for instant
instruction connected to educational functions and sharing important
notes. Mobile device might be connected to "the Net" via many
technologies-WAP, GPRS, UMTS, Bluetooth, WIFI, etc.,

NON-ACADEMIC PURPOSES

One of the important features of computer usage is storage of student's

records. Volumes of students profile need to be stored for future
reference and retrieval. The alumni records help the management to
have access with the past students for feedback and for better academic
performance further. Good alumni form the strong foundation for the
Educational Institution. Hence students records need to be maintained.

Library Though library aids the learning process to a great extent, a

major effect of the library is to help the students outside the class room
activities. Thus it helps in the following ways, and equips the teaching
learning communities.

 Documents stored as soft copy for students/faculty member's

usage
 Online magazines, journals, brochures, research articles
 Records of the books are maintained using special library
software
 Records of the issues and returns of the books.
Testing and Evaluation Process

The areas of evaluation practices in schools are aided by computers for

the following purposes.

 Keeping records of students for their academic scores

 Keeping records in relation to personal history
 Creating question bank for students
 Using computers for setting questions from question bank
 Online Testing and Evaluation
 Analysis and interpretation of the data
 Previous year Question papers and sample papers using web
sites

217
  Collective records of the students maintained year wise, stored in
computers
 Testing for aptitude, interest, psychology using computer
databases and internet.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.

4. Write any two ways on how Colleges and School can make Use
of Computers Better.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5. Write any two purposes of EDUSAT?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6. What is M-Learning?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

COMPUTERS IN UNIVERSITY

Computers find greater influence on the Teaching Learning process

carried out at the university level. Let us examine them.

ACADEMIC ASPECTS

Around the globe teaching learning process at the university level are
technology driven and computers are used for effective teaching
learning environment.
Instructional Purposes

Teachers instruct the students using PowerPoint slides, Word

documents or Web pages and using hyperlinks for better concept clarity.

218
A language laboratory equipped with computers helps in improving
pronunciation of students by using microphones, headphones, speakers,
specially prepared software and special dedicated websites.

Video conferencing, chat and email helps in better communication,

hence better concept clarity. Also concept of E-tutor has given access to
teachers instantly and given teachers a better chance to earn. Teachers
can get the current syllabus browsed through website of the concerned
school board; make it available to students; and if teacher has made a
website and uploaded using Internet; and updating- using web could be
done easily.
Instruction can be inspiring students to express their imagination using
Paint Brush. Also students can be encouraged to surf web pages and
gather relevant detailed information through web pages. Readymade
software could give practice material to students. Computer Aided
Instruction could be an effective tool for the student's conceptualisation.

Teaching Learning Strategies

 Computers and ICT help the students in collecting

notes/pictures/videos from web pages for detailed information and
projects/assignments. They can also save the documents as soft
copy for future use.
 Learning through animations using higher level software
 E-books/online libraries/online encyclopedias help to guide in
minutes and save precious time and resources.
 Students can create videos using images, albums for better power
point slides
 Simulated Learning gives them an idea of the real situation.
 Publication of pamphlet/brochures for awareness with institution
 Community members.
 Guidance for students in academic processes.
 Creating web logs.
 Participate in online conferences
 Usage of online libraries
 Evaluation procedures

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

7. Write any two of Computers usage in Learning at the

Universities.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
8. How do Computers Help in Evaluation?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

9. What is the role of Computers in the University Library?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Computers and ICT-Education

Computer usage has now become Information and communication

Technologies in education. It is not a simple computer device alone that
is effecting Educational process but comprises a collection of tools such
a computer, the machine, the peripheral devices, the learning
equipments, the technologies like LD projectors interactive white Boards,
multimedia and the other communication tools. The computers are
replaced by ICT tools Present day learning needs multiple skills and ICT
place vital role in providing the same. ICT helps both distance and
formal schooling.
Distance Learning

Open and distance learning is defined by the Commonwealth of

Learning as a way of providing learning opportunities that is
characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or place,
or both time and place; learning that is certified in some way by an
institution or agency; the use of a variety of media, including print and
electronic; two-way communications that allow learners and tutors to
interact; the possibility of occasional face-to-face meetings; and a
specialized division of labour in the production and delivery of courses.
The use of computers and communication tools help effective distance

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learning, and using computers has made distance learning as if learning
within four walls. It becomes learner centered education, e-learning and
web based learning. Virtual universities are the present trends in using
ICT and distance learning has gone a long distance due to the online
techniques of learning.

ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational

opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved
constituencies - scattered an rural populations, groups traditionally
excluded from education due to cultural social reasons such as ethnic
minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as
well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints
are unable to enrol on campus.

 Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to

transcend time and space.
 ICTS make possible learning characterized by a time lag
between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners.
 Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours
a day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g.,
educational programming broadcast over radio or television) also
dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in
one physical location.
 Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing
technologies enable instruction to be received simultaneously by
multiple, geographically dispersed learners.
 Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no
longer have to rely solely on printed books and other materials in
physical media housed in libraries (and available in limited
quantities) for their educational needs.
 With the Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning
materials in almost every subject and in a variety of media can
now be accessed from anywhere at any time of the day and by
an unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant for
many schools in developing countries, and even some in
developed countries, that have limited and outdated library
resources.
 ICTS also facilitate access to resource persons-mentors, experts,
researchers, professionals, business leaders, and peers- all over
the world.
 Sharing of expertise is the latest technique by using computers
and ICT Learning computers and using ICTs in schools develop
those skills that are needed in the future for the students.

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 NON-ACADEMIC ASPECTS.

Future, demands high quality and quality assurance in learning.

Learning computers and ICT make students to be literate in the
electronic era.

Table 10.1 Influences of Learning of Computer Science

Literacy

Digital Age Literacy Ability to decipher meaning and

express ideas in a range of media, this
includes the use of Visual Literacy.

Functional literacy Understanding of both the Theoretical

and applied aspects of Science and
Computers.

Scientific literacy Develop Scientific Attitude in Students.

Technological literacy Competence in the use of Information

and Communication Technologies.

Information literacy Ability to find, Evaluate and make

Appropriate use of Information, using
ICTs.

Cultural literacy Appreciation of the Diversity of

Cultures leant through Web Sources.

Global awareness Understanding of how nations,

corporations, and Communities all over
the World are Interrelated.

Inventive thinking is inculcated by learning and using computers and ICT

for the following purposes:

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 Inventive Thinking

Adaptability Ability to adapt and manage in a

complex, Interdependent World.

Curiosity Desire to learn new things.

Creativity Ability to use Imagination to Create

new things.

Risk-taking Ability to take risks when Novel Ideas

are Tested.

Innovative Ability to invent Something new in all

the Fields.

Originality Ability to be Different and Diversified

from other's Work.

The present techno craft society needs cooperative and collaborative

skills and learning computers and ICT develop these skills.

Effective Communication

Teaming Ability to Work in a Team.

Collaboration and interpersonal Ability to Interact Smoothly and work

skills Effectively with others.

Personal and social Be accountable for the way they use

responsibility for the public good ICTs and to learn to use ICTs.

Interactive communication Competence in Conveying,

Transmitting, Accessing and
Understanding Information

High Productivity Ability to Prioritize, Plan, and Manage

programs and projects to achieve the
desired results. Ability to apply what
they learn in the classroom to real-life
contexts to create relevant, and high
quality products.

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COMPUTERS IN RESEARCHES ACTIVITIES

Researches on use of Computers and ICT in education have occupied

an important place in Educational research in recent times and are a
flourishing field. More applications are being added according to
improvements in technology with changing times. Researches are
undertaken about use of ICT for efficient teaching learning in different
areas. Nano technology research and development is opening up wide
new horizons in medicine, biotechnology, material sciences, genomics,
manufacturing of precision devices, computing, information technology,
robotics, communications and other frontier scientific and technological
fields. This technology helps people to understand scientific problem and
their solution using computers and ICT. Computer oriented research and
ICT based research are very much professed by the learned scholars.
Also in all the fields of science and humanities when research is
undertaken, it is computer that renders to the successful progress of the
research.Whether research is done in Education or in other science
subjects the role of computers are inevitable. In science education
computerized equipments are used for any hands on training and
analysis and on spot implications are made using computers. Computers
help in accurate calculation and production of good product. Quality
control, marketing movement and financial analysis are possible only
because of computers.

The research models, designs, needed tools and standardizing of the

tools, sharing of views, etc., are possible when using computers and
internet facilities. The collected data for research can also be easily
processed using computerized statistical packages like SPSS.

MAINTAINING STUDENTS RECORDS

To make a specific mention of students records for future purposes

computers play vital role.

1. Records of students are as follows:

- Personal records act as cumulative records or case studies. It gives

all the particulars pertaining to every student.

Academic: The academic records involve the academic progress of

the students. It gives the statistical picture of the student's academic
achievement and helps both the teaching learning communities how
to make better performances in the future.

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 Financial: The financial accounting, fees structure and fee collection,
tuition fees and the other fees are collected and produce bills in the
needed time.

2. Records of employees of school/colleges can be stored

3. Accounts of the institution is processed and maintained

4. Decision making process is much helped by computers. As the

computer are capable of storing volume of data, any kind of data
needed for the authorities can be provided in fraction of seconds.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
10. Write about any two skills Achieved by Learning Computers.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. What kind of Educational Research Assistance is Rendered

by Computers?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12 .What is ICT?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

LET US SUM UP

Education is the field where technology provides innovation and the

same educational Institutions only provide way for educational
innovations. Hence use of computers and ICT is inevitable for both the
purposes. Computers play an ample role in teaching, learning and
administrative purposes. Research in all discipline cannot progress
properly without computers. So it is good for the society to learn
computer Science as early as possible. Otherwise we will be obsolete in
the society.

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 GLOSSARY

 Effective communication -An Effective Communication is

a communication between two or more persons wherein the
intended message is successfully delivered, received and
understood.
 ICT - Information and communications technology ( ICT) is an
extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the
role of unified communications and the integration of
telecommunications
 Inventive thinking - Systematic Inventive Thinking (SIT) is a
thinking method developed in Israel in the mid-1990s. Derived
from Genrich Altshuller ‘s TRIZ engineering discipline, SIT is a
practical approach to creativity , innovation and problem solving ,
which has become a well known methodology for innovation
 teaching learning strategies - Teaching and learning strategies
can include a range of whole class, group and individual activities
to accommodate different abilities, skills, learning rates and
styles that allow every student to participate and to achieve some
degree of success.



ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Store large data and to aid the teaching strategy.

2. Maintenance of students records, accounts maintenance and
computations
3. Following areas are challenging for the higher education
-providing wider accessibility

- ensuring continuing relevance of course and

- quality assurance.

4. Computers can be used in colleges for

1. Sharing of ideas and subject matters

2. Library processing.

5. Edusat provide distance education and it brings experts teaching to

a remote place.
6. M-learning is learning through mobile devices using the latest "Net"
technology
7. Language laboratory and videoconferencing.
8. 1. Creating question bank for students

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 2. Using computers for testing by asking questions from question
bank

3. Online Testing and Evaluation.

9. Records of the books issue and maintenance and on-line library

accessing.
10. Computer learning provide collaborative skills and inventive thinking
11. Computers help in research to collect data and process them using
software tools as SPSS packages.
12. ICT comprises of the computer technologies such as LCD
projectors, interactive white Boards, multimedia and the other
communication and net tools.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Internet for Everyone. New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Deepak Dayal. (2007). Modern Methods of Teaching New Delhi: APII

Publishing Corporation.

Mishra, R.C. (2008). Encyclopedia of Modern Education. New Delhi:

APH Publishing Corporation.

Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry, New Delhi: Tata McGraw

Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007). Structured Computer Organisation.

Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.
Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVT.Ltd.

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UNIT 11 LEARNING USING COMPUTERS

Structure

Introduction
Objectives
Principles

Course-Ware
Systematic Learning

Programmed Instruction
Programmed Learning

Computer Assisted Instruction

Computer Assisted Learning

Material Preparation
Evaluation of CAL Material

Programmed Instruction and CALLet

Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Reading

INTRODUCTION

Teaching and learning are explicitly realized only in human beings. Due
to the differences in their interest, attitude, individual capab ilities, needs
and preferences teaching learning course takes up different forms and
modes. The ultimate aim of all kinds of teaching and learning is to enrich
human behavior. This unit focus on the latest trends in teaching learning
modes i.e., Computer assisted methods.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to

 acquire knowledge about programmed learning

 acquire knowledge about Computer Assisted learning

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  understand how to prepare CAL. Material
 acquire knowledge about how to evaluate CAL material
 differentiate CAL and PLM

PRINCIPLES

The importance of interaction to learning was eloquently summarised

―What I hear I for get

What I see I r emember
What I do I remember alw ays"
Hence learning particularly in schools where initial knowledge acquisition
takes place must be given utmost care to help the children learn the
concept concretely without ambiguity. Learning materials with which
even the low achievers can do well was developed to satisfy their
psychological needs. These learning materials are supplementing to the
class room teaching so that it will give additional reference for the low
achievers, and avenge sewers and a reinforced learning for the high
achievers. As it has to satisfy all the categories of learners the learning
materials are produce following certain principles as follows.

1. Small steps: The learning concepts must be divided into small units
with 3 to 5 lines of learning matter to help the students understand and
retain in mind.
2. Simplicity: The learning matter must as simple as possible so that
the pupils find it easy and confide to learn. The learning should lead from
concrete to abstract concepts giving ample examples.

3. Clarity of concepts: The entire concepts to be learnt must have

clarity of information. Ambiguous concepts and that are leading and
controversial or personal thoughts of the authors must be avoided. Only
that information that is valid must be provided.

4. Correlation with other subjects: Learning is complete when it has

application and relative nature. The learning module must have
correlation with other subjects and their application in other fields must
be clearly stated.

5. Stimulating: The learning must be stimulating to make the students

be interested and sustain the interest of the learners.

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6. Interactive nature : The subject matter must be provided in such a
manner that it provoke students participation in learning Only when the
learners get involved in studies, learning will take place.

7. Feed Back mechanism: Learners must be encouraged when they

have learnt the concepts well. This can be ensured in the module by way
of evaluation. Every frame of CAI must have feedback mechanism by
way of asking questions. If the learner lacks to give the correct response
then re learning of the concept should be made. CAI must have all these
features.

COURSE-WARE

Course ware is the study material given for the students in order to help
them understand the concepts that they are expected to master. The
course-ware in Computer Science not only supply the learning materials
for the students but also the technical skills that are needed for the
computer literates to get a job for their living. Thus the course-ware
needs to solve dual purposes. It should be simple, clear and easily
understood with minimal intervention of the teacher. These kinds of
course ware are usually framed so that it makes the students get
interested to learn, help them complete the learning without fatigue and
to have confidence in mastering the concept. Today the framed lea rning
strategy has crossed the range of card boards thru mechanical frame
boards to electronic screen frames using computers.

SYSTEM ATIC LEARNING

As the horizon of knowledge keeps expanding varied techniques and

technologies started growing. The knowledge seekers too select their
own time and ease of accessing the knowledge. The result was the
programmed modules of learning based on the philosophy of
B.F.Skinner. This later became teaching machines and Computer aided
Instructions (CAI).

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

It is a way of self-teaching with the aid of a textbook or teaching machine

that presents material which is well structured in a logical sequence.
Programmed instruction allows students to answer questions about a
unit of study at their own rate, checking their own answers and

230
advancing only after answering correctly. After each step, they are
presented with a question to test their comprehension, then y
immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information.

PROGRAMM ED LEARNING

This idea was later adapted by Robert M. Gagne who invented

programmed learning for use in teaching in schools. The difference
between Programmed Instruction (PI) and Programmed Learning (PL) is
that Pl is intended to modify behavior, whereas Pl. is used for teaching
facts and skills.

According to Chen, programmed instruction is desirable in many

instructional settings because it provides the following benefits:

1. Immediate knowledge of results-Students continuously answer

questions and receive feedback to ensure comprehension.
2. Individualized learning-Students can complete programmed
instructional activities at their own pace without feeling held back or
pushed by other classmates.
3. Expert instruction Students are required to complete a logical
sequence of instruction that has been designed by experts.

Eshleman identified the positive characteristics of programmed

instruction as:

1. Emphasis on student behavior-Programmed instruction focuses

educator's attention on their students' behavior and views
instruction as a task of shaping student behavior.
2. Scientific basis for instruction Programmed instruction is based on
the scientific work of behaviorists. It can draw on science as a
resource. Teachers can predict their students' performance with
appropriately applied programmed instructional materials
3. Increased focus on design and development of instructional
material. Programmed instruction is based on an organized process
of creating and implementing instructional materials in which
learning objectives are set instructional materials are responsibly
prepared and modified, and student performance is easily
monitored.
4. Stimulus Control-Programmed instruction prompts information from
under regular and appropriate circumstances.

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Linear Programming

This is a method of self-instruction that enlists machines or specially

prepared books teach information. Originally introduced in the mid-
1950s by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, programmed instruction is a system
whereby the learner uses specially prepared books or equipment to
learn without a teacher. It was intended to free teachers from
burdensome drills and repetitive problem-solving inherent in teaching
basic academic subjects like spelling, arithmetic, and reading. Skinner
based his ideas on the principle of operant conditioning, which theorized
that learning takes place when a reinforcing stimulus is presented to
reward a correct response. Linear programming involves a simple step -
by-step procedure. There is a single set of materials and students work
from one problem to the next until the end of the program. Research has
shown that programmed learning often is as successful, and sometimes
more successful, than traditional teacher-based learning because it
recognizes the different abilities and needs of individual children.
Crowder's Intrinsic or Branching Program

Norman Crowder, a contemporary of Skinner, was working

independently for the armed services on programmed instruction. He felt
that a program was a form of communication between a programmer
and a user. Like any communication, the program must be directed to
the individual. Unlike Skinner, Crowder was not working from a
psychological perspective, but from a communications point of view.

In an intrinsic or branching program, each frame presents more text than

the average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct
question, usually in a multiple-option format. Branching style optional
choices lead users to optional forms of feedback, most of which is
corrective. If the user makes a correct response, the program asserts
the reasons why she or he was correct and moves on to new material. If
an incorrect response is made, the program, at the very least, informs
the user that an error was made and then branches the user back to the
previous frame for another try.

The primary purpose of feedback is to determine whether the

communication was successful, in order that corrective steps are taken.
Depending upon the complexity of the error committed, the programme
may initiate a remedial sequence of instruction, a practice designed to
eliminate the learning deficiency. Branching instruction adapts the
sequence of the program to a limited degree to fit the prior learning and
processing capabilities of the user. The term intrinsic refers to the fact
that all program options are intrinsic to the program and, therefore, not

232
dependent on any external programming device. This approach is
especially adapted to machine presentation, which provides for greater
levels of adaptability. Branching texts tend to be large and confusing,
especially when users try to access them in a manual way.

The primary difference between Skinner's conception of programming

and Chowder's is in the function of the response. To Skinner, learning
results from making the correct response. Contrary to this response
orientation, Crowder believed that learning results from the realignment
of the user's knowledge structure, and that t response is simply a means
for controlling the program or machine. The larger chunks of information
need to be assimilated and integrated with what the user already knows.
The response, he believed, tests the level of integration. This type of
programming benefits the higher-ability user, who is more capable of
higher-level integration of ideas, than it does the lower-ability user.

The application of technology for the enhancement of teaching, learning

and assessment is called technology based education. Learning using
Technology includes computer-based learning and multimedia materials
and the use of networks and communications systems to support
learning. Learning using Technology embrace a wide range of
applications, some of which, in the past have been classified under
various acronyms such as the following:
CAI Computer Aided Instruction
CAL Computer Aided Learning
CBL Computer Based Learning
CBT Computer Based Training

While most of these are used solely by the tutor, video, laser disc, audio,
and computers are also used by students on their own. As these models
of pedagogy aims to educate the individuals according to the individual
difference it follows certain principles.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.

1. What is Programmed Instruction?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

233
 2. What are the two types of Programmed Instruction?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

3. Expand CBL.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

―Computer-Assisted Instruction" (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation

presented on a computer. Many educational computer programs are
available online and from computer stores and textbook companies.
They enhance teacher instruction in several ways. Computer programs
are interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation,
sound, and demonstration. They allow students to progress at their own
pace and work individually or solve problem in a group. Computers
provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer
is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows how to
correctly answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity
and a change of pace from teacher oriented instruction.

Computer-Assisted Instruction improves instruction for students with

disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not
continue to practice the wrong skills, Computers capture the students'
attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students'
spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores Also, computer-
assisted instruction moves at the students pace and usually does not
move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide
differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average, or
gifted.

Computer-Based Education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI)

are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer
use in educational settings, including drill and practice, tutorials,
simulations, instructional management, supplementary exercises,
programming, database development, writing using word processors,
and other applications. These terms may refer either to stand-alone
computer learning activities or to computer activities which reinforce
material introduced and taught by teachers.

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Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often
refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities offered either
by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacher directed
instruction.

Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI) refers either to the use of

computers by school staff to organize student data and make
instructional decisions or to activities in which the computer evaluates
students' test performance, guides them to appropriate instructional
resources, and keeps records of their progress.

Computer-Enriched Instruction (CEI) is defined as learning activities in

which computers (1) generate data at the students' request to illustrate
relationships in models of social or physical reality, (2) execute programs
developed by the students, or (3) provide general enrichment in
relatively unstructured exercises designed to stimulate and motivate
students.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is among the range of strategies

being used to improve student achievement in school subjects, including
reading. Programs for CAI have come a very long way since they were
first developed over two decades ago. These programs include tutor and
drill students, diagnose problems, keep records of student progress, and
present material in print and other manifestations It is believed that they
reflect what good teachers do in the classroom. Students are expected
to gain more benefits from CAI. Among the benefits that have been
expected are better and more comfortable learning for students, since
they learn at their own pace and convenience, opportunities to work with
vastly superior materials and more sophisticated problems; personalized
tutoring; automatic measurement of progress, and others.

Teachers also gain from CAI, as they experience less work and
repetition, greater ease in updating instructional materials, more
accurate appraisal and documentation of student progress, and more
time to work directly with students which is very much expected during
these days of cultural hazards. They can spend their time for challenging
educational problems as well addressing their emotional issues. They
can inculcate good values in the students and provide guidance for
academics, vocational or personal. With increasing advances in
computer technology, computer assisted instruction (CAI) is now seen
by many as a method of providing relevant instruction for large numbers
of students.

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COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING

As Computer is a fascinating machine, learning through computers

motivates the students to learn interestingly and have focused learning.
Computerized learning packages are available for all categories of
students. Computerised learning materials helps the
1. Slow learners to learn at their own pace without feeling sky

2. They can learn and re-learn from home itself

3. Drill and practice can be done any number of times

4. Immediate confirmation of learning is possible and feedback

mechanism is effective
5. Mastery of learning is implied.

The Computer Assisted learning helps the average students to score

high in their academics by making them learn repeatedly without any
one helping them. There are also Smart Classes that motivates students
and help them involved in learning

The high achievers too are helped very much by the CAl packages.
They are exposed to more challenging concepts to feed their thirsty
minds. Educational software are the ones that challenge the young mind
with interactive methods and develop inquiry within the students.
Features and Characteristics of Educational Software

Drill and practice: Drill and practice packages offer structured

reinforcement of previously learned concepts. They are based on
question and answer interactions and should give the student
appropriate feedback. Drill and practice packages may use games to
increase motivation.

Tutorial: Tutorials are used to teach new concepts and processes.

Material is presented to the student in a structured format. Tutorial
software usually includes sked examples and gives the learner the
opportunity to assess their understanding with questions, answers and
feedback. Intelligent Tutoring systems are capable of corrective
feedback and adapt their presentations to suit the learner, based on the
actions of the learner.

Information retrieval systems: Information retrieval systems store

knowledge in structured way and allow the learner to browse or search
for information as required. They include on-line databases; structured
information systems such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias and also
hypertext and hypermedia reference systems.

236
Simulations: Simulations model an experiment or a real life or
imaginary situation. The context of the simulation may be a business
plan or a laboratory experiment or an animation of the working of a
chemical plant. Simulations usually are based on interactive graphics
and give the learner the ability to visualise a process and explore be
effect of changing parameters on the operation of the system.

Micro worlds: Micro worlds use the computer to create a problem

solving environment and are derived from the work of the cognitive
psychologist Jean Piaget Seymour Papert, for example, introduced the
Logo language into schools to encourage children to learn about
mathematics in a Mathland micro world.

Cognitive tools for Learning: Cognitive tools for learning are based on
the constructivist principle that learners need to construct their own
understanding of new concepts. These tools give the learner a way
(often graphical) of representing their understanding of new knowledge
and concepts and how they relate to existing knowledge and concepts.
Expert systems and authoring tools can also be used in this way,
allowing the learner to present his/her understanding in a way that can
be accessed by other learners.

Productivity Tools: Productivity tools include applications such as word

processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics, desktop publishing and
presentation packages. Whilst these tools are not specific to Learning
Technology, if used within a pedagogical framework, they can support
learning by enhancing the quality of the learning process and by
improving student productivity. For example, word processing
encourages drafting, reflection and editing and removes from the student
the chore of having to re-write any written submission. Spreadsheets
can promote a structured approach to problem solving and enable the
student to spend more time on the task in hand rather than on routine or
lengthy calculations. Databases can be used to help students, as well as
staff, to organise information related to their courses and to develop their
information handling skills.

Graphics and desktop publishing packages enable staff and students to

achieve a higher quality of presentation. Good quality handouts make for
greater clarity and improve student motivation. These tools also enable
students to produce high quality submissions and encourage the
development of transferable written presentation skills which will stand
them in good stead in future employment.

Presentation packages: Presentation packages provide much the

same benefits for spoken presentations as the graphics and desktop

237
publishing packages do for written one. They are clearly of great benefit
to support conventional lectures, enabling the lecturer to draw together
text and graphics. Equally they are helpful in enabling students to
demonstrate their understanding of new knowledge and its applications,
supporting them in the development of oral presentation skills.

Communication tools: Computer-mediated communication takes

several forms including electronic mail, electronic conferencing, video
conferencing and the World Wide Web. These tools allow learners to
share ideas and information, to co-operate, to collaborate on joint work
and can also be used for submission and publication of students‘
assignments and of tutors‘ comments on students' work.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.
4. Write any two advantages of CAI.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

5. Expand CMI.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. Mention any two communication Tools.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

MATERIAL PREPARATION

Computer Assisted Learning Material: The production of high quality,

complex, commercial CAL packages requires a team approach to
achieve optimal results with extensive resources. At the outset it is thus
vital to establish the need for a particular CAL package considering
whether alternative methods of education may be more appropriate. If a
needs analysis suggests a CAL package is worth producing, the project
may then enter a design stage. During the design phase the structure

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and content is created specifying interactions and flowcharting of the
various parts of the CAl package. Once the design stage is complete the
project may progress to the redaction stage, which is a complex time of
iterative development with interaction between a numbers of members.
The production team may include a project manager, subject matter
experts, instructional designers, evaluators, programmers, graphic
designers, digitisers, and legal advisers for copyright, video producers,
video directors, video editors, sound editors, sound engineers, camera
operators, sound recordings, actors, teachers and students. It is
important to recognise the time taken to develop an effective CAL
product, although the end result of well-designed product is worth the
time.

Various aids have been offered to help non-computer specialists to

produce basic CAL material. Although there tends to be a learning curve
to the use of even basic software aids, as part of a coherent strategy to
develop a series of CAL resources in a particular area this approach can
prove very effective. However, the results may not be as effective as if
produced by an expert team. The alternative of employing a programmer
to assemble content provided by subject experts into a CAL package
might provide better CAL material at a lower real production cost.
Production of medical CAL often requires copyright cleared high quality
digital images, which may be obtained from multimedia archives on the
Internet such as the Bristol Biomedical Archive. However, the provision
of medical images on the Internet raises difficult issues not only of
copyright, but also of ethics with complex technical and logistic details of
user registration and security on the Internet.

Very effective results can be achieved with simple use of technology.

Word processors are very convenient to create and modify handouts for
lectures. Presentation software to produce slides or acetates for lectures
has become increasingly more sophisticated with extensive help and
templates to aid inexperienced users. The simple use of technology by
academics may produce the most effective results particularly if the
output is made available over networks using such tools as available
with Microsoft Office 98 and now it has become 2000, 2003 and 2007.
Once enticed into the benefits of CAL by this simple route academics
may be inclined to take advantage of the possibilities of their word
processors to produce on line interactive question sets or to add audio-
visual elements to the lecture presentations. Such technology has great
advantages in training the teachers and producing high quality CAL with
limited resources.

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Following are the Inquiry Methods in Developing Learning
Materials:

 Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity

or game to understand the context of the lessons and determine
which ones fit the needs of their students and how they may
enhance instruction.
 Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice,
or be used as an educational reward for students?
 Is the material presented make the students remain interested, yet
not lose valuable instruction time trying to figure out how to operate
the program? Does the program waste time with too much
animation?
 Is the program correct at the level for the class or the individual
student?
 Does this program do what the teacher wants it to do (help students
organize the writing speed up the writing process, or allow students
to hear what they wrote for editing purposes)?
 Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately
before directing students to them. Web addresses and links
frequently change and become inactive, Students might become
frustrated when links are no longer available.

Writing programs are beneficial to writing instruction because they allow

students to learn in a variety of ways and can speed up the writing
process. With proper training students can learn to focus on the
message instead of the mechanics.

Benefits of Computer Assisted Learning:

Theoretically CAL might be considered attractive in that it is learner

centered and may be designed according to good educational
strategies. Although a meta-analysis of published work suggested that
students learn more in less time with CAL than conventional methods of
learning the true effectiveness of CAL has been questioned.
Nevertheless scalability, interactivity, information interconnectivity,
automatic student logging and multimedia content are important features
of CAL, which may not only justify CAL production but make CAL a
genuinely cost effective option.

Scalability: Many aspects of CAL are scalable, particularly when

Internet derived technologies are utilised to produce a CAL package.
Unlike other educational media a CAL package is digitally stored may be
reproduced without error as many times as required. By providing
access to a CAL package over a network many students may use a

240
single resource. Further if the CAL package is made accessible via a
Internet browser then it becomes potentially available to a very wide
audience using a diverse range of computers.

Interactivity: The nature of CAL lends itself to involving the student with
the learning processes, with tasks requiring actions and depending on
the actions the student may receive appropriate feedback leading to
further tasks. This goal-action-feedback cycle may be followed in a
simple series of interactive questions, y or even a computer simulation of
a clinical situation.
Automation of Assessment

Asa student interacts with a CAL exercise it is possible to keep a record

of each on an identifiable log file. This provides a convenient option to
check on student performance by checking on the correctness of
response to the CAL exercise. Further by building up a profile of how a
number of users interact with the system it possible to identify
weaknesses in the CAL exercise itself. The automatic logs can thus help
decrease both the burdens on assessing students and validating CAL
exercises.
Information Interconnectivity: An excellent illustration of how
information may be interconnected on computers is provided by the
encyclopaedia Encarta which allows users to click on highlighted text to
jump in a non-sequential manner to related information including
pictures, sound and video clips. It is possible to extend the
interconnection of information on computer systems over networks. The
World Wide Web provides the most striking example of hypermedia, that
through links provided by Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) users
browse information on computer systems throughout the world.

Multimedia: The incorporation of multimedia elements such as images,

sounds and video clips in CAL packages provide more than simply
added interest. Cognitive psychologists suggest that learning is
facilitated if the student has to undertake active processing of presented
information, "mental roughage". Different individuals learn better in
response to different media, and it has been suggested that learning
may be improved by providing information in more than one form
simultaneously such as animation with sound (Penney CG 1989).
Although multimedia can provide great added value to CAL it makes
heavy demands on equipment whether at a single workstation or
incorporated in a multimedia lecture theatre.

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Pedagogical Features: Pedagogical features are an attempt to define
structures or units of educational material. When beginning to create
Computer Aided Learning content, the pedagogical approaches need to
be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create
content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On
the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set
up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more
engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these
extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to
effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing
the most engaging educational experiences for students.

Pedagogical Approaches and Perspectives

It is possible to use various Instructional approaches for CAl which

include:

Instructional design the traditional pedagogy of instruction which is

curriculum focused, and is developed by a centralized educating group
or a single teacher.
Social Constructivist-this pedagogy is particularly well afforded by the
use of discussion forums, blogs and on-line collaborative activities. It is a
collaborative approach that opens educational content creation to a
wider group including the students themselves.

Conversational Model-is also particularly relevant to CAL. Approach to

the use of Cognitive perspective focuses on the cognitive processes
involved in learning as well as how the brain works.
Emotional Perspective - focuses on the emotional aspects of learning,
like motivation, engagement, fun, etc.,

Behavioural Perspective-focuses on the skills and behavioural

outcomes of the learning process. Role-playing and application to on-
the-job settings.

Contextual Perspective-focuses on the environmental and social

aspects which can stimulate learning such as Interaction with other
people, collaborative discovery and the importance of peer support.
Much effort has been put into the technical re use of electronically-based
teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using Learning
objectives. These are self contained units that are properly tagged with
keywords, or other meta-data, and often stored in an XML file format.
Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning
objects.

242
Learning Technology is defined as "The application of technology for the
enhancement of teaching, learning and assessment." Learning
Technology includes computer-based learning and multimedia materials
and the use of networks and communications systems to support
learning. Newer technologies which are included within Learning
Technology have also brought with them their own acronyms. For
example:
CAA Computer Aided Assessment
CMC Computer Mediated Communications

An essential component in learning Technology package is the case with

which the learner can interact with the contents. This is often referred to
as the HCI or Human-Computer Interface.

EVALUATION OF CALMATERIAL

Evaluation of CAL materials only can identify and confirm the worthiness
of a learning material CAL packages need to evaluated and then only
can be taken to the students since it makes more impact on the students
than any other learning devices. First of CAL must be carefully designed.
It is very difficult to get a subject expert who is also technically sound to
make CAL packages. Hence the materials framed by the subject's
experts are given to the computer professionals for enhancing it with
multimedia effects. So the CAL package has to scrutinize doubly.

CAL. packages has to be evaluated by

1. Subject experts -The subject experts can identify the concepts

formation and the hierarchy of developing the subject matters.
2. Technical experts -The subject experts can just what kind of effect
can be best suited for a particular area and the physical features
and application of the computer technology.
3. Teachers who teach the subjects - Subject teachers are the best
judges in evaluating the CAL packages since they were the
spectacles of the subject expert as well the technical aspects
standing on the students shoes Being experienced teachers they
can criticize to get the best out of the production.
4. Students who learn the subject - Being the user the students
stand a better chance to evaluate the material. A group of students
from low, average and high achievers can comment from their
views to make the CAL package a meaningful study material

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11.4 PROGRAMM ED INSTRUCTION AND CAI

Programmed Instructions (PI) are the carefully planned instructional

design which are technically devices and implemented with the available
form of card board or wooden board to help the learners.

CAl too employs the same techniques of skinner in framing the lesson
but using high-tech gadgets of computers and communication tools.

Pl can be easily prepared and made available to any to person and can
be prepared with less energy and less expense.

CI needs lot of money, manpower and energy to produce.

PI is limited because of adequacy

CAl can be made to any number.

PI can be used by even the low income category students.

CAI can be purchased only who can afford to buy,

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.

7. Mention 2 benefits of Computer Assisted Laming Materials.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8. Expand CMC.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. Give two examples on Emotional Aspects of Learning.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

244
LET US SUM UP

Teaching and learning has come a long way from teacher based to the
extent of learner based, individual based and web based. The education
scenario is forced to accommodate electronic media in the teaching
learning process and also have diversified approaches according to the
individual learner's behavoir. Hence teaching interest learning in
corporate CAI, CAL, CAT, CBT etc., Now it is the individual's and
capability to seek and be equipped with learning strategies that suits the
individuals, of course the educationists are always there to guide and
provide learning atmosphere

GLOSSARY

 Computer aided learning - Computer aided learning is a self-

descriptive term that literally means learning with computers.
 Pedagogical approaches - The pedagogical approaches are
commonly understood as the approaches to teaching. It is
referred to the theory and practice of learning and how this
process has an impact.
 Programmed instruction - Programmed instruction is a method of
presenting new subject matter to students through a graded
sequence of controlled steps with corresponding activities.
 Systematic learning - Systematic is the more common word; it
most often describes something that is done according to a
system or method a systematic approach to learning that
involves carefully following the program's steps Systemic
describes what relates to or affects an entire system.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

1. Programmed Instruction is the way of self-teaching with the aid of a

textbook or teaching machine that presents material that is well
structured in a logical sequence.
2. Linear and Branching.
3. Computer Based Teaching
4. Provides drill and Practice. It is simple and easy to learn.
5. Computer Managed Instruction.
6. Video conferencing and interactive board.
7. Micro world and Simulations.
8. Computer Mediated Communication.

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9. Motivation and fun.

SUGGESTED READING

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Internet for Everyone. New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Deepak Dayal. (2007). Modern Methods of Teaching New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Siddiqi, M.H. (2008). Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. New

Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.

Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry New Delhi: Tata McGraw

Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007), Structured Computer Organisation. Ne

Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVT.Ltd.

Sarayanan, T. (2008). The World of Internet. New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation.

246
 UNIT 12 COMPUTERLABORATORY

Structure

Introduction
Objectives
What is Computer Laboratory?

Need for Computer Laboratory

Special Features of Computer Laboratory

Setting a Computer Laboratory

Laboratory Management

Arranging Practical for Pupils

Evaluation of PracticalsLet
Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Computer Science subject does not provide concepts for knowledge part
alone but every concept need to be verified and checked. Whether it is
of the knowledge or software area, all learnt concept have to be tested.
So a computer laboratory is a must. A computer laboratory motivates the
students to learn the concept better, in the interest and to arouse
curiosity in them. This unit elaborately deals with the needs of a
computer laboratory, the features and the equipments needed for
laboratory.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about Computer laboratory

 understand the ways and means of setting a Computer laboratory
 acquire knowledge about laboratory management
 gain knowledge in evaluation of computer practical.

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WHAT IS COMPUTER LABORATORY?

A computer laboratory is a room or a building equipped for learning

computer operations, using computers for feeding data and program and
also executes the programs. Acomputer laboratory is essential for
learning the course since the computer concepts are abstract and unless
it is understood clearly on the process, any amount of learning on the
subject will be a waste. Learning can take place initially only when it is
given with concrete examples and solutions. More over a laboratory will
always help students to take diversified approaches in learning and
testing a concept. Since learning using computer is based on
performance retention is longer. Hence a laboratory becomes an
essential infrastructure for teaching computer science.

Fig: 12.1 Students working in the laboratory

NEED FOR COMPUTER LABORATORY

The computer laboratory in schools and college help the students to

practice what they had learnt in the theory. It helps to reinforce the
knowledge gained and also to check and confirm the ideas. An
academic period devoted for computer laboratory is to work or study. It
is a place where scientific research and development is conducted,
analyzed and performed. Most laboratories are characterized by
controlled uniformity of conditions like constant temperature, humidity,
cleanliness. Modem laboratories use a vast number of Information and
communication tools instruments and procedures to study, systematize,
or quantify the objects of their attention. Procedures often include

248
analysis of a problem, framing tentative solutions checking of the
solution, preparing algorithm, flowcharting, programming, entry of data
and program, selecting sample data, testing the data and confirming the
solutions The procedures may be carried out by techniques ranging from
having a person using tools or running an automated analysis system
with computer controls, data storage, and elaborate readouts.

The principal goal of the Laboratory for Computer Science is to perform

on all computer science (CS) and information technology (IT) which is
academic oriented and to achieve societal impact. The laboratory's
activities fall into four of principal categories: Computer Systems, theory
on Computer Science, Teacher students-computer interactions, and
analysis of results. Studies in computer science provide students with
the necessary background and skills to design and write software for
future computing usage and developmental tools. The major aspect is to
prepare students for learning programs in computer science and/or
careers in the computing industry. The secondary aspect is to equip the
students with the changing needs of a liberally educated person in a
technological society. For both the categories use of computers is a
must and the computer laboratory helps in the making of computer
professionals. The Department has to provide the Internet facility for
students. This gives students a chance to explore the subject to the
infinite depth according to their needs & beyond the reference materials
available. Students need to be allotted with time slot for downloading the
reference material for their seminars, project reports, etc., A picture is
worth thousand words... To explain the concepts interactively & in
efficient way the computer laboratory has to be equipped with high
resolution series of LCD projectors. Students are provided with these
equipments to deliver the presentation & seminars of their choice. The
Computer Laboratories must be equipped with the latest technology
where the students are trained by well qualified faculty. Apart from
excellent hardware facilities all the necessary as well as latest software
required for application related to the subject content need to be
provided to the students ranging from shareware LINUX to professional
and enterprise editions of various visual tools, Students are also
provided with the commercial packages that help them to excel in their
field of specialization. Keeping abreast with the changing time the
Institutions have to go in for the Internet facilities any multimedia
systems.

249
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

1. What is a Laboratory?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
2. Write any two uses of Computer Laboratory.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

3. What is the aim of Computer Lab?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

SPECIAL FEATURES OF COM PUTER LABORATORY

LAB must have sufficient number of Pentium 4 or any IBM compatible

servers (Example: LAN server, WinNT 4.0 server, Internet server &
Linux 7.1 server Depending on the number of students at least one node
for every 2 students must be provided in the laboratory. In all the nodes
the needed functionalities must be provided.

Internet: Internet leased line facility is a feature in the LAB. The

Department laboratory provides the Internet Leased Line facility for
students. This gives students a chance to explore the subject to the
infinite depth according to their needs & beyond the reference material
available. Students are allotted for the time slot for downloading the
reference material for their seminars, project reports, etc.,

I/O Devices: The lab must sufficiently consist of the Input and Output
devices. I/O devices include keyboards, mouse of different types,
monitors, light pens, joystick USB drivers, plotters, printers, touch
screens, LCD projectors, scanners, interactive white boards, etc., The
laboratory must necessarily have uninterrupted power supply to ensure
the continuous flow of operations.

250
Software: The laboratory must have the required systems software and
application software. Depending upon the curriculum the software must
be purchased.

Microsoft Office-creates word processing documents, spreadsheets,

databases, and slide presentations. Office XP includes the 2002
versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Access software programs.

Scanning: Learn to scan images and documents into digital form. Use
image editing programs Microsoft Photo Editor and Paint

SETTING A COMPUTER LABORATORY

A Computer laboratory needs to be carefully designed to suit the needs

of the students‘ accessibility, administrative usability and adaptability by
the teaching staff. The infrastructure and the in home equipments should
be abreast to the needs of the stakeholders

Requirements:

Licensing The laboratory should not install any software without

conclusive proof that a valid license agreement exists for the requested
Number of installations. It is the responsibility of the requestor to provide
proof and be responsible for any legal that may arise in connection with
software installation or use

Number of Installations The number of licensed software installations

for any given lab for the duration of an entire quarter must equal the
number of work stations in the entire lab.

Unsupported or Local Software -Installation of Unsupported or local

Software are only for temporary or preview purpose. Consideration is
based on advance notice, academic or immediate purpose of software,
time of academic year coupled with ongoing special projects, staff time
to install and test, appropriate licensure or preview authorization, and
ability of software to function as intended without impacting regular
operation of lab image or security requirements of the lab.

Interference and Systems Conflicts-If after installation, it is

determined that Unsupported or Local Software interferes with the
normal operation or causes negative interaction with Supported
Software, the organization head person (Manager or Principal) reserves
the right to modify or uninstall the software.

1. Software Installations-Software that accompanies a student's

textbook that requires an installation to run (not CD driven) must be

251
installed in the lab by Computer Facilities Manager Students should not
be permitted to install software in any lab on campus.

2. Removal-All software need to be removed at the end of the academic

year unless otherwise specified. It is a good practice to do so, but it is
not done in practice in general.
Procedure

The computer laboratory should follow a procedure in its functions. The

following are a few factors to be born in mind for proper maintenance
1. Requests-Software Installation requests for a complete lab
installation should be made quarterly and one quarter in advance. Any
requirement on hardware equipments must be informed earlier and kept
ready for use before the need arises. Periodical maintenance should be
done and Annual maintenance may be requested after the approval of
the higher authorities.

2. Licenses-All software must be licensed and no pirated version can be

allowed inside the computer laboratory. Additional licenses and
upgrades are treated as new requests and must be done well in
advance.
3. Temporary and Special Preview Software-Temporary or special
preview software requests meeting above required criteria for
consideration and approved by must be convened among the staff in lab
in charge frequently to discuss on the latest software that could be
installed since License and/or preview authorization from the publisher is
required even for temporary installation.

4. Technology driven-The computer laboratory must be well equipped

with the latest technology and trends by incorporating latest hardware
and software needed for the updated curriculum. The number of
computers available in the lab must be sufficient for the students to work
independently and freely.
5. Materials, equipments and stationary The lab must be
supplemented with the table, cupboards, cable, Stabilizers and other
electrical and mechanical devices There must be sufficient storage area
stationary items, records and ledgers for comfortable lab operations

252
 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.
4. Write any two VO Devices to be Present in the Lab.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

5. What kind of Software must be used in the Computer

Laboratory?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. What are the functions in the Laboratory?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ __

LABORATORY MANAGEMENT

The computer laboratory is the store house and practice house of

computer devices, machines and other electronic gadgets to be used
and practice the theory learnt. So, it has to be maintained with utmost
care to facilitate the user. Care must be taken to protect the equipments
and maintain them in good condition. The in charge staff must be aware
of the defects and worn out features, keep track of the lab usage,
maintain the software policies and carefully plan for the usable goods
like stationary and printer ink.
Responsibilities of Computer Facilities Manager/Staff in charge :

The Computer Facilities Support Team will test to insure that the
software is network compatible and load without errors in the lab
environment.

Computer Facilities Manager/staff in charge will provide notification of

denial or approval of the installation of quarter or temporary software.
For each quarter the Computer Facilities Manager will post and update a
list of software that is installed in the laboratory as well the required
hardware specifications and opening system platform.

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Computer Facilities Manger to contact the vendor at the end of each
academic year concerning the retention of the software for the upcoming
year.

Maintenance of Computer Records in the Lab

Following is the table that keeps a record of equipments

S.No Name of the Date of Amount

Equipment Purchase

Responsibilities of Requestor

The computer laboratory must have an in-charge or the requestor who

looks after the purchase and maintenance of the software etc.,

 The Requestor will purchase the software and appropriate numbers

of licenses for each requested software title and provide a copy of
license documentation and software to Computer Facilities Manager
to install.
 Requestor is responsible for providing software that runs on the labs
version of the operating system and testing the software's features to
see if they are working correctly. The Requestor should test the
software well in advance of the date it will be used. Troubleshooting
can take time and Requestor is encouraged to provide a technical
support number from the publisher of the software.
 The Requestor is responsible for informing the authorities on the
requirements for the unsupported software such as multimedia
options, version of Internet browser required, special browser plug-
ins, printer options, etc., as applicable.
 Requestor will be responsible for providing end-user education on
the use of the unsupported and local software.

Responsibilities of Users

Users should not be permitted to install any software on lab computers .

(This includes software that accompanies textbooks) If a problem arises
with an installed piece of software in a lab, users are encouraged to
consult the Lab Assistant on duty or the Computer Facilities Manager.

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Questions on how to use special features of supported software and
local software should be directed back to educators.

Lab Policy Every Institutional laboratory must be equipped with policy to

ensure code of behaviour in the laboratories. Students must be made to
realize the laboratory is a public property to be used by the member of
the Institutional community not only in the present academic year but
also for the future generations of learning.
Guidelines to Use Computer Labs

 Purpose

The document describes the different types of computer facilities

available, defines who may use these facilities, and provides guidelines
for acceptable use. These guidelines are intended to cover information,
which all facilities hold in common. Each facility may supplement the
campus-wide guidelines with individual department or unit procedures or
protocols to meet specific administrative or academic needs.

 Violations of the Guidelines

Disciplinary actions for violating any provisions of these guidelines

unapproved utilities of resources must be governed by the applicable
provision of the Student's code of conduct. Resources covered by these
guidelines include host computer systems, personal computers and
workstations, computer peripherals, communications networks, software,
removable media, and files. The use of these resources is governed by
the Educational authorities. The Head of the Institution may monitor
access to any of these resources in order to ensure security of its
systems and networks and to enforce University policies.

 Monitoring and Inspection of Electronic Records

Electronic records sent, received, or stored on computers owned,

leased, or administered by the Institute is the property of the Institution.
They have the right to monitor and for log all network activity of users
without notice, including all e-mail and Internet communications.
Students and staff whosoever use the lab should have no reasonab le
expectation of privacy in the use of these resources. Some computer
facilities may be designated as open access, while some are specialized
departmental facilities used for classes and, occasionally, function as
open access. Open labs include campus network and Internet
connections, which require a sign-in or identification procedure to ensure
that only currently enrolled students and staff use the facility. Users
should check each individual facility's procedures or protocols for
specific information.

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Users and their Responsibilities

Access to computer labs is limited to currently enrolled staff and

students. Exceptions are made for academic pursuits, and approved
workshops, seminars, or other special events

Users are responsible for ethical use of the computer resources,

including both honesty in their academic pursuits and respect for others
who share these resources. If requested users should be prepared to
sign in and/or may be requested to present a valid ID when they enter a
computing facility.

Guidelines for Students

A. Access to Resources in Computing Facilities

Computers for individual use are assigned on a first-come first-served

basis. Computing and networking resources are limited; therefore, the
first priority should be the fulfilment of academic instructional objectives
for students using the computer facilities. Users may be asked to justify
the academic legitimacy of their activities to lab management. Users
should be aware of Institutional laws governing the distribution and
display of obscene materials Students engaged in non-academic
pursuits may be asked by attendants to relinquish machines for students
who need to do work for their classes.

Some computers may be reserved for specific purposes because of

special features such as an attached plotter or specialized software.
These computers are clearly identified in each facility, and students
needing those resources shall have priority on those machines.
B. Care of Computing Resources

 Malfunctioning equipment should be reported immediately to the

attendant or manager in charge of the facility.
 The consumption of foods and beverages, including bottled water,
must be prohibited in general.
 Computers are configured according to the needs of students and
faculty staff.
 Users must not change hardware or software configuration settings.
 Users who have suggestions for a hardware or software
configuration change should speak to the person who manages the
facility.
 Users are expected to exercise good judgment when submitting
printing tasks and take proper care of the computers, printers and all
other equipment found in the lab.

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C. Reducing Wasteful use of Paper and Printing Supplies

 Users are expected to be conservative in their use of paper and to

exercise discretion when printing documents to prevent waste of
expensive printing materials. Because color cartridges are costly,
users must be prudent when sending print jobs to color printers.
 Users should submit the print command only once to avoid printing
multiple copies of a document. Users should allow adequate time to
ensure a successful print job before re sending a print command.
 Users who need multiple copies of a document must be a
photocopying machine for duplication of documents. Users must use
the "print preview" command before submitting a print job. Blank
pages that appear in the print preview result should be deleted
before the print job is sent.
 Users should make sure they have sent their printing job to the
correct printer. To do this, instead of immediately clicking on the
printer icon, users should click the File command in the main menu
toolbar and then select "Print, ―which will open the Print dialog box
where settings can be checked and adjusted before sending a print
command.
 Users must only print materials of academic relevance or co-
curricular significance.
 Users should notify the lab attendant if the printer has failed to
respond correctly after the first print command. If users have
submitted an incorrect print job, they should notify the lab attendant
so that the attendant can attempt to cancel the job.
 Users should save personal email, web pages and any kind of
academically irrelevant materials to removable media, such as zip,
disks floppy disks, and CD-R or CD-RW disks.
D. Respect for Others Using the Facilities

 Those using the facilities should work quietly. Loud conversations

and disruptive behavior disturb others who are trying to do
academic work.
 Persons who are disruptive in computer lab must be asked to leave
immediately. The lab attendant may summon the lab supervisor or
the faculty advisor if a student refuses to leave.
 Repeated incidents of disruptive or harassing behavior will result in
loss of computer use privileges.
E. Skills Needed to use Computer Facilities

 Campus computer Iabs are primarily self-service facilities. Users

are responsible for learning the skills necessary to use the

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 computer applications. Software documentation and manuals may
be made available to users in some facilities.
 The lab attendant's responsibilities include(a)insuring that users
properly sign in and sign out; (b) troubleshooting hardware, (c)
correcting printer malfunctions; and (d) enforcing the lab guidelines.
In addition to these primary responsibilities, attendants may be able
to provide limited assistance to users based on the attended
knowledge of specific software.

F. Software and data on Computer Lab Facilities

 Only software owned by or licensed to Institution shall reside on

campus computers.
 All applicable copyright laws and licenses must be observed
 No software or "freeware" shall be installed on any Institutional
laboratory's computer without express permission from the
facility manager.

G. Obscene Materials

Prohibition of the distribution and display of obscene materials is a good

practice. No irrelevant material must be circulated among the students.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

7. State any two responsibilities of Lab in charge Staff.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
8. What is the role of the user in Computer Laboratory?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9. State the any two Guide line for Computer Usage.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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 ARRANGING PRACTICAL FOR PUPILS

Since in most of the Institutions the computer laboratories are used by

all the students belonging to various subjects the lab usage timings
should be scheduled according to the availability of computers. The lab
in charge staff usually schedule the timings. The schedule is subjective
according to the teacher in-charge. There may also be many computer
laboratories of which there exists an exclusively meant computer lab for
the computer students.
Laboratory Scheme

The laboratory work is arranged and organized to support the theory

learnt in the class room. At times the classes may be conducted using
computers as a demo class for which the use of laboratory is needed.

The laboratory component of any course may be structured in three

parts:

1. the pre-laboratory work.

2. a series of laboratory exercises and
3. the post-laboratory work.
 The students conduct the pre-laboratory work in their own time,
prior to their scheduled laboratory class. The purpose is to
provide background and theoretical backup to the experiment
that will be conducted that week. The information is supported
by a number of questions designed to test the comprehension of
the student.
 The practical work is conducted in a preferred-hour block (may
be half an hour or one hour depending on the subject concept) in
the laboratory and introduces the students to important practical
techniques as well as providing some experience of the
concepts taught in classroom.
 The post-laboratory work is brief and usually consists of an
analysis of the results obtained in the laboratory or a supporting
problem. This may be conducted in the student's own time.

Following is a model list for lab schedule :

Lab Hours: Lab hours must be arbitrary and must be flexible according
to the student's timings. Sufficient timings must be provided to enhance
the learning and understanding of the concepts learnt in theory class.

259
 S.No Department Daytime After 6pm Sat Sun
Mon-Fri
Mon-Fri

EVALUATION OF PRACTICALS

As the students practice in the laboratory, the learning and practice must
be evaluated. The evaluation is a process organized by the Instructor in
the laboratory and again it is subjective. The instructor can frame the
objectives and propose the learning outcome.
Following is a model to evaluate the practical work.

Name Learning Computer Efficiency Grasp of Steps Rem

of the Objective No. in the in Results ark/
student Operation principles Relic the Evalu
s of work ation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Thus the evaluation can check the ability of the students in practical
work

LET US SUM UP

The Computer Laboratories are equipped with the latest technology

where the students are trained by well-qualified faculty. Apart from
excellent hardware facilities all the necessary as well as latest software
required for application development are provided to the students

260
ranging from shareware LINUX to professional and enterprise editions of
various visual tools. Students are also provided with the commercial
packages that help them to excel in their field of specialisation. Keeping
abreast with the changing time the Institute has to get along with the
latest laboratory equipments featuring to the fullest extreme for student
support.

GLOSSARY

 computer laboratory - Room or space equipped with computers

(networked or not) devoted to pedagogical use in a school
including school libraries
 obscene materials - Obscene materials means material that, to
the average person when applying contemporary standards,
appeals to the prurient interest, which depicts or describes
sexual conduct that, when taken as a whole, lacks serious
literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
 technology driven - Technology-driven is a term that can
describe businesses, mindsets, innovation, or entire economies.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A Computer laboratory is a room or a Building equipped for learning

computer operations, using computers for feeding data and
program and also executes the programs.
2. 1. Practice using computers and 2. Check the results of a program.
3. The principal goal of the Laboratory for Computer Science is to
perform on all aspects of computer science and information
technology which is academic oriented and to achieve societal
impact.
4. Printers and Disks
5. Licensed software only must be used in the lab.
6. 1. Teach the students how to use the computers and other
peripherals.

2. Maintenance of the equipments,

3. Knowledge accessing area from the global scenario.

7. Monitor the machines and Monitor the students.

8. Adhere the rules of the laboratory and the policies of the
organisation.
9. Care for the computer resources and Respect others usages.

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SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Computing, Vijay

Nicole Publishers.
Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation

Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry, New Delhi: Tata McGraw

Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Rajaram, R.(2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering Chennai: Scitech Publications.

Andrew, S. Tanenbeum. (2007). Structured Computer Organisation.

New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVT.Lad.

Singh, Y.K. (2008). Teaching of Computer, New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation.6

Web Resources

 https://psu.pb.unizin.org/ist110/chapter/2-2-computer-networks/

 https://www.theasianschool.net/blog/role-of-computer-in-education/

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_lab

262
BLOCK 4 OBJECTIVES-METHODS AND EVALUATION

INTRODUCTION

This Block consists of four units on "Objectives-Methods and Evaluation"

Unit 13 deals with the aims and objectives of teaching computer science
in schools Also need and importance of computer science is dealt with.
Unit 14 gives an account on the different techniques of teaching. The
different methods of teaching and the advantages of each method are
briefly discussed. Unit 15 exposes the different types of teaching aids
that will help the teacher effectiveness. It also gives an idea on useful
resources for teaching aids. Unit 16 discusses the evaluation process.
The different types of evaluation and their purposes are dealt clearly with
suitable examples.

Unit 13 clearly brings out the aims and purposes of computer edu cation.
The objectives of learning computer science at different level in school
are dealt with the unit brings in light the importance of learning computer
science at school level. It gives in detail the need for introducing
computer science as a subject in Schools. The educational values
derived by learning computer science as a subject are clearly dealt in
the unit.

Unit 14 gives a draft on the different instructional strategies to be

employed in teaching computer science subject. The unit discusses the
teaching techniques in three broad areas and provides the different
methods of teaching and their merits. It includes the latest methods
using World Wide Web and web based learning for effective teaching
learning process. Library based and computer based instructions also
form a part of the unit.
Unit 15 prepares the future teachers as to what type of teaching aids can
be used in teaching. The unit gives the idea of the different types of
audio, video, audio-video aids, Multimedia and mass media approaches.
A clear picture of the instructional aids to be used to enhance teaching
learning process is discussed. It also gives an account on the field visits,
exhibitions and projects to be carried out by the student teachers.

Unit 16 is a guide for the feedback mechanism of the entire teaching of

computer science. The unit deals with the aspects of evaluation.
Different ways of evaluation, and the different types of tests. The unit
also features the qualities of a good test, the standardized tests and the
diagnostic method of testing. It also gives an account on remedial testing
and online testing.

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UNIT 13 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Aims of Teaching Computer Science

Objectives of Teaching Computer Science

Need for Teaching Computer Science

Importance of Computer Science in Higher Secondary Level

Computers for Class Room Purposes

Values of Learning Computer Science

Practical Value
Disciplinary Value

Vocational Value
Aesthetic Value

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Education is man making process. Education only differentiates man

from all other living beings. It is not a simple process to start from one
stage in life and end up in one stage. It is a way of life for civilization.
The term Education is the totality of the experiences teaching, learning,
schooling, and tutoring. Very often the term is associated with
institutional way of processing Schools and Colleges provide formal
education. They aim to provide those skills that are essential for
mankind to live contented. In this unit an elaborate study is provided on
the need and importance of teaching computer science. It gives an
account on the values inculcated by learning computer science.

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 OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge about aims and objectives of teaching

computer science
 acquire knowledge on the need of teaching computer science in
schools
 acquire knowledge about purpose of teaching computer science
in schools
 values of teaching computer science in higher secondary
schools.

AIMS OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

The purpose of computer science teaching in school is to enable student

to grasp the basic knowledge needed for further study of computer
science and the related technology and to understand its application.
Also it should help the learners acquire the skill of practical utility,
develop the capacity to think further and apply those skills is the real life
situations. As the technology makes the world shrunk day by day, it is
essential that the students are made to be aware of the modernization,
along social lives of industry, agriculture, national defence, national and
international affairs No field in the world at present can claim to be free
of technological touch; and with technology, can achieve to any height. A
very recent and vital example the use of technology is in sports the hitch
embedded opening ceremony of the Olympic 2008 at Beijing, china.
Computer science in school subjects should be considered as

1. A body of knowledge
2. An attitude towards life, thinking and growing

3. A tool for the works man

To help the students attain the above qualities, the quantity of the
content, the course subject matter must have certain qualities.

Thurber and Collette have proposed the following criteria for selection of
aims

1. Usefulness : The knowledge gained should be useful to the

pupils in their lives

2. Timeliness : The knowledge given should be concerned with

material objects with which students are
familiar.

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3. Fitness : The knowledge must fit into a sequence that
leads the students to broad objectives to
maturity and background of the students.

4. Appropriateness : The learning should be appropriate to

maturity and background of the students.

5. Practicability : It means that experiences required for the

development of learning should be
possible.

The teaching learning activities provided along these lines enable the
students to acquire the right knowledge and practice it. Acquisition of
knowledge and application of sills make one to be an able person.
Knowledge Skills (appropriate) = Ability.

Here knowledge also involves more complex process of relating and

judging and skills refer to the operational techniques for dealing with
problems.

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

The objectives of teaching computers are basically of 2 folds. Those

students who terminate their studies with schools need to be equipped
with vocational skills in order to help them get a job is one factor. The
other factor is, the learning community which goes for higher education
should be provided with good and strong foundation of computer scienc e
in the school itself. Any amount of computer science courses without the
foresight of the future will be of no use. Hence the aims of teaching
computer science in schools should have those learning activities which
the society immediately needs and also the knowledge that would be
needed for the future development need to be imparted to learners. The
teacher being a facilitator need to inculcate is the learning society, the
scientific temper that which equip them to meet the challenges in their
future.
The objectives of teaching computer science in schools

Objectives are the specific and precise behavioral outcome of teaching a

topic. The main objectives of teaching computer science must ensure
better match between the industry's requirement and outputs of the
education sector emphasizing the quality needs. The teaching of
computers should make phenomenal effects on the learners. is complex
in nature. Hence teacher, the facilitator must imbibe in the students the
initiatives, inquiry, analytic and comprehensive abilities.

266
The teaching of computer science should aim to

 Provide the fundamental knowledge to the students.

 Make the students understand the relevant knowledge and skills
in computer science.
 Develop in them the skill of thinking and analyzing
 Inculcate proficiency in reasoning and synthesizing
 Create interest and scientific attitudes.
 Induce in them the thirst for acquiring knowledge.
 Develop communicative skills and soft skills.
 Identify their emotional intelligence
 Equip them with the skill of using computers.
 Help the students apply the knowledge in learning activities.
 Help the students attain thinking process.
 Make the student associate the knowledge in real time
application.
 Imbibe in the students the skill of acquiring knowledge, create
knowledge and share their expertise
 Dig out the latent talents in the students.
 Make the student skills of initiatives.
 Develop in the students be collaborative, inquiry and coordination
capabilities. Build team spirit
 Train the students understand and identify the problems and
issues direct or indirect and analyze them, code and decode for
the computer processing.
 Help the students attain the skill of problem solving.
 Help them posses the ability for local and global accessing of
information.
 Provide them vocational skills
 Provide self concept, sense of acceptance and sharing qualities
 Inculcate citizenship and love for the society and Nation
 Promote local and global understanding,

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
1. What are the three aspects of Learning Computer Science?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2. Name the factors that decide the Computer Science Learning.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

3. State any two purposes of Teaching Computer Science.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

NEED FOR TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Education is essential for both employment and entrepreneurship" says

Dr. Kalam to a school student's question.-(Readers Digest, November,
2004)

In the global automotive Industry almost all major systems like engines
transmission, power trains, braking systems are controlled through
computers-(Data Quest March 2005).

Indian biotech firms should look at UK a business destination - The

Hindu, April23, 2005) .

Based on the above few of the millions of statements, the Classroom

Instruction in Schools should be given serious attention for its worthiness
and provide the futuristic technology oriented education. The
technological advancement and the Industrial competitions gear
everyone to be active on the wheels of revolutions. As a result,
according to the theory of the survival of the fittest, the fittest person who
is accommodative and adaptive in nature emerges as a successful
person in the midst of accelerating changes, rapidly advancing
technology and sudden thrust to a global scene. The global changes
have its own effect on the Educational Institutions at great extent. The
challenges faced by the education industry in the knowledge era
primarily revolve around.

- providing wider accessibility

- ensuring continuing relevance of course and
- quality assurance

The above challenges are met with confidence only by the use of
computers. The use of computers is inevitable and it has become a
necessary electronic gadget in every individual's life. At that same time
its progress is in geometric proportion. Hence it is essential for the

268
school children to learn about the nature, scope, and use of computers
in the school itself "The approach in the Natural curriculum Framework
developed by NCERT in 2005 emphasis that children should be helped
to construct their knowledge, with the teacher only being a facilitator,
there is a need to develop a number of exhibits with the help of which,
the teacher could promote the spirit of exploration, investigation, and
enquiry - said Mrs.Pratibha Patil, ex-President of India.

Undoubtedly, these qualities can be achieved within the children through

computer in this electronic era.

Shashi Tharoor, a former UN diplomat with a keen insight informs "India

is entering the global employment market place with a self imposed
handicapped of which we are first beginning to become conscious- an
acute shortage of quality institutions of higher education. For far too
long, we have been co-placement about the fact that we have produced,
since the 1960s, the world's second largest pool of trained sent and
engineers‖.

By introducing computer science is the school curriculum, which is also

a foundation for higher education, we can confidently challen ge that the
educational industries le fixed on to the global standards.

"Nanotechnology is knocking at our doors. We should be aware of the

trends of technology and nurture our young minds: said Dr.APJ Abdul
Kalam.

Knowledge acquisition, adaptation, and utility are the prime slogans of

the present learning society. Hence learning computers from the school
is the need of the hour.
Need for Computer Science as a Subject

We have already discussed the use of computers in various Educational

sectors in the 10 unit. As the children complete their school education,
students will choose different areas of specialization. The students need
to learn computer science in school for deriving the fundamental skills
for their future life. As computers are used from petty shops to corporate
and government offices, students ought to learn computer science
Students must be provided with skills which are central instruments for
improving performance of organization across the world, be it
manufacturing service public or private. While knowledge of difference in
performance is an incentive for improvements planning and
improvement will require a lot of efforts and skills. The output of the
school education must help our industries learn, adapt, improve and

269
innovate. Hence computer science needs to be provided as a part of
learning experience.

The 5 basic reasons for computer science courses to be taught at

present are

 Working with finance.

 To use electronic gadgets in all fields
 To be on par with ever increasing societal needs and expectations.
 To become equipped for new business and industries
 To be competent for local and global competitions

The above reasons are obvious and crystal clear for any layman's
understanding But, learning computer science has its own value for
one's life besides its external practicalities

IM PORTANCE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE IN HIGHER

SECONDARY LEVEL

The purpose of education in higher secondary schools is to provide that

kind of atmosphere through which the pupils can acquire the knowledge
of computer science. skills of application and the right attitude which
help the pupils to be useful citizens in the society.

Also teaching of computer science in higher secondary schools should

help the pupils to understand the global functioning of computer science
and act locally to meet their needs. The teaching of computer science
should first help the students for the following factors:
Learning of computer science provides the students to think in
diversified ways and solving any computer related problems. These
attitudes of solving problems should help them develop critical thinking.
They should have the ability to analyze and reason out critical issues to
help themselves and the society.

Pupils should develop the attitude to identify and acquire the right kind
of knowledge and the skill that the society demand in the present era of
technology.

Pupils must be trained to develop scientific attitude to appreciate the

technological advances and adapt it in their life.

They also must be trained to help the society by meaningful

contributions which will make the society and the nation be proud of.

270
Using computers and the related electronic gadgets is not a single man's
effort. Therefore, students need to be trained to work effectively and
collaboratively as a team. Team building and team leading spirit alone
can help a society to have harmony in its functions. Computer science
education provided from the higher secondary schools itself will
undoubtedly inculcate the caring and sharing habits among the pupils.

Solving problems, writing algorithm, codings and decoding are the basic
concepts in learning computers. Hence it makes the pupils involve keen
analytic skills and decision making. These kinds of decision making skills
make the pupils grow into complete personalities who are mature in their
words and deeds. The present intrinsic society needs only such kinds of
intellectual personalities who are matured enough to understand the
society.

Teachers being facilitators can understand strengths and weakness of

the students. Hence when the students are helped to work with
computer related problems, debug and detect the faults, the teachers
can lead them and help the students identify their talents and
weaknesses to fix them into the right work place. Moreover when the
teachers provide their words of the variety of avenues for computer
science and ICT tools, the students get the opportunity to have
awareness, understand the novelty, associate their knowledge and
innovate useful products. The pupils get more insights to bring out their
latent talents and specific skills.

More than an intellectual person, a soft spoken and a person who has
the ability to listen others are always appreciated by both the
intellectuals and the illiterate people. Pupils must develop the attitude of
listening to others' opinion, in spite of their confident authority and of
personal strength. They must have open mindedness to receive
knowledge from the sources, calm enough to the conflicts, analyses the
situations in the light of the evidences and then arrive at a conclusion in
a convincing way gaining the confidence of the opponent. The school
environment must be able to provide such kinds of atmosphere which
help the students develop the above mentioned characters, and the
teacher must help the students think in the right way.

Higher secondary schools are the bridge between the school and the
society. It helps for those who stop their formal education to earn a job
and also serves as a ladder to these who go for higher education. Hence
the teachers must provide that kind of teaching learning experiences
which help the students to explore the world The present global village
warrants those skills to make the pupils to fit in the society and also for a

271
smooth and successful life in which even career the students select. The
LAN, WAN, MAN, Internet, email and forums help the students gain
needed information, and have global understanding.

Students need to be proficient and professional in learning computers.

They must be trained to acquire the principles of electronic devices and
get the dexterity in operations.

Learning by doing method of computer science help the students

understand better and apply them in situations of need. The computer
science teaching in higher secondary provides laboratory facility to
promote vocational skills in the students. Students get the freedom of
learning by hands on training, identify the appropriate electronic devices
for their usage and become skilled users of the systems. This type of
training helps them gain self-confidence and help them handle the
apparatus when demanded.

In such a prosperous situation, to meet the competition, inculcating

vocational need in the higher secondary level itself is the demand of the
era. It is the foremost responsibilities of the higher secondary school
teachers and authorities to provide the needed vocational skills to their
student customers.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below,

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

4. What are the challenges faced by the Present Day's

Educational Systems?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5. Name five basic reasons to Teach Computer Science.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6. State any two purposes of Teaching Computer Science in

Higher secondary Level.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

272
COMPUTERS FOR CLASSROOM PURPOSES

Computer Science learning must equip the students to workout

classroom process should help their independent activities and
collaborative activities in the classroom environment.

E-learning (Electronic Learning)

Besides using computer devices for various purposes the high tech
advancement in computer field must be made aware of and the children
need to develop self learning for the sake of learning in the knowledge
era. Learning through electronic devices is the art of learning today and
it is also called e learning. The term covers a wide set of applications
and processes, such as Web-based learning, computer-based learning,
virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. It includes the delivery of
content via Internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio and videotape,
satellite broadcast (Edusat), interactive TV, CD-ROM, use of LCD
projectors and more. Pupils from the secondary level itself ‗must be
trained to use these technologies. While e-learning and virtual
universities are moving ahead to capture the world to survive, the
Educational institutions have to be alert, creative and constantly
innovative in their processing More over ―teleconferencing" and
"discussion forum" are the fast growing strategies of learning and hence
the classrooms have to be shaped accordingly So learning computers in
the school level itself is a necessity.

Computers for Classroom Instruction

Teacher faced class rooms must be replaced by system faced/based

classroom and must be equipped with the important and popular tools
namely Information Retrieval Tools, Communication Tools, Multimedia
Information Tool, and Information Search tools.

The main application areas for Computers in classroom learning.

 Drill and practice

 Tutorials
 Information retrieval Simulations
 Micro worlds
 Cognitive tools for learning
 Productivity tools
 Communication tools
 Technology-based Training (TBT)

The following interactive techniques should help engage the pupils

 audio and video sessions

273
  instructionally sound animated graphics controlled by the learner
 frequent practice opportunities with and feedback on new
concepts
 demonstration and hands-on experiences in labs based on real
world situations
 assessments that provide immediate feedback on the level of
mastery
 flexible navigation
 personalized courses
 access to additional resources.

Computers-Enhance-Enrich-Emancipate

Computers in classroom instructions will enhance the teacher

capabilities, enrich their cognitive skills and emancipate the tiresome
aspects of traditional methodology throwing challenges to the teaching
community and supply them a sense of satisfaction. Similarly Computers
in classroom make the children get more involvement in learning.
provide simulations in learning to all categories of students. It provides
warming up to the global scenario of education and help the learners to
be ready to achieve their goals.
Computers and Maths Education

Technology assisted maths class motivates the students to learn the

difficult problems in a simplified manner. Computer assisted figures
provide concrete conceptualization and help build the learning
constructively. For example usages of computers make the
understanding of trigonometric figures and the problems involved in a
simplified form. Abstract concepts relating complex situation are better
explained with the help of computers.
Computers and Science Education

Computers employed in science teaching help the students attain a sort

of first hand information. Most difficult concepts can be better explained
using computers in minimum time frame. Multiple task and difficulty in
handling the apparatus, microscopic views and live relay of factual
information are possible only because of computers.From space
technology till the home application of scientific theory can be well
explained with computer simulations and micro worlds.
Computers and Arts Education

Arts subjects are better equipped by the dawn of computers. Instead of

abstract classroom citations, the computerized facts bring the realistic

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approach and hence the students more attention and interest to learn.
Archives maintenance is possible.

Computers and Language Learning

In the techno craft society of today the most realized concept is

communication. Effective communication revolves around the
communication skills and these skills are better achieved by the
computers with utmost clarity, CALL (Computer Aided Language
Learning) packages are designed to promote explicit or implied
language learning objectives and are usually based on the author' s
beliefs about the ways in which students learn languages.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the unit.
7. What is e-Learning?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

8. Name two applications of Computers in Learning.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
9. State any one use of Computers in Maths Learning.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

10. What is CALL?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

VALUES OF LEARNING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Learning computer studies should provide the following values to the

students.

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PRACTICAL VALUE

The practical value of computers in our daily life has no limits. It is quite
impossible to lead our life without the use of fundamental processes of
computer science. The knowledge of computers is essential for the
house wives to prepare their budget cording to their respective income
and expenditure. All of us poor or rich, skilled or unskilled worker,
labourer, shop keeper etc.,, have to make some calculations and so all
need the knowledge of computer science to a certain extent. We may be
able to lead a life without learning how to read and write but can never
get on without knowing how to calculate.
Importance of computer science teaching

So as to avoid confusion and chaos in the present day complex society,

it is essential to develop some system for fixing timing, ratios, prices,
wages, rates, ratios, fares, percentages, interest, exchanges,
commissions, discount, units of length, breadth, area, volumes, etc.,
knowledge of computer science helps in all these world's entire
commercial system.

In Today's life Computer science forms the base of all essential

knowledge and progress in science and technology. It is right to say,
"Computer science is the gate and key of all sciences. Whatever comfort
science has given us that are all due to the use of computer science.
Man cannot pull on without satisfying his needs. Thus computer science
will continue to occupy a prominent place in man's life. In many types of
our practical difficulties, computers come to our help and solve the
difficulties for us. In this complex world passing through scientific and
technological age and rapidly moving towards computer age, the
practical value of computer science is going to be increasingly felt and
recognized.

DISCIPLINARY VALUE

If computer science, had no disciplinary value, its teaching in secondary

schools, will ground on its bread and butter value. Learning computer
programming involves algorithm, flowcharting, coding and decoding of
syntax. In all unless we follow the orders any skilled programmers
program will result fatal.

"Computer science learning is a way to settle in the mind a habit of

reasoning" So computer science when taught properly develops
reasoning and thinking power and discourages memorization. A student

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of computer science apply logic, reasoning and thinking power to take
his decisions and avoids taking decision through his emotion.

The basic characteristics that are needed for training the minds of
people are: (1) simplicity (i) accuracy (1) certainty (iv) originality and (v)
verification (vi) reasoning (vii) power of knowledge (viii) application of
knowledge.
Computer science when expressed in simple language can easily be
understood through computer displays. Thus teacher must proceed from
simple to complex problem. Programming need to be simplified to make
effective solutions to problems. In this way student also become simple
in his expression by practicing this procedure for a sufficient course
school time.

Computer science needs accurate reasoning and judgment while solving

problems. The student must think accurately to arrive at desired result.
In this way, the student learns the value of appreciation of accuracy and
makes it as a principle of life, Using computer the result is either
desirable or not. So there is no possibility of disagreement of on any
case and therefore student develop the habit of being certain about the
work. A student of computer science cannot do well without original
thinking and intelligent reasoning since solution to most of problems is
the result of original thinking. This habit of originality helps the student to
face the daily life problems with confidence.

Since the results in computer science can be easily verified, it develops

the habit of self evaluation, achievement and confidence among the
students. More over computer applications are done for universal
applications after the result being checked and verified for a local
factors. Hence testing and verification are the basic factors to be
practiced by every student and hence they are automatically tuned to
verify and approach any solution of even their life problems. Solution to
any problem using computers can be achieved after careful analysis of
the available data, reason them in the light of the evidences and facts
available, apply the knowledge gained earlier in solving the problem,
synthesis the analysed procedures to arrive at the results. These factors
are better realized by the computer science students and therefore they
become skilled in these factors of knowledge gaining and skills
acquisition.

Thus from above, it is clear that habits of simplicity and clearness,

accuracy, certainly in expression, originality in thinking and verification of
results are formed and strengthened by the study of this subject.

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VOCATIONAL VALUE

Computer Science learnt in schools help the learners to get a job for
their future life. We find the usage of computers in every job opportunity
and therefore if the students are taught computer science as a core
subject which is compulsory, it will get them a job when they finish their
school. Moreover the basic skills attained in the school equip them to
enhance their ability and enrich their job requirements.

"I fear not computers but lack of it" said Issac Asimov. Hence let the
students not wait for the opportunity and then learn computer skills but
equip before the job opportunities knock their doors.

AESHETIC VALUE

The latest facilities that are added in the computer usage is

computerized designs. Earlier designing was based on Kalaidoscope.
Now computer designing has replaced from wall paintings till stencils for
Banners. In all applications a good sense of aestheticism is needed. The
young minds when trained in designing using computers from the school
days will be streamlined and refined in their thinking and exhibiting
valuable pieces of art and shows. CAD (Computer Aided Design) and
CAM (Computer Aided Management/maintenance) etc., are two of the
tools present in the designing fields. Also there are specific software's to
help designing like Dream Weaver, Flash, and Photoshop etc help the
used in designing.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the unit.
11. What are the values Inculcated by Learning Computers?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

12. Give an account on Aesthetic Value.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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LET US SUM UP

"Catch them when they are young". This was the slogan advocated by
late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in sports context. This is applicable in
the field of computer studies also since the process of reasoning the art
of divergent thinking and the skills of convergent thinking to synthesis
factors after analyzing the parts, can be well realized and established in
young minds. The learning of computer science provides practical
values, Disciplinary value, vocational value and Aesthetic values to the
learners in the secondary school stage itself.

GLOSSARIES

 aesthetic value - Aesthetic values are those that relate to

the appearance of an object and the emotions that that object
causes in those who contemplate it.
 aims and objectives - An aim is ―something intended or desired
to be obtained by one‘s efforts‖. On the other hand an objective
is to do with achieving an object, it‘s about actions, ―pertaining to
that whose delineation is known‖.
 e-learning - learning conducted via electronic media, typically on
the internet
 practicability - the quality of being practicable; viability

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The three aspects of learning computer sciences are

 A body of knowledge
 An attitude towards life, thinking and growing
 A tool for the works man
2. Usefulness Timeliness, Fitness, Appropriateness and
Practicability are the factors to decide the objectives.
3. Computer science is taught to train the students in vocational
skills them have global understanding
4. The challenges faced by the educational industries are
I. providing wider accessibility

2.ensuring continuing relevance of

3.quality assurance.

5. The 5 basic reasons for computer science courses to be taught

at present are,

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  Working with finance
 To use electronic gadgets in all fields
 To be on par with ever increasing societal needs and
expectations.
 To become equipped for new business and industries
dimensions
 To be competent for local and global competitions

6. Computer Science is taught at higher secondary level to provide

foundation for higher education and to help them have global
accessing of information.
7. Learning through electronic devices is cleaning

8. The two applications are Tutorials and micro worlds.

9. Usages of computers make the understanding of trigonometric

figures and the problems involved in a simplified form

10. CALL is Computer Aided Language Learning.

11 Practical aesthetic, disciplinary and vocational values are

inculcated by learning

12 Aesthetic sense is the skills in making a presentation or an

environment to be pleasing appreciated by others.
Computerized processing in the individuals computers skills
are exhibited through CAD and CAM

SUGGESTED READINGS
Rao, D.B. (2007). Education for All: The Global consensus APH
Publishing Corporation
Singh, Y.K. (2008). Teaching of Computer Science. New Delhi: APII
Publishing Corporation.
Stella Ramchandani. (2008). Modern Methods and Techniques of
Teaching Dominant Publishers.
Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Computing, Vijay
Nicole Publishers
Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry. New Delhi: Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company Limited
Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication
Engineering Chennai. Scitech Publications.
Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical science. Neel Kanal
Publications, PVT. Ltd.

280
 UNIT 14 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Large Group Strategies

Team Teaching

Lecture Method
Demonstration Method

Lecture cum Demonstration

Inductive Method

Deductive Method
Analytic Method

Synthetic Method
Problem Solving Method

Laboratory Method
Seminar Method

Small Group Strategies

Co-Operative Learning

Group Learning
Debate

Discussion
Individualized Strategies

Library Based Learning

Programmed Learning

Computer Aided Learning (CAL)

Web Based Learning

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

281
INTRODUCTION

All new learning involves transfer of information based on previous

learning. For effective teaching to take place a good method must be
adopted by a teacher. A teacher has many options when choosing a
method to teach. The teacher may write lesson plans of their own,
borrow plans from other teachers, or search online of within books for
lesson plans. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will
need to consider students background knowledge, environment, and
learning goals. There arise different strategies to help the students learn
better. This unit involves the different teaching strategies that will suite
different types of students

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 acquire knowledge in different types of teaching methods

 understand the meaning and importance of every method of
teaching
 identify and apply the relevant method in their teaching.

Teachers know that students learn in different ways but almost all
children will respond well when appreciated. Students have different
ways of absorbing information and demonstrating their knowledge.
Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple learning styles to
help students retain information and strengthen understanding. A variety
of strategies and methods are used to ensure that all students have
equal opportunities to learn.

LARGE GROUP STRATEGIES

As ours is a thickly populated country, class rooms are also thickly

populated. The learner groups are diversified in nature and differ in
learning attitude. Teachers ought to modify their methods of teaching
according to them. Since the present classroom students are different
from the previous set of students teachers have to adopt different
teaching strategies constantly. Let us discuss about a few of such
strategies.

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TEAM TEACHING

In many higher education institutions, the usual pattern of teaching is still

large based on an individual lecturer bearing responsibility for students
in a course mode or unit, possibly supported by part-time staff tutors. At
some levels of learning for example in postgraduate seminars, this
model is replaced by a team teaching approach which involves a
member of lecturers usually between two and five and possibly with non-
teaching professional support staff. In team teaching a group of
teachers, working together, plan, conduct, and evaluate the learning
activities for the same group of students. In practice, team teaching has
many different formats but in general it is a means of organising staff
into groups to enhance teaching. Teams generally comprise staff
members who may represent different areas of subject expertise but
who share the same group of students and a common planning period to
prepare for the teaching. To facilitate this process a common teaching
space is desirable. However, to be effective team teaching requires
much more than just a common meeting time and space.
Benefits of Team Teaching:

For Lecturers, who often work alone, team teaching provides a

supportive environment that overcomes the isolation of working in self-
contained or departmentalized class-rooms. Being exposed to the
subject expertise of colleagues, to open critique, to different styles of
planning and organisation, as well as methods of class presentation,
teachers can develop their approaches to teaching and acquire a greater
depth of understanding of the subject matter of the unit or module.

Team teaching can lead to better student performance in terms of

greater independence and assuming responsibility for learning.
Exposure to views and skills of more than one teacher can develop a
more mature understanding of knowledge. Learning can become more
active and involved. Students could eventually make an input into team
planning. Team teaching aids the professional and interpersonal
dynamics of departments leading to closer integration of staff. Team
teaching makes effective use of existing human resources. Teaching
staff act as role models for discussion and disagreement providing
healthy educational.

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 LECTURE METHOD

The lecture method is a teaching technique and it is a traditional method.

A lecture is oral presentation intended to present information or teach
students about a particular subject. Lectures are used to convey critical
information, history, background, theories and equations. Positive
aspects of lectures are that they are very useful when teaching large
groups and they present factual material in a logical way. Problems are
that the audience is passive and the road of communication is only one
way. It is hard to know how much the students are learning, as well.
Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room and recite
information relevant to the lecture's content. Lecturing is mainly a one-
way method of presentation that does not involve significant audience
participation. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to activity. But
lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating
Lectures are considered as a quick, cheap and efficient way of
introducing large to keep the class under control with the articulation of
the subject matter. Lectures have a significant role outside the
classroom as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include a
lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center on
key note addresses, i.e., lectures.
Advantages of lecture method:

1. A large group of students can be addressed effectively

2. A huge volume of subject matter can be delivered in short span
of time
3. Develops the listening skills and comprehending ability of
students
4. Direct eye contact over the students helps to control the class
5. Note making skill is developed
6. It is the form of high standard and the students are exposed to
such an art of teaching and learning.
7. It is inexpensive.
Disadvantages:

1. The lecturer must be efficient to keep the class under control.

2. As students are passive listeners they are not motivated towards
learning
3. Very often teaching becomes completion of the work and not
student oriented
4. There is no activity in the classroom.
5. At times students get aversion about the subject if the lectures
are not interesting

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 DEM ONSTRATION METHOD

This method of teaching is based on the simple, yet sound principle that
we learn by doing. Students learn physical or mental skills by actually
performing those skills under supervision. An individual learns to write
algorithm by writing code the solution, and to execute the program by
actually performing the procedure. Students also learn mental skills,
such as speed reading and computer operations, by this method. Skills
requiring the use of tools, machines, and equipment are particularly well
suited to this instructional method. Every instructor should recognize the
importance of student performance in the learning process. Early in a
lesson that is to include demonstration and performance, the instructor
should identify the most important learning outcomes like the skills of
typing data and program and to run the program and check the answers
by using sample data, Next, explain and demonstrate the steps involved
in performing the skill being taught. Then, allow students to practice
each step, so they can increase their ability to perform the skill. The
demonstration performance method is widely used in teaching computer
science and it is used during laboratory periods. Since the subject is new
and growing in nature demonstration is effective in knowledge
acquisition and skills exhibition.

LECTURE CUM DEM ONSTRATION

Lecture cum demonstration is the latest method used in the present

educational fields. It is the combination of both lecture and
demonstration eradicating the disadvantages of both the methods
leading to effective learning. The introduction of latest communication
technology LCD projectors, touch screens, interactive while boards and
smart classes help in the way of effective teaching and learning. Unlike
lecture and demonstration as individual methods, this type of using
technology in teaching is fascinating for the teaching learning community
and the outcome is excellent. Besides motivating and sustaining interest
of the students is high when lecture cum demonstration method is used.
It gives room for teacher pupil interaction and promotes learning of high
degree.

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those gives at the

end of the Unit.

1. Define team Teaching.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2 What is the purpose of Team Teaching?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

3. Write any two advantages of lecture Method.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4. What is the Principle of Demonstration?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

INDUCTIVE METHOD

The inductive method, also referred to as the scientific method, is a

process of using observations to develop general principles about a
specific subject. A group of similar specimens, events, or subjects are
first observed and studied, finding from the observations are then used
to make broad statements about the subjects that were mined. These
statements may them become laws of nature or theories, i.e., it works
from observation and leads toward generalizations and theories. This is
also called a "bottom-up‖ approach. Thus inductive reasons starts from
specific observations, lock for patterns, regularities, and formulate
hypothesis that could be worked with and finally end up developing
general theories or drawing conclusion. Using the inductive method, the
teacher presents the students with a specific challenge o problem, such
as an experiment that needs to be interpreted, or a real-world problem
that needs to be solved. The students must then use their base-
knowledge to investigate, test, analyze and come to their own
conclusion or solution. The inductive method, which is commonly

286
interpreted in schools as the scientific method is widely used as a guide
for observation and inquiry based learning. Inductive learning is a
thinking process often applied in writing computer program. The user
need is understood clearly and a tentative solution is made collecting
needed data and analysing the data in the light of the possible and
progressive environment to solve the problem frame the solution in a
logical order leading to a solution, the solution will can be tested with
sample data. When the solution is proved to be correct, then the
procedure for solution is written as a program which could be used as a
universal solution for same kind of problems. Thus 90 % of the
application programs, as tailor made programs are based on inductive
reasoning.

Types of Inductive Teaching and Learning

Inductive teaching methods come in many forms and with many names.
We have already mentioned inquiry-based and discovery learning, and
besides those there are problem-based learning, project-based learning,
case-based learning and just in-time learning.

Inquiry-based le arning Students are presented with challenge which

will require knowledge that has not been completely covered. The
challenge may come in a question that needs a solution, an observation
that needs to explained, a data set that must be analyzed or a
hypothesis that must be tested.
Discovery learning: Students are presented with a challenge and left to
work out the solution on their own Students learn to use trial and error to
analyze and resolve their findings. The instructor may provide limited
feedback. In these situations, this process is referred to as "Guided
Discovery."

Problem-based learning: As the name suggests, the students are

presented with a real-world problem that needs to be solved. Problem-
based learning generally incorporates collaborative learning by placing
the students into teams. Collectively they formulate and evaluate their
various solutions, select the best choice and present their argument for
that solution. In problem-based learning students have not previously
received the necessary background instruction and emphasis is not on a
correct answer but on the investigative process.
Project-based learning: Students are presented with an assignment
that requires their design for a useful product. The final product may be
a formal written or oral presentation of their processes and outcomes
Project-based learning can be assigned to individuals or teams. Unlike

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problem-based learning this style of inductive learning provides the
student with the necessary background knowledge and is focused more
on the solution.

Case-base learning: Students are presented with real-life scenarios, or

cases, in which they hypothetically assume various roles. The cases
tend to be very well structured filled with elaborate details to incorporate
many of the variables real-life problems contain. Students learn to apply
material that has already been covered in class. Case-based learning
can be assigned to individual students or to team. Student have shown
that case-based instruction significantly improves dent retention,
reasoning and problem-solving skills, and higher-order skills on Bloom's
taxonomy
Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT): Students and presented with conceptual
questions at the beginning of class. These questions are usually done in
an electric or web based mode and so they can be accessed
immediately. The teacher then uses the findings of that exam to adjust
the lesson and address misconception to the student may have about
the subject content. This method is classified as inductive because the
students are being asked questions about material they have not yet
studied. This method is used primarily in higher education Most
researches point that the inductive method is an effective way to:
Understand how logical conclusions are dawn.
Apply small, concrete ideas to larger, abstract concepts.

Transfer conclusions and governing principles to newly encountered

information.
Develop problem-solving skills. However, research suggests that
inductive reasoning is not an effective means for the learning,
development, or application of specific rules to small amounts of data or
problems. Instead, deductive methods are more appropriate.

DEDUCTIVE METHOD

Deductive methods involve beginning with a general concept or given

rule and moving on to a more specific conclusion Deductive reasoning
is the process of reaching a conclusion that is guaranteed to follow, if the
evidence provided is true and the reasoning used to reach the
conclusion is correct. The conclusion also must be based only on the
evidence previously provided; it cannot contain new information about
the subject matter. Deductive reasoning was first described by the

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ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle. Deductive reasoning
works from the "general to the specific". This is also called a "top-down
approach. The deductive reasoning works as follows think of a theory
about a problem or topic and then narrow it down to specific hypothesis
(hypothesis is a tentative solution that can be tested). Narrow down
further if we would like to collect observations for hypothesis In
conclusion, when we use deduction we reason from general principles to
specific cases, as in applying a mathematical theorem to a particular
problem or in citing a law or physics to predict the outcome of an
experiment. In computer programming it is nothing but using programs
to solve a problem. The program which is written for a universal problem
is applied in a specific case, test the program using sample data for the
particular usage. Very often computer programs are derived using a
general theory or rule and then applied to a specific case.

Properties of Deductive Method

In a valid deductive argument, all of the content of the conclusion is pre

at least implicitly, in the premises. If the premises are true, the
conclusion must be true. Valid deduction is necessarily math preserving.
If new premises are added to a valid deductive argument the argument
remains valid. Deductive validity is an all-or-nothing matter; validity does
not come in degrees. An argument is totally valid, or it is invalid.
Inductive and deductive methods of teaching-learning help the process
of thinking. The following gives a clear idea of how both the methods
progress.
Deductive approach: General rule → Specific examples → Practice
Inductive approach: Specific examples → Practice → General rule.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.

5. Inductive Method is from _ _ _to_ _ _ _ _

6. Deductive Method is from _ _ _ to_ ________

7. Inductive Method helps to Understand how____ __

conclusions are drawn.

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 ANALYTIC METHOD

Analytic is a Greek word which means ―the ability to analyze" or "division

into elements or principles‖. Analytic methods help in the process of
inquiry and progressing process of thinking. This method of analysing
the existing environment or system is also an act of fact finding and
reasoning the existence. This attitude is very much needed for any
learner to acquire and arrive at the factual information about the
knowledge. Since knowledge is power attaining the correct knowledge is
more important. The analysing ability helps the learner not only to arrive
at the correct information but also to develop in line with and provide it
for the society. By way of analysis, the mind moves from an abstract or
immediate representation, the "imagined concrete‖, to abstract
universality. Any learning issue or situation is divided into its
components or divisions of make, tested for its worthiness and
concluded as concrete concept. This technique of analysing and arriving
at conclusion helps in the process of computer programming.

When the user wants an application of computer, the user environment

needs to be analysed and studied so as to understand the existing facts
and facilities. Having understood the environment the specific needs has
to be analysed and checked if both are matching. The analytical study
helps to formulate modular solutions by dividing the problem sections.
The modules then form the real solution. Thus the analytical way of facts
finding and solutions is the fundamental process in computer
programming.

SYNTHETIC METHOD

Synthetic method is that forms which proceeds from parts to wholes.

This method helps the teacher to arrange the facts mom its origin and
then proceed to the generalized rules. This is similar to the computer
programming where a solution is designed for one particular application
and generalizing it for the universal purposes. Here greater skills are
needed to study the individual environment and expanding it for the
universal application. The students too are exposed to the actual
environment where computers are used in real time application. Most of
the applications software are based on this techniques of synthetic
method. The Structured and modular programming are based on
synthetic method.

The thinking skill needed is the convergent ways of putting all the
evidences into practice arrive at a meaningful result. Any skilled way of

290
 reasoning the facts, analyzing the factors and collecting all probable
facts and solutions will be meaningless if there is no proper synthesize
of the factors. It is an art to put things in a nutshell, to be appealing and
to be appreciated. Synthesize method help the learners to attain such
kind of skills to arrive at the results by drawing positive factors.

Although the synthetic method attains to the "self-related

determinateness‖ of a concrete whole, this form of cognition is an
external one at times. Synthetic method presupposes analytic cognition,
and therefore empirical universality as a starting point. The necessity
that it comprehends is an abstract one. Synthesis is the process in which
we begin from principles and proceed to build up theorems and
problems, while analysis is the process in which we begin with a given
conclusion or proposed problem and sock the principles by which we
may demonstrate the conclusion or solve the problem.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the unit.
8. Analytic Method is _ ___________ into Parts

9 Synthetic Method is ____________ the Parts

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. What is Synthesis?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _

PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

Problem solving is the process of thinking. Considered the most complex

of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-
order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more
routine or fundamental skills. It occurs when a person or an organization
or an environment does not know how to proceed from a given state so
a desired goal state. There are many approaches to problem solving,
depending on the nature of the problem and the people involved in the

291
problem. The more traditional and rational approach used is thru
clarifying description of the problem, analyzing causes, identifying
alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing it,
and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not.

Problem Solving is nothing but bridging the gap between the existing
facts and the desired result. The efficiency in problem solving is how
skilfully the bridge is designed. Only when the beginning and the
process is right the result will be correct. The right procedure is the art of
problem solving: So problem solving cannot be learnt but must be
practiced. Problem solving is the real feel of finding the means of a new
issue which has not existed before. Any problem that has a precedent is
not considered a problem but a simple act of recalling . Problem solving
is a process that is unique and demanding an ample time, skill and
energy to work together.

Precisely it follows 5 steps to arrive at the required result for solving a

problem in computer field.

1. Study the problem repeatedly till the problem is understood

clearly.
2. Analyse the evidences to find a solution
3. Formulate solutions in the light of the data available.
4. Select the best fitting solution and Test the solution with sample
data.
5. Implement the solution.

As the 5 stages are practised in problem solving, the students

automatically develop the reasoning ability and arrive at the skills in
divergent and divergent thinking

LABORATORY METHOD

One of the vital methods of teaching computer science for the present
students is using laboratory method. It helps the teacher to teach
confidently and the method drives and controls the teaching technology.
Very few concepts in computer science can be taught outside computer
laboratory. Whether teaching hardware or software teaching is simplified
and made effective when students are taught with actual equipments in
the laboratory. It gives them vivid knowledge and provide them
confidence to further their learning. It helps the students to get their
knowledge reinforced, rectifies their difficulty in learning and of all
stimulates further learning. Following are the benefits of Laboratory
methods of teaching:

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 It saves time. Students can work either together or independently,
either way contributing to the success of the learning outcome.
 Develops technical skills.
 Allows for interactions with students outside their class, school, city,
cane and even country using latest technological tools.
 Prepares young students for upper grades and the technology fools
they will be encountering there
 Share ideas through internet.
 Increases student motivation.
 Encourages different perspectives views
 Develops higher level, critical thinking skills and different approaches
using technology.
 Encourages student responsibility for learning
 Establishes a sense of technology based learning community.
 Creates a more positive attitude about learning
 Promotes innovation in teaching and classroom techniques.
 Enhances self management skills.
 Develops capacity building and practice
 Common skills which often require a great deal of practice can be
developed through laboratory method.

14.3.11 SEM INAR METHOD

The word seminar is derived from the Latin word seminarium, meaning
"seed plot‖. Seminar is a form of academic instruction. It is a conference
of specialists for advanced study or research under the guidance of an
expert. Seminar provide platform for sharing expertise on the same
concepts in different dimension in detail. It has the function of bringing
together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on
some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to
actively participate. This is often accomplished through ongoing Socratic
dialogues with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal
presentation of research. Normally, participants must not be beginners in
the field under discussion. The idea behind the seminar system is to
familiarize students more extensively with the methodology of their
chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the
practical problems that always crop up during research work. It is
essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions
can be raised and debates conducted. It is relatively informal, at least
compared to the lecture system of academic instruction Increasingly, the
term seminar is used to describe a commercial event where delegates
are given information and instruction in a subject such as property

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investing, other types of investing, internet marketing, self improvement
or a wide range of topics, by experts in that field.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the unit.

11. Mention any two skills developed through Problem Solving

Method.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

12. Mention the five steps in Problem Solving.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
13. What is Seminar?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

SM ALL GROUP STRATEGIES

Besides thickly populated class room there are class rooms with special
needs and with specific objective Teacher need to be equipped with
those skills that would help them effect the small group strategies (SGS).
The following are the skills gained by using the SGS

Skills Aspects

Thinking Reasoning, speculating, evaluating, analysing

decision-making and problem-solving

Observations, experiences, and feelings

Sharing

Small groups are not ideal for distributing information, but they are
helpful for students to develop their understanding of concepts and to
acquire or improve strategies and approaches to problem. To advise

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higher order thinking and learning activities promoted by small group
teaching, it is helpful for the student to engage in meaningful
communication directed towards a goal or set of goals. These higher
order thinking skills are the chief objective of small group sessions.
Guidelines for Small Group Teaching

Keep the learning process moving. While facilitating learning activity

follow apropriate sequence. Guide students to do their own reasoning
and help them their current information at every stage of the learning
process.

Investigate students' knowledge . Ask questions until students have

brought out all they know, which often is more than they realize. Why?
What do you mean? What does that mean? Why did you say that? How
do you know that is true?

Avoid expressing an opinion concerning the correctness or quality

of any Students’ comments or contributions. Even saying "that's a
good question" may indicate that any questions not followed by that
statement are "bad questions"

Do not give them choices to find the knowledge elsewhere . This will
make them loose self guidance and will make them follow the views of
the teacher.

Ensure the contributions of every student. Decisions should be a

group process just the decisions by the most self-assured and
outspoken students of the group.

Encourage and guide every student to contribute in the discussion .

Do whatever is necessary to get the students to talk, discuss, and argue
amongst them.What do you think?

Make the discussion questions are apt. Help the students to discuss
in a simple manner, not challenging or arguing roughly but politely with
concrete facts. When the behavior of the group or an individual in the
group begins to adversely affect the pup process, the group should
address their own problem.

Continually monitor the progress of each student in the group .

Watch and obtain assistance for any students with learning difficulties in
reasoning, comprehension, verbal expression, and information retrieval
and organization.

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 CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

Sometimes called small-group learning is an instructional strategy in

which small groups of students work together on a common task. The
task can be as simple as solving a multi-step problem together, or as
complex as developing a design for a new kind of product. In some
cases, each group member is individually accountable part of the task; in
other cases, group members work together without formal role
assignments.

According to David Johnson and Roger Johnson, there are five basic
elements that allow successful small-group learning:

 Positive interdependence: Students feel responsible for their own

and the one another, the group learning:
 Face-to-face interaction: Students environment encourages
discussion and eye contact.
 Individual and group accountability: Each student is responsible
for doing their part; the group accountable for meeting its goal.
 Group behaviors: Group members gain direct instruction in the
interpersonal, social, and collaborative skills needed to work with
others occurs.
 Group processing Group members analyze their own and the
group's ability to work together.

GROUP LEARNING

Group learning is the desired learning strategy in this present era of

information interchange. In computer Science, learning and doing by
group work is very much demanded and appreciated. It refers to a group
of people who share common values and beliefs, are actively engaged
in learning together from each other. These kinds of learning become
common mode of learning in today's learning culture. Very often this
kind of learning is encouraged and practiced as pedagogical learning in
higher education. This idea was evolved from community learning and
McMillan and Chavis, the community psychologists categorize four
factors form learning. They are membership, influence, satisfying
individual needed sharing of events and views. The group learning first
involves becoming a member of the group the group which is loyal to its
members who work and help each other; members of the group can
perform intellectual and emotional activities that can influence learning.
Besides, a learning community gives chance to its participants to most
particular needs by expressing personal opinion share their views and

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personal experiences for the pleasure of sharing or for learning
information. Many of the colleges and universities have started to
encourage this kind of caning its students now a day. This kind of
institutional group learning involves sharing and integration of academic
content with daily interactions among student, faculty, and staff during
the academic environment as well as off the institutional timing.

DEBATE

Debate is a formal method of interactive and position representational

argument to arrive at the positive and negative or pro and cons of an
issue that is dealt with. Debate is a broader form of argument than
logical ones which only examine the consistency from axiom and factual
argument. Though logical consistency, factual accuracy as well as some
emotional appeal to audience are important elements of the art of
persuasion, in debating, one side often prevails over the other side by
presenting superior "content" and or framework of the issue, which is far
more subtle and strategic. The major goal of the study of debate as a
method is to develop one‘s ability to play from either position with equal
use. To inexperienced debaters, some prepositions appear easier to
defend or to destroy; to experienced debaters, any proposition can be
defended or destroyed after the same amount of preparation time,
usually quite short. Competitive Debate is an organized activity with
teams competing at the local, national, and international level. It is
practised in school make the students have oratorical fluency;
comprehend ideas and immediate reflection on opponents view. It is a
developmental process of thinking perception of and synthesizing of
one‘s views.

Examples of debate titles are computerisation is a boon or bane?

Computer replaces the teacher or not?

DISCUSSION

A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic object concept or

experience. All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and
share their questions and ideas is small and whole class settings.
Teachers who encourage and accept students‘ questions and comments
without judgment and clarify understandings by sing difficult terms and
stimulate the exchange of ideas.

Its purpose is,

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1. to help students make sense of the world
2. to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall
3. to provide opportunities for students
4. to clarify and expand their ideas and those of others
5. to promote positive group interaction and conversation to
demonstrate questioning techniques.

INDIVIDUALIZED STRATEGIES

Individual strategies are short-term actions focused on changing

individual behavior while environmental strategies involve longer-term,
potentially permanent changes have a broader reach the most effective
prevention plans will use both environmental and individual substance
misconception prevention strategies Individualized instruction is a
method of instruction in which content, instructional materials
instructional technique and media, and frequency and pace of learning
are based upon the abilities and interests of each individual student.
Individualized instruction is like direct instruction, which also places
greater reliance upon carefully prepared instructional materials and
explicitly prepared sequences. Individualized instruction is
recommended only for the slow learners to cater to their needs in which
the student should build his or her learning and knowledge.
Individualized Instruction, however, presumes that the students lack the
basic knowledge and skills and designed accordingly. Since the
programme is designed for every individual it is expensive and time
consuming in preparing the lessons.

LIBRARY BASED LEARNING

A library is a collection of information, sources, resources, and services,

and the structure in which it is housed: it is organized for use and
maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the
more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books. "Reading makes
a complete man". Hence libraries make a complete man/woman.
Libraries are meant to help students and people to collect facts,
information and ideas from books on varied categories written by various
authors. A good library provides books on all kinds of knowledge that is
expected by its readers Libraries help the students to gain the
information that are needed for their academic work as well their life time
benefits.

Following are a few types of libraries:

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Academic Libraries -These libraries are located on the campuses of
colleges and universities and serve primarily the students and faculty of
that and other academic institutions. Some academic libraries, especially
those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the general
public in whole or in part.

Public libraries or Public Lending Libraries-These libraries provide

service to the general public and make at least some of their books
available for borrowing, so that readers may use them at home over a
period of days or weeks. Typically, libraries issue library cards to
community members wishing to borrow books. Many public libraries also
serve as community organizations that provide free services and events
to the public.

Research Libraries -These libraries are intended for supporting

scholarly research, and therefore maintain permanent collections and
attempt to provide access to all necessary material Research libraries
are most often academic and national libraries, but many large special
libraries have research libraries within their special field and a very few
of the largest public libraries also serve as research libraries.

School Libraries - Most public and private primary and secondary

schools have libraries designed to support the school's curriculum.
Special Libraries All other libraries fall into this category. Many private
businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, museums,
research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and
agencies, maintain their own libraries for the use of their employees in
doing specialized research related to their work. Special libraries may or
may not be accessible to some identified part of the general public.
Branches of a large academic or research libraries dealing with
particular subjects are also usually called "special libraries": they are
generally associated with one or more academic departments. Special
libraries are distinguished from special collections which are branches or
parts of a library intended for rare books, manuscripts, and similar
material.

PROGRAMM ED LEARNING

Programmed instruction is the name of the technology invented by the

behaviorist B.F Skinner to automate teaching and learning. It consists of
self-teaching with the aid of a textbook or teaching aid that presents
subject material structured in a logical sequence. Programmed
instruction allows students to answer questions about a unit of study at

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their own rate, checking their own answers and advancing only after
answering correctly. After each step, they are presented with a question
to test their comprehension, then are immediately shown the correct
answer or given additional information. It is suggested learning has
occurred when a specific response is elicited by specific situation or
stimulus with a high degree of probability. The more likely and
predictable the response, the more efficient the learning has been....
These attempts to shape human behaviour by presenting a gradual
progression of small units of information and related tasks to the learner.
At each stage the learner must actively participate by performing the set
task. He is then immediately supplied with feedback in the form of
correct answer" There are two basic types of programming are used
linear, or straight-line programming, and branching programming Linear
programming immediately reinforces student responses that are correct.
Each "bit of information is presented in a "frame," and a student who has
made a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students work
through the same sequence. In branching programming, the student
who responds incorrectly will either be returned to the original frame, or
routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency
indicated by the wrong choice. This process is repeated at each step
throughout the program, and a student may be exposed to differing
amounts of material depending upon errors made.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit.
14. How does small group learning help the Students?
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
15. Mention any two Skills Developed through Cooperative
Learning.
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
16. What is meant by Individual Strategy?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
17. How de discussions help the Students?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

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 COMPUTER AIDED LEARNING (CAL)

Based on the Skinner's theory, when the teaching machines were

employed as teaching device, computer played a predominant role and
the learning was named Computer Aided learning. The term Computer
Assisted Learning (CAL) covers a range of computer based packages,
which aims to provide interactive instruction usually in a specific subject
area, and many predate the Internet. These can range from
sophisticated and expensive commercial packages to applications
developed projects in other educational institutions or national initiatives
to simple solutions developed by individuals with no funding or support
to tackle a very local problem. The amount of time and money invested
in development is high and partly because of the very subject specific
nature of the education market as well as the much personalised nature
of the teaching process.

WEB BASED LEARNING

The ever increasing usage of computers has geared the wheels of the
educational institution and one of the learning strategies become web
based learning. Web based learning revolves around the age of World
Wide Web through internet accessing. As a result, learning takes place
within and off the educational institution premises. A vast knowledge is
accessed and the learning horizons are unimaginable. Access is
available anytime, anywhere, around the globe. Students always have
access to a potentially raining and information whether they are working
from home, in the office, or from a hotel room. As cellular modems
become more popular, students will even be able to access training in a
place that doesn't have a traditional phone line or network connection.

Almost any computer today equipped with a modem and free browser
software can access the Internet or a private Intranet. The cost of setup
is relatively low. Student tracking is made easy. Because students
complete their training while they are connected to the network, it is easy
to implement powerful student-tracking systems. Unlike with CD-ROMs
that require students to print reports or save scores disk WBT enables
the data to be automatically tracked on the server-computer. This
Information can be as simple as who has accessed the courseware?
What are their assessment scores? To detailed information including
how they answered individual test question? And how much time they
spent in each module? Possible ―learning object‖ architecture supports
on demanded, personalized learning. With CDROM training, students
have access only to the information that can be held by ne CD-ROM.

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The instructional design for this type of delivery, therefore, has been to
de entire modules and distinct lessons. But with WBT, there is virtually
no storage imitation and content can be held on one or more servers.
The best WBT in designed so that content is "chunked" into discrete
knowledge objects to provide greater flexibility. Students can access
these objects through predefined learning pots, skill assessments to
generate personal study plans, or employ search engines to find exact
topics. Content is easily updated. This is perhaps the single biggest
benefit o WBT. In today's fast-paced business environment, training
programs frequently change. With CD-ROM and other forms of training,
the media must be reduplicated and distributed again to all the students.
With WBT it is a simple matter of copying the updated files from a local
developer's computer onto the server-computer. The nest time students
connect to the Web page for training, they will automatically have be
latest version.

Limitations of Web-based learning:

There are only two real disadvantages to WBT, and both will be
overcome in the next five to ten years as high bandwidth network
connections become at common a telephones. The first drawback, when
compared to live instruction, is the lack of human contact, which greatly
impacts learning, WBT is better than CD-ROM learning in this regard.
Students can use their Web connection to e-mail other students, post
comments on message boards, or use chat rooms and videoconference
links to communicate live. While this type of interaction is helpful, and an
improvement over CD-ROM learning, it still doesn't have the impact of a
live workshop. With higher speed connections and improved
conferencing software, one day students around the world will be able to
communicate in real time with each other through full screen video.

The second major drawback is the lack of multimedia in many WBT

programs. The use of audio and video are critical to creating, compelling
metaphors, realistic job simulations and accommodating different
learning styles. Full multimedia delivered over corporate Intranets is
possible, and many companies are doing it. But in most cases, even if
students have a high-bandwidth Intranet connection, corporate
information technology departments don't want large media files used
because it slows down the entire network. The result is that most WBT
pograms are will comprised of text and graphics alone. Using Web
based training, like all other delivery media, has advantages and
disadvantages Trainers and designer must carefully weigh these against
the profiles of other options on a case-by-case basis.

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
18. Mention any two Uses of CAL.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

19. How does World Wide Web help the Students?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
20. What are the benefits from Web Learning for the Teachers?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

LET US SUM UP

Teaching methods plays dual role in making the students acquire the
conceptual knowledge as well as to attain the process of thinking. The
different methods of teaching satisfy specific roles of teaching with all its
advantages and limitations. The methods help the preschool teachers to
attain perfection in their profession as well to professional knowledge
effectively. Also a good deal of individual methods provided in the right
context and right spirit will enlighten the learning atmospheres inspiring
the students in the right process of thinking.

GLOSSARY

 Instructional methods - Methods are used by teachers to create

learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in
which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson .

 Problem solving method - Problem-solving method aims

at presenting the knowledge to be learnt in the form of a problem.
It begins with a problematic situation and consists of continuous,
meaningful, well-integrated activity.

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  Team teaching method - A method of classroom instruction in
which several teachers combine their individual subjects into one
course which they teach as a team to a single group of students.
 Web based learning - Web-based learning consists of instruction
programs using attributes and resources of the Web to create a
meaningful learning and interactive environment.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Team teaching is two or more number of lecturers teaching to

the same group of students.
2. The purpose of team teaching is to make the students good
knowledge resources from many experts.
3. A large group of students can be addressed effectively and,
A huge volume of subject matter can be delivered in short
span of time.
4. Learning doing
5. Inductive method is from particular to general concepts.
6. Deductive method is from general rule to particular facts.
7. Inductive method helps to understand how logical
conclusions are drawn.
8. Analytical method is dividing the whole into parts.
9. Synthetic method is to build up the parts.
10. Synthesis is the convergent way of organizing the parts to
arrive at a result.
11. Analyzing ability and synthesizing capability
12. The 5 stops in problem solving are
 Study the problem repeatedly till the problem is
understood clearly.
 Analyze the evidences to find a solution
 Formulate solutions in the light of the data available.
 Select the best fitting solution and Test the solution with
sample data Implement the solution.

13. Seminar is a conference of specialists for advanced study or

research under the guidance of an expert.

14. Small group learning is helpful for students to develop their

understanding of concepts and to acquire or improve
strategies and approaches to problems.

15. Positive interdependence and group behavior are the two

skills developed through cooperative learning.

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 16. Individual strategies are short-term actions focused on changing
individual Behavior.

17. Discussion helps the students to be stimulated by sharing and

expanding their ideas, and to promote positive group interaction.
18. CAT helps to develop learning at any time and in any place.

19. Students learning take place with in and off the educational institution
premises a vast knowledge is accessed and the learning horizons
are unimaginable.

20. Web acts as knowledge resources and the teachers can access
latest information for effective class mom teaching. It helps the
teachers to share their expertise

SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon. Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Computing Vijay

Nicole Publishers.

Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Raman, K.V. (2007). Computers in Chemistry, New Delhi: Tata McGraw

Hill Publishing Company Limited.

Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communicativa

Engineering Chennai. Scitech. Publications.

Andrew, S. Tanenbaum. (2007). Structured Computer Organisation New

Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PVT. Ltd.

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical Science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVT.Lud.

Singh, Y.K. (2008). Teaching of Computer. New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation.

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UNIT 15 AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

What are Audio Visual Aids?

Dale's Cone of Experience

Types of Audio Visual Aids

Audio Aids

Radio
Tape Recorder

15.5.1.3 Video Aids

Human Voice

15.3.2.1 Slides
Film Strip

Micro film and Micro fide

Over Head Projector

Computers
Audio-Visual Aids

Television
Computer Multimedia

Improvised Aids for Teaching

Mass Media

Mass Media Types and uses

Library

Exhibitions
Field Visits

Projects
Computer Science ClubLet Us

Sum Up
Glossary

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 Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Learning and teaching is the concern of the trained teacher. But learning
is a complete process. It can however be defined as a change in
disposition: a relatively permanent change in behaviour over time and
this is brought about by experience. Learning can occur as a result of
newly acquired skill, knowledge, perception, facts, principles, new
information at hand, etc., Learning can be reinforced with learning aids
of different variety because they stimulate, motivate as well as arrest
learner's attention for a while during the instructional process. This unit
discusses the teaching learning aids that could help the students learn
better.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to,

 acquire knowledge about the audio visual aids

 understand the need and importance of AV aids in teaching
 identify and apply the relevant aid for their teaching
 use of mass media in teaching computer science,

WHAT ARE AUDIO VISUAL AIDS?

Due to varied nature of the learners, teachers have to incorporate

certain practices that will motivate the students to learn better. Learners
learn better when they are stimulated by their motor sensory organs.
These are possible when the teachers use teaching aids to support their
teaching. Teaching aids are those devices that help the teacher to teach
effectively in a class room. Simple aids from chart and Black board till
the LCD projectors constitute the teaching aids. Every aid has its own
implications and help the teaching learning process to be effective in
general. In specific conditions like making an individual student learn
better or to support the lecture for a big audience with necessary hints
for understanding will be assisted by relevant teaching and projective
tools. Depending upon the learner's attitude and the concept to be learnt
and depending on the objectives to be achieved, certain specific
strategies need to be applied. Projects and field visits are such kinds of

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purposeful approaches for helping the students gain the first hand
information. Edgar Dale has categorized these aids and has framed
them as a cone depicting the effect and usage of each category. The
audio-visual aids aim to do the following things.

 To explain the logical relationship of those materials to the

learning process.
 To emphasize the need for their integration with some of the
more traditional instructional materials used in the schools.
The tem audio-visual methods and materials is difficult all teaching
materials and experiences involves and "audio" or "visual factor‖ or both.
The dictionary of education defines visual education as all that appeal
directly to the sense of sight.

Learning aids are instructional materials and devices through which

teaching and laming are done in schools. Examples of learning aids
include visual aids, audio visual aids, real object and many others. The
visual aids are designed materials that may be locally made or
commercially produced. They come in form of wall-charts illustrated
pictures, pictorial materials and other two dimensional objects. There are
also audio-visual aids. These are teaching machines like radio,
television, and all sons of projectors with sound attributes. It is
interesting to note that a large percentage of trained teachers and those
undergoing professional training courses can teach with some of the
learning aids.They do so consciously because they know that the uses
have positive effect on learning outcomes. They also claim that learning
aids reduce their talk and chalk method.

Every classroom needs a wide variety of Audio Visual equipment and

supplies. Edgar Dale's Audiovisual Methods in Teaching provides some
useful ideas aboutthe ways in which people learn with their senses.

DALE'S CONE OF EXPERIENCE

The Cone of Experience is a visual analogy for the variety of ways in

which human beings gain knowledge-from the most direct and concrete
at the base to the most abstract and symbolic at the top. Direct
purposeful learning is the concrete form of learning where the learners
are taken for first hand information. Self experience make learning more
profitable as the learners experience the learning by themselves.
Dramatised concepts reaches the learners fast and make retention for a
long period Field trips and exhibits give firsthand information and the
learning is made concrete. Television and Projected pictures are yet

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 another form of learning where students are exposed in person. Visual
symbols and verbal symbols are now covered by the ICT and multimedia
simulation which form a very strong arena for learning.

Verbal
Symbols

Visual Symbols

Recordings - Radio Still

pictures

Motion Pictues

Television

Exhibits

Field Trips

Demonstrations

Dramatized Experiments

Contrived Experiences

Direct,Purposeful Experiences

Fig: 15.1 Dale's Cone of Experience

The conical shape emphasizes the real idea that learning often begins
with the concrete and moves to the abstract, and at earning Theory,
Psychology and the Senses for solid foundations of direct experience
are necessary for abstractions to be meaningful to the learner. ‗If we
want to learn something completely new.... where we have no working
model, talking and reading is not enough. To learn something new,
experience and action are necessary to build the model‘. This is the
great strength-providing opportunities for learning from original objects,
in accordance with Tilden's definition of interpretation. ―The real
experiences that we offer, of objects, of buildings, of sites and of people,
are essential to learning".

TYPES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

As observed earlier there are different audio and visual aids to help the
teaching learning communities to achieve their objectives. Print media,
including photographs reproductions of pictures, drawing, mural,
cartoons, and other print materials are valuable supplemental aids in

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teaching and learning. It is said that a picture speaks a thousand words.
Charts, diagrams, and graphs are also in this category. Many of these
items are suitable for long-term use on bulletin boards and in briefing
areas. Pictures drawings, and photographs are especially effective
because they provide common visual imaginary for both instructors and
students. In addition, they also provide details necessary for visual
recognition of important subject material. In many cases, this type of
supplemental training media may be reproduced in a mat format for
projection on a screen or other clear surface.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which gives
information in tabular form. There are several types of charts which can
be used in presenting data such as the pie chart, the flow chart, and the
organizational chart, among others. The type of chart selected for use
depends largely on the type of information the instructor wants to
convey. An important factor is the chart's format. Since charts may
consist of a series of single sheets or be tied together in a flip -chart
format with several pages, the location and handling of them should be
planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes

comparisons. The most common types are the line graph and the bar
graph. The selection of a graph for use in any given situation depends
upon the type of information the instructor wants to convey. Chart s,
diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show relationships,
chronological changes distributions, components, and flow. They are to
construct and can be produced in the same manner as pictures. In
addition, they can be drawn on a chalk or marker board and can be
duplicated. Care must be taken to display only a small amount of
material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as possible.

Numerous other useful print items may be considered as supplemental

training aids. Some of these include study guides, exercise books,
course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designed course outlines are
especially useful to students because they list the key points and help
students organize note taking during a lecture.
Projected Material: Traditional aids in this group include motion
pictures, filmstrips, slides of various sizes, transparencies for overhead
projection, and specialized equipment such as rear screen projection or
an opaque projector. However, the use of motion pictures and filmstrips
for training has declined, mostly because of availability of more user-
friendly media such as video. The essential factor governing continued
use is that the content must be current and support the lesson.

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 Use of projected materials requires planning and practice. The instructor
should set up and adjust the equipment and lighting beforehand and
then preview the presentation. During a classroom session, the
instructor should provide students with an overview of the presentation
before showing it. After the presentation, the instructor should allow time
for questions and a summary of key points.

Besides a chalk or marker board, the overhead transparency and

projector is still one of the more convenient and cost effective
instructional aid.

AUDIO AIDS

Audio aids are those devices that stimulate the listener's listening skills.
The listeners learn knowledge by hearing information through audio
aids.

RADIO

Radio is the oldest form of learning and in fact it is the first aid effectively
used for mass learning. It is very much used for a large group of
students and since it orients only to one stimuli i.e., hearing, listeners are
easily diverted by visual distracters. Radio learning is intrinsic and the
learning is of high degree. One need to have much concentration skill to
understand a complete concept and the learning will effect in a high
degree. It is not so commonly used in class rooms but in remote areas
and villages. Our governmental policies encourages the universities and
colleges to set up a small radio station within their premises and broad
cast valuable information for the other learners and common public in
line with their needs. Some of the universities and Colleges in cities are
having a small radio station at present.

TAPE RECORDER

Next to radio was the development of Tape Recorder. This also served a
very positive learning strategy where the teaching was recorded and
was listened to a bigger group of students in later instances. It also
helped the students who were absent during the lesson taught. These
devices are fore runners in the making of video recordings. Tape
recorded lesson served the purpose of drill and practice. It was able to
capture the teachers of subject experts for future references.

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 HUMAN VOICE

A teacher should essentially possess a good, commanding and

controlling voice to make the attention of the students be focused on to
the teaching. Mere voice alone cannot do a lot but when added with the
models and cut outs it make a real sense. The explanation of the
teachers voice will always give life to the models that we discuss in the
following passages.

Models, mock-ups, and cut-outs are additional instructional aids. A

model is a copy of a real object. It can be an enlargement, a reduction,
or the same size as the original. The scale model represents an exact
reproduction of the original, while simplified models do not represent
reality in all details. Some models are solid and show only the outline of
the object they portray, while others can be manipulated or operated.
Still others, called cut-away, are built in sections and can be taken apart
to reveal the internal structure. Whenever possible, the various parts
should be labelled or colored to clarify relationships. Although a model
may not be a realistic copy of an actual piece of equipment, it can be
used effectively in explaining operating principles of various types of
equipment. Models are especially adaptable to small group discussions
in which students are encouraged to ask questions. A model is a mode
of effective if it works like the original, and if it can be taken apart and A
reassembled. With the display of an operating model, the students can
observe how much works in relation to the other parts part. When the
instructor points to each part of the model while explaining these
relationships, the students can better understand the mechanical
principles involved. As instructional aids, models are usually more
practical than originals because they are lightweight and easy to
manipulate.

These kinds of aids are very much appreciated when they are exhibited
for students learning experiences. As the teachers explain, the students
learn the diversified methods involved and the questions that are
provoked and the way the answers need to be given. This method helps
the students to represent well in the students educational fairs and they
will be equipped well to explain concepts appropriately.

VIDEO AIDS

Video aids have replaced audio aids at a large scale. Video aids gives
the projection of the real life pictures, facts and incidents. This helps a lot
in the learning of the students.

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 SLIDES

Slide Projector: A slide projector is a device, which is used to view

photographic slides. It consists of four main parts, which are as follows:

 A fan-cooled electric light bulb or other light source.

 A reflector and condensing" lens to direct the light to the slide.
 A holder that would support the slide.
 A focusing lens.

Often a flat piece of heat absorbing glass is put in the light path between
the condensing lens and the slide so that the slide is not damaged. Light
passes through the transparent slide and lenses as a result of which the
visible image is enlarged and projected onto a perpendicular flat screen
and the audience can view its reflection. The other way of doing it would
be to project the image onto a translucent "rear projection" screen, which
is often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing. This
form of projection also helps in avoiding the audience's interrupting the
light stream or bumping into the projector. In the 1950s and 1960s the
slide projectors were a common form of entertainment. It was the time
when family members and friends would gather to view slide shows. Low
cost paper prints digital cameras, DVD media, video display monitors
and digital projectors have replaced the photographic slides and slide
projectors to a large level.

There are many kinds of slide projectors and each one uses a different
technology. The Carousel slide projectors have circular trays, which
consist of 20 to 140 slide holders. A stepper motor rotates these trays ,
and another corresponding drops each slide in front of the light bulb to
be projected. The trays can be horizontal or upright, though horizontal
trays are more frequently seen. In case of Dual s projectors, these have
a number of holder trays that are made up of an inner and outer ring
Every ring can be advanced and can be put in independently and they
ca also be locked together. Two or more slides can be put in and they
can be projected simultaneously. Unlike Dual slide projectors, Single
slide projectors have only one holder slot that is built into a compact
case, which also contains the bulb and lenses These projectors can
project only one slide at a time. Every time the slide has to be removed
and loaded manually. The slides are generally compact and can be
carried conveniently to any place. They are often more in tune with
larger slide formats. Viewer slide projectors display slide images on built-
in viewing screens and the holders along with the projection mechanism
are contained in a case behind the screen. The screen can be used for
previewing images before they are projected onto a bigger screen Slide

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cube projectors are called so as they have cube-shaped holders where
slides are stacked in uniformly one on top of the other. Each slide is put
into a circular plate and projected onto a preview screen before it is
enlarged and one might include up to 40 cubes, each holding 36 to 44
slides.

The other type of projector is the Stereo Slide projector which can
project two images at a time and that can be from single holders or
separate holders. There is a polarizing lens in front of the slides, which
projects every image with a different polarization. As a result of which
the image that comes up is three-dimensional and we get a more
detailed picture than a single slide image.

FILM STRIP

Film strip projectors are another form of projectors that have the lea rning
materials in thin tape of films. Unlike slide projectors they are continuous
films that can be operated manually or automatically. A film strip
generally deals with one particular concept that can be filmed from a live
teaching learning environment and can be viewed at a later period for
another group of students. The shooting of such lessons and actual life
situations were expensive. This filming technique has been adopted with
newer technologies with simplified electrical gadgets and processes.

MICRO FILM AND MICRO FIDE

Lengthy films strips of educational films are replaced by small palm size
micro films and micro fides. The educational purpose of microfilms is to
provide learning material for a small concept for a limited time slot.
These kinds of films have high resolution of pictures. The micro films are
small in size, storage of micro films become easy and occupy only small
storage area. A small handy camera is enough to capture real time
activities, class room activities and any kind of learning and they can be
recorded in micro films.

OVER HEAD PROJECTOR

Overhead projector is the projective media used to project visual

information on to a screen to help the audience understand the concept
better. It is also known as OHP. It is an ideal device to help the teacher
to simultaneously face the students and teach them so that the control of

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the class is well maintained. More over any write up to be made during
the teaching can be done on the transparency in course of teaching.

Mechanism: An overhead projector typically consists of a large box

containing a very bright lamp and a fan to cool it on top of which is a
large lens that collimates the light. Above the box, typically on a long
arm, is a mirror and lens that focuses and redirects the light forward
instead of up. Transparencies are placed on top of the lens for display.
The light from the lamp travels through the transparency and into the
mirror where it is shone forward onto screen for display. The mirror
allows both be presenter and the audience to see the image at the same
time, the presenter looking down at the transparency as if writing, the
audience looking forward at the screen. The height of the mirror can be
adjusted, to both focus the image and to make the image larger or
smaller depending on how close the projector is to the screen.
Focal length adjustment: Better-quality overhead projectors offer an
adjustment wheel or screw on the body of the projector, to move the
lamp towards or away from the Fresnel lens. When the mirror above the
lens is moved too high or too low, it moves out of the best focal distance
for an evenly white image, resulting in a projected image with either blue
or brown color fringing around the outside edge of the screen. Turning
the adjustment wheel moves the lamp to correct the focal distance
andrestores the all-white projected image

Illumination: The lamp technology of an overhead projector is typically

very simple compared to a modern LCD or DLP video projector. Most
overheads use an extremely high-power halogen lamp that may
consume up to 750 watts yet produces a fairly dim, yellowed image. A
high-flow blower is required to keep the bulb from melting itself due to
the heat output. Further, the intense heat usually causes the halogen
lamp to fail quickly, often lasting less than 100 hours before failing and
requiring replacement. A modem LCD or DLP uses an arc lamp which
has a higher she warm up time required for are lamps, but it is the
instant turn-on of halogen luminous efficacy and lasts for thousands of
hours. A negative to LCD/DLP technologyis the warm up time required
for arc lamps, but it is the instant turn-on of halogen lamps that may be
the biggest factor in their rapid rate of failure. Older overhead projectors
used a tubular quartz lamp body containing the filament only, which
mounted above a bowl-shaped polished reflector. However because the
lamp was suspended above and outside the reflector, a large amount of
light was cast to the sides inside the projector body that was wasted and
required a very large lamp for sufficient illumination. More recent

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projectors use an integrated lamp and conical reflector assembly that
allows the lamp to be located deep withinthe reflexes so that more light
is focused towards the lens, allowing for a lower-power lamp. The most
recent innovation for overhead projectors with integrated
lamps/reflectors is the quick-swap dual-lamp control, allowing two lamps
to be installed in the projector in movable sockets. If during a
presentation one lamp were to fail, the presenter can merely move a
lever to slide the spare into position and continue with the presentation,
without needing to open the projection unit or waiting for the failed bulb
to cool before replacing it.
Use in Education

The overhead projector facilitates an easy low-cost interactive

environment for educators. Teaching materials can be pre-printed on
plastic sheets, upon which the educator can directly write using a non-
permanent, washable color marking pen. This saves time, since the
transparency can be pre-printed and used repetitively, rather than
having materials written manually before each class.

The overhead is typically placed at a comfortable writing height for the

educator and allows the educator to face the class, facilitating better
communication between the students and teacher. The enlarging
features of the projector allow the educator to write in a comfortable
small script in a natural writing position rather than writing in an overly
large script on a blackboard and having to constantly hold his arm out in
midair to write on the blackboard.
When the transparency sheet is full of written or drawn material, it can
simply be replaced with a new, fresh sheet with more pre-printed
material, again saving class time vs a blackboard that would need to be
erased and teaching materials rewritten by the educator. Following the
class period, the transparencies are easily restored to their original
unused state by washing off with soap and water.

COMPUTERS

Computers are the latest aids in teaching learning environment. It works

tremendously by providing real time effects and visual on the learning
strategies.

Evolution in the field of Communication Technology has brought in

tremendous changes for using Educational Technology in teaching
learning. Particularly Computer has occupied a prominent place in the
technological aspect of teaching learning process with its potential

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design, aiding in carrying on the process efficiently with more visual
effects and also sophistication in software and hardware with time and
evolution of internet and World Wide Web. The role of computers
exclusively known as CAL, CAI, CML, CMT, CBT, etc. are inclusive as
teaching aids.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Latest equipments are embedded with computer technology and

become audio visual aids. Today‘s television and multimedia effects are
based on computer mediated satellite transmissions.

TELEVISION

Television is a medium of mass communication which far surpasses in

effectiveness anything our civilization has yet known. Television is one
of the rare technological advances that dazzle out at close view.
Television never the less accomplishes certain communicate tasks with
truly incomparable effectiveness. Central and State Governments are
encouraging Educational programmes to be telecast for educational
needs and public needs.

COMPUTER MULTIMEDIA

Computer multimedia includes a variety of audio, video and animation

tools.

Video: Video has become one of the most popular of all instructional
aids. The initial discussion of video, which follows, is limited to passive
video. Interactive video is covered separately.

Passive Video: Passive video cassettes provide motion, color, sound,

and in many cases, special effects with advanced graphic and animation
techniques. High-quality, commercially produced video cassettes are
available for almost every subject pertaining to aviation training.
Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-type
instructional aids.

Advantages of video are well documented. The current generation of

students is sometimes referred to as the video generation. Some
educators have theorized that TV has produced a visual culture that has
actually changed the way people learn. In any case, it is apparent that
most, if not all, students are familiar with and receptive to video.

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For instructors, the convenience of video is certainly an advantage. The
capability to easily stop, freeze, rewind, and replay is particularly helpful
for both instructors and students. The cost of a video cassette and the
associated equipment, although higher than some of the more basic
instructional aid equipment, is fairly economical. In addition, the video
cassette recorder and television can be used for other than instructional
purposes.

Instructors also should be aware of certain disadvantages with video.

Students are often accustomed to dramatic, action-packed film or video
that is designed as entertainment. At the same time, they tend to watch
film or TV in a passive way without attempting to absorb what they are
seeing and hearing Instructional video, in comparison, normally is
perceived as much less exciting and less stimulating visually. This
coupled with an inattentive viewing style, can diminish the instructional
value of the video.

As is true with any instructional aid, instructors need to follow so me

basic guidelines when using video. For example, the video presentation
is not designed to replace the instructor. Prior planning and rehearsal
will help determine the important points and concepts that should be
stressed, either during the presentation or as part of a summary.
Instructors should also try to prepare students for viewing video
programs by telling them what to watch carefully, what is important, or
possibly, what is incorrect. In addition, instructors should be available to
summarize the presentation and answer any questions students may
have regarding content.

Interactive Video: Interactive video refers broadly to software that

responds quickly to certain choices and commands by the user. A typical
system consists of a combination of a compact disk, computer, and
video technology. A compact disk (CD) is a format for storing information
digitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to store enormous
amounts of information. As an example, a single compact disk may
contain all pertinent aviation regulations, plus the complete AIM. With
search and find features incorporated, a CD is a powerful information
source, software may include additional features such as image banks
with full color photos and graphics, as well as questions or directions
which are programmed to create interactivity for students as they
progress through the course.

The questions or directions are programmed using a branching

technique, which provides several possible courses of action for the user
to choose in order to move from one sequence to another. For example,

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a program may indicate, "That was incorrect. Go back to... and try
again."

Interactive video solves one of the main problems of passive video in

that it increases involvement of the student in the learning process Well-
designed interactive video, when properly used, is highly effective as an
instructional aid. Each student essentially receives a customized
learning experience.

Distance learning, or distance education, is another trend applicable to

aviation. In general terms, distance learning is the use of print or
electronic media to deliver instruction when the instructor and student
are separated. It also may be defined as a system and process that
connects students with resources for learning. As sources for access to
information expands, the possibilities for distance learning increases.

Computer-Based Multimedia: Interactive video is one form of

computer-based multimedia. However, in recent years, the terms
computer based training (CBT), or multimedia training, have become
very popular. The term multimedia is not new Multimedia has been used
for decades in some form or other. In a basic form, multimedia is a
combination of more than one instructional media, but it could include
several forms of media-audio, text, graphics, and video (or film).
Multimedia in a more current context generally implies a computer-
based media that is shown on personal computers (PCs). With computer
based multimedia, information access is simplified. Sophisticated
databases can organize vast amounts of information which can be
quickly sorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.

Real interactivity with computer-based training means the student is fully

engaged with the instruction by doing something meaningful which
makes the subject of study come alive. For example, the student
frequently is able to control the pace of instruction, review previous
material, jump forward, and receive instant feedback. With advanced
tracking features, computer-based training also can be used to test the
student's achievement, compare the results with past performance, and
indicate the student's weak or strong areas.

Although computers are often used on an individual basis by students,

equipment is available that can project images from a computer screen.
This allows the instructor to use a computer in conjunction with specially
designed software programs to create presentations for an entire class.
The instructor can tailor the presentation for the class, if necessary, and
also include graphics at appropriate points.

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With computer-based training, the role of both the student and the
instructor will change. Students become more involved in their own
learning, and instructors may no longer occupy a center-stage position in
a typical classroom setting Instead, instructors become supportive
facilitators of the computer-based multimedia program. As such, they
serve as guides or resource experts and circulate among students who
are working individually or in small groups. This results in considerable
one-on one instructor/student interaction. Thus, the instructor provides
assistance, reinforcement, and answers questions for those who need it
most. In this situation, the computer based training should still be
considered as an add-on instructional aid to improve traditional
classroom instruction. The instructor, although no longer the center of
attention, must continue to maintain complete control over the learning
environment to ensure learning objectives are being achieved.

Amore advanced application of computer-based training may involve

less instructor control. For example, a laboratory-type environment may
be configured with separate study areas for each student. With this
setup, the physical facility is usually referred to as a learning center or
training centre. Students in these centres are often monitored by a
teacher's aide, or other trained personnel, who can provide guidance,
answer questions, and act as a conduit to the instructor who is
responsible for the training. In this case, the responsible instructor needs
to establish procedures to make sure the required training is
accomplished, since he or she must certify student competency at the
end of the course.

Numerous advantages are attributed to computer-based multimedia

training. It is widely used in airline training for both pilots and aviation
maintenance technicians. Due to the active nature of CBT, the overall
learning process is enhanced in several ways. Well-designed programs
allow students to feel like they are in control of what they are learning
and how fast they learn it. They can explore areas that interest them and
discover more about a subject on their own. In addition, learning often
seems more enjoyable than learning from a regular classroom lecture.
The main advantages are less time spent on instruction compared to
traditional classroom training, and higher levels of mastery and retention.

Disadvantages include the lack of peer interaction and personal

feedback. For the instructor, maintaining control of the learning situation
may be difficult. It also may be difficult to find good CBT programs for
certain subject areas, and the expense associated with the equipment,
software, and facilities must be considered. In addition, instructors and

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students may lack sufficient experience with personal computers to take
full advantage of the CBT programs that are available.

Interactive Whiteboard: An interactive whiteboard is a large interactive

display that connects to a computer and projector. A projector projects
the computer's desktop onto the board's surface, where users control
the computer using a pen, finger or other device. The board is typically
mounted to a wall or on a floor stand.

They are used in a variety of settings such as in classrooms at all levels

of education, in corporate board rooms and work groups, in training
rooms for professional sports coaching, broadcasting studios and more.

Uses for interactive whiteboards include the following:

Operating any software that is loaded onto the connected PC, including
Internet browsers or proprietary software.

Using software to capture notes written on a whiteboard or whiteboard-

like surface.

Controlling the PC (click and drag), mark-up (annotating a program or

presentation) and translating cursive writing to text (not all whiteboards).

In some instances the Interactive Whiteboard may be provided with an

integrated Audience Response System so presenters can carry out polls
and quizzes and capture the feedback on the Interactive Whiteboard.

Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools as replacements for

traditional whiteboards or flipcharts or video/media systems such as a
DVD player and TV combination. Users can also connect to a school
network digital video distribution system using an Interactive
Whiteboard, Interactive whiteboards can also interact with online shared
annotation and drawing environments in the form of interactive vector
based graphical websites.

The software supplied with the Interactive Whiteboard will usually allow
the teacher to keep their notes and annotations as an electronic file for
later distribution either on paper or through a number of electronic
formats.

In addition, some interactive whiteboards allow teachers to record their

instruction as digital video files and post the material for review by
students at a later time. This can be a very effective instructional
strategy for students who benefit from repetition, who need to see the
material presented again, for students who are absent from school, for
struggling learners, and for review for examinations: Brief instructional
blocks can be recorded for review by students-they will see the exact

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presentation that occurred in the classroom with the teacher's audio
input. This can help transform learning and instruction.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end

of the Unit.
1. What is the aim of Audio Visual aids?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

2. Who framed the Cone of Experience?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3. What are all Included in Multimedia?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _______

4. What is Interactive Whiteboard?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

IMPROVISED AIDS FOR TEACHING

We can make visual aids quickly and easily, using low-cost materials,
which are simple to find or improvise. It is rarely used in Computer
Science, yet storage devices like magnetic tape, disk pack, etc., can be
made using commonly available materials.

Making your own visual aids has many advantages:

• it is less expensive than buying ready-made visual aids- even if they

are available or employing an artist to make them.
• you can choose visual aids which are directly relevant and
appropriate to your local community.
• you can design your visual aid specifically to suit your resources
your purposes and your students' or learners' needs.
• planning a visual aid will help you to define your teaching or training
objectives and to clarify in your own mind what it is are trying to

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 communicate students and adult learners can work with you in
planning, designing and making the visual aids.

MASS MEDIA

Man media are channels of communication through which messages

flow, produced by a few for consumption by many people. As the
messages go through the channels, they are distorted. When people
receive mass-media messages, they have no opportunity for immediate
feedback with the producers of the messages. Using EDUSAT
programme is a technique to impress.

15.4.1 MASS MEDIA TYPES AND USES

Mass media is the AV technique to address a large group and it consists

of the following tools:

Media (communication)-tools used to store and deliver information or

data

Advertising media-various media, content, buying and placement for

advertising

Electronic media-communications delivered via electronic or electro

mechanical energy.

Digital media - electronic media used to store, transmit, and receive

digitized information.

Electronic Business Media - digital media for electronic business.

Hypermedia - media with hyperlinks.

Multimedia - communications that incorporate multiple forms of

information content and processing.

Print media-communications delivered via paper or canvas.

Published media-any media made available to the public.

Mass media-all means of mass communication.

Broadcast media communications delivered over mass electronic

communication networks.

News media-mass media focused on communicating news.

Recording media-devices used to store information.

Mass Media is a Healthy Education Perspective

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The pervasiveness of the mass media creates a seemingly endless flow
of information Contained in the flow are various forms of health
information. Consumers of the media are at the mercy of the respective
media outlets to provide them with the most current and accurate
information possible.

Media literacy is concerned with helping students develop an informed

and critical understanding of the nature of the mass media, the
techniques used by them, and the impact of these techniques. More
specifically, it is education that aims to increase students understanding
and enjoyment of how the media work, how they produce meaning, how
they are organized, and how they construct reality. Education through
Mass media makes students critically aware of what they see, hear, and
read Television/video/film viewing and magazine reading. Electronic
communication and the like are no longer ways to pass the time. They
are learning opportunities. Students analyze and critique messages and
determine how they could be said better or differently. Media education
also gives groups of students the opportunity to work together toward a
common goal. In the process they learn about responsibility,
cooperation, and problem solving. No matter what they do in life, they
will always encounter situations that require these skills. In addition,
students identify their strengths and weaknesses, develop varied
interests, and accept new challenges.

LIBRARY

An institution which holds books and/or other forms of stored information

for use by students. Books and other informative materials are housed in
rooms of a building, to lend items of its collection to members either with
or without payment, and to provide various other services for its
community of users. It is a collection of books or other forms of stored
information. An individual may refer to his collection of books and other
items as his library.

During the present era of electronic networking, libraries around the

Nation and around the globe are inter-linked. A library network is broadly
described as a group of libraries coming together with some agreement
of understanding to help each other with a view to satisfying the
information needs of their customers. Delnet, calibnet, inflibnet are some
of the library networks.

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 EXHIBITIONS

Computer technology is developing day by day and it is essential that

every individual needs to be educated of the latest trends and
innovations in computer technology. Computer related exhibitions help
the students as well the students to gain the latest information and the
developments in the fields. It is also a motivational factor to help the
young minds to think further and be creative. Exhibitions on hardware
and software update the cognitive sphere of the teaching learning
community.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the

end of the Unit.

5. Define improvised Aids.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. Write any four uses of Mass Media?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

7. How do libraries help Students?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIELD VISITS

Educational sectors while teaching computer Science gets very limited

knowledge about the industrial process and products and their exposure
to the reality is very less. So, industrial visit is essential for the students
to get complete idea of the concept learnt. Field visits to any computer
hardware and software industries will make the students get first hand
information which is long lasting. Field visits also help the students to
clarify their doubts in the related fields. It helps the students to
understand the needs of the society and also fore see the future needs.
Field visit is essential for the teacher trainees since they have to inform
the societal needs to their future wards.

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 PROJECTS

While field visits help the students to observe and understand the
industrial operations, Projects are the solution to real life problem that
exist in the society. A project is a collection of issues, and is defined
according to one's organization's requirements. Students are exposed to
industrial problems of any type and are expected to solve it by
themselves. It is like an apprentice type of real time job and the students
gain their knowledge and skills by doing. To make them be specific and
onto their objectives, students are assigned with certain problems or
made to select any problem of their interest and are required to
complete them in the stipulated timings.
Examples of project

• software development project

• marketing campaign
• helpdesk system
• leave request management system
• website enhancement request system

By doing projects students gain first hand information and gain the
factual information. They also understand the real show and also the risk
factors. Project always leads to collaborative efforts and develop the
collaborative and cooperative skills. Projects help the students gain
sense of achievement and satisfaction. Projects inculcate the attention
and convergent and divergent thinking process, Projects are directives
and provide the skill of decision making Projects are goal oriented and
make the students to be complete and useful citizens of the society.

COMPUTER SCIENCE CLUB

These are the arena that very often helps the students to come out with
their latent skills in relation with computer science concepts and thinking.
Computer science club conducts programmes that could supplement
and compliment the school oriented concepts. It also conducts variety of
programmes that would help them develop their thinking skills and to
come out with innovative ideas. The programmes are conducted outside
the school hours and help them gain real time experience and
applications of their own ideas. This helps the students to get
satisfaction in their learning.

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 Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.

8. What is Project?
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
9. Write any four uses of Field Visits?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

10. How do Computer Science Clubs Help Students?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______

LET US SUM UP

Effective learning takes place when audio visual aids are embedded in
teaching. There are different kinds of projective and non projective
medias that help in the learning. The mass media and EDUSAT plays a
vital role in imparting computer science oriented concepts and the
students are equipped with the latest technology as a learning concept
as well as learning tools.

GLOSSARY

 Audio visual aids - Audio Visual Aids are also called instructional
material. Audio literally means ―hearing‖ and ―visual‖ means that
which is found by seeing. So all such aids, which endeavor to
make the knowledge clear to us through our sense are called
―Audio Visual Aids‖ or Instructional Material.

 Computer science club - The Computer Science Club was

formed to generate, advance, and share students‘ interests in the
Computer and Information Sciences and Technology.

 Mass media - Mass media refers to a diverse array

of media technologies that reach a large audience

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 via mass communication. The technologies through which this
communication takes place include a variety of outlets.
Broadcast media transmit information electronically
via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.
 To explain the logical relationship of those materials to
the learning process
 To emphasize the need for their integration with some of
the more traditional instructional materials used in the
schools.
2. Edgare Dale.
3. It includes variety of Audio, Video and animation tools.
4. An Interactive Whiteboard is a large Interactive display that
connects to a Computer and Projector.
5. Improvised aids are teacher made aids for class room activities.
6. Real life application, instant learning, rare event projection and
micro worlds.
7. Expert learning materials, rare collection of information and
global accessing.
8. A project is pieces of self-tested learning slot.
9. Real time application, first-hand information, personal
involvement and testing of facts.
10. Cooperative and Collaborative learning is possible.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon. (2004). Fundamentals of Information

Technology: Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Sanjay Saxena, Prabhpreet Chopra. (2003). Computer Applications -

Teacher Y Manual New Delhi: Vikas Publishing Corporation.

Jayaprakash Reddy, R. (2007). Methods of Teaching New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.

Rao, V.K. Encyclopedia of Educational Development, New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation.
Raman, K.V. (2007) Computers in Chemistry, New Delhi: Tata Meraw

Hill Publishing Company Limited.

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Rajaram, R. (2001). Basic Computer Science and Communication
Engineering, Chennai. Scitech Publications.

Vanaja, M. (2007), Methods of Teaching Physical Science. Neel Kamal

Publications, PVTLad.

Singh, Y.K. (2008). Teaching of Computer. New Delhi: APH Publishing

Corporation

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UNIT 16 EVALUATION AND MEASUREMENTS

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

What is Evaluation?
Types of Evaluation

Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation

Teacher Made Tests

Standardized Tests

Validity
Reliability

The Qualities of a Good Test

Item Analysis

Diagnostic Testing or Prognostic Testing

Remedial Testing

Online Testing
Question BankLet Us
Sum Up Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Learning is a process. Every learning experienced in the past becomes

knowledge for the present days' event. Only when knowledge has
application, learning is value and meaningful. All educational institutions
must provide valid or appreciable learning and the students should
acquire them in the right way. Only when the students a re useful in the
society, the educational industries will be considered worthy of imparting
knowledge. All these are ensured by one procedure of the educational

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 institutions that is evaluation. This unit deals briefly on the major aspects
of evaluation which are practiced in every educational industry.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to,

 acquire knowledge about measurement and evaluation

 understand the need and importance of different types of
evaluation
 understand the techniques to prepare and administer an
achievement test
 understand and apply the online teaching in their teaching carrier.

WHAT IS EVALUATION ?

Evaluation is...

 the means used to determine the worth or value of a

training program.
 the processes to improve a training process or to decide
whether or not to continua it.
 the process of delineating, collecting, and providing
information useful for judging training decision
alternatives.
Evaluation involves making judgments about the correctness of the
strategy (including means adopted) and particularly about the outcomes
or specific benefits that the strategy delivers. "Worth" is more than just
monetary worth. Rather, it answers the questions of "Is training
achieving the results that it was set up to achieve?", "Are the actual
results worth having?", and "Were the results achieved by the most cost
effective methods?" Evaluation is systematic determination of merit,
worth, and significance of something or someone using criteria against a
set of standards. Evaluation is used to characterize and appraise
subjects of interest in a wide range of human enterprises including
Education Evaluation is the process that guides any process done in a
course of period. It gives direction for the future activities. Without
feedback no operation can proceed and progress further, Proper
feedback is provided by perfect evaluation. The performances in the
Educational Institutions need to be evaluated to check if the educational
process is proceeding in the proper direction. Educational evaluation is
the process of characterizing and appraising some aspects of

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educational process and progress. Educational institution impart
knowledge to the students in the relevant field of student's requirements.
So it is essential to ensure if the needed skills are attained. Hence
evaluation is necessary. Also only evaluation helps the teacher to check
if the students have understood the lessons properly and if the delivery
mechanism of lessons is perfect. Only when both the teaching methods
and the learning strategies are perfect, the expected learning out e is
possible. Hence evaluation scheme is necessary for the teaching as well
as the learning communities.

TYPES OF EVALUATION

Depending upon the nature and structure, evaluation is categorized as

Formative Summative evaluation. An easy to distinguish these two is
given as "When the cook tastes the soup, that's formative; when the
guests taste the soup, that's summative.

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation which has the purpose of

improving programmes. There are many different types of evaluations
depending on the students being evaluated and the purpose of the
evaluation. Formative evaluations strengthen or improve the students
being evaluated; they help to form ideas by examining the delivery of
teaching, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the
organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on.
Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:
Needs Assessment determines who needs the program, how great the
need is, and what might work to meet the need.

Evaluability Assessment determines whether an evaluation is feasible

and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness.

Structured Conceptualization helps stakeholders the target

population, and the possible outcomes.

Implementation Evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or

technology delivery.
Process Evaluation investigates the process including alternative
delivery procedures of delivering the program or technology, including
alternative delivery procedures.

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 SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of

same students; they summarize it by describing what happens
subsequent to teaching of lessons; assessing whether they have
attained the objectives; determining the overall impact of the causal
factor beyond the immediate target outcomes. Summative evaluation
usually carried after a period of course of teaching and learning
Summative evaluation is done in depth to assess the students level of
achievement in a particular concept. It has a set period over a set
concept and objectives to be achieved. It evaluates not only the students
but also the teacher. The period usually range from 3 months to one
year. At present in the emerging field of computerized and online
learning and evaluation the summative evaluation becomes learner
selected timings. The learners can set their own timings to learn the set
concepts for the objectives. Example: Six sigma programme in
Managerial Practices.
Summative Evaluation can also be subdivided:

Outcome Evaluations investigate whether the program or technology

caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined target outcomes.

Impact Evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net effects

intended or unintended of the program or technology as a whole.

Cost-Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit Analysis address questions of

efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar costs and
values.

Secondary Analysis re-examines existing data to address new

questions or use methods not previously employed.

Meta-Analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple studies

to arrive at an overall or summary judgement on an evaluation question.

Summative Evaluation are categorized as Teacher made tests and

Standardized tests.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
1. Evaluation is a _ _ _ _ _ _ _

2. What is the purpose of Evaluation?

333
 ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

3. Mention the two types of Evaluation.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

TEACHER MADE TESTS

A test or an examination is an assessment administered on paper or on

the any testing instrument intended to measure the students' knowledge,
skills, aptitude application, interest etc. Tests are often used in
educational institutions like schools and colleges, training institutions,
counselling programme and psychological treatments and many other
fields. The measurement that is the goal of testing is called a test score
and is it is a summary of the evidence contained in students' responses
to the items of a test that are related to the construct or constructs being
measured, Test of scores are interpreted with regards to a norm or
criterion, or both.

Teacher made Tests

These are the class tests that are administered by the class room test. It
evaluates the students every one month or 3 months depending upon
the Institutional set up.

Achievement tests are a type of teacher made test and it is conducted to

measure the degree of mastery of skills, fundamental concepts, process
and general knowledge on a subject matter. All educational tests are
achievement tests for it aims to test particular achievement. Generally
these achievement tests are tested to identify the skills of the students to
enter into the next level of gaining knowledge. Very common practice of
the achievement test is the year end examinations.
Types of Tests

Tests are those that contain the questions to check the knowledge and
skills of the students. In practice, standardized tests can be composed of
multiple-choice and true-false questions. Such items can be tested
inexpensively and quickly by scoring special answer sheets by
individuals or using computers. Some tests also have short answer or
essay writing components that are assigned a score by independent
evaluators.

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There are three types of tests that are usually practised in schools,

1. Oral
2. Written

3. Performance
1. Oral tests

Oral tests are the ones conducted to test the knowledge, comprehension
and communicative abilities of the students. Very often it is testing the
individual's ability. Here students a Psychological and emotional stability
of the students are understood. These types of tests are identified for
their prompt and apt responses. Since it is live, the lets are widely used
for the preschool children and visually challenged students. Oral tests
are otherwise known as interview and Viva for getting a job and
presenting project respectively. Oral tests are not commonly used in
schools because it is time taking and expensive. In the present days' job
providers arena the oral tests have taken up the shape as "group
discussion and discussion forum". Group discussion that tests the oral
performance exhibits instant thought process, attitude, problem solving
abilities, soft skills, time management, managerial skills and risk
management.
2. Written Tests

This types of tests the knowledge acquisition, comprehending abilities,

organizing and arranging of ideas and synthesizing capabilities of the
students. The subject matter taught in the classes can be tested at large
scale using this type. This type of tests is only administered as common
practice in schools and colleges. Though it is widely believed that these
tests test only the remembering and recalling abilities of the students,
90% of the test results of any schooling or college studies are based
only on this.

Written tests to have justification in its testing include 4 different types of

test items. They are 1 Essay type, 2. Short answer type 3. Very short
answer type and objective types

3. Performance Test

Knowledge of how to do something does not devote itself well to either

oral or free response or multiple-choice questions. It may be
demonstrated only outright by a performance test. Art, Music, languages
and computer operations fall into this category. Students of computer
science or computer engineering are required to present an original
design or computer program developed over the course of days or even

335
months. A practical examination, administered by an examiner in person
is a performance test. Performance tests of the computer science may
include laboratory experiments to make sure that the student has
learned not only the body of knowledge comprising the science but also
the experimental methods through which it has been developed

Blue Print

In order to build a house, architects prepare blue prints, a diagramatic

representation of the house. This blue print directs them to build the
house perfectly in proper measure. More than the house building, testing
the knowledge and skills for the students is very essential and more
valid. The blue print is a model and director to help the teachers as to
what content has to be tested, in which area and what score has to be
provided is decided. Every test has to be designed only after drawing the
blue print. The blue print indicates the subject matters, type of tests,
allotment of marks and the objectives attained.

Let us prepare a question paper for 50 marks in the subject computer

science having the subject matter Hardware, Software and HTML.
Following is a Model of Blue Print:

Objectives Knowledge Understanding Application Skills

Content E SA O E SA O E SA O E SA O

Hardware 1 * * 1

Software 1 * 1 1 1 1

HTML 1 1 1

Total

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The Blue Print shows that the particular question tests the knowledge,
understanding, application and skills of the students in the area of the
subject content Hardware, Software and HTML, E, SA, O represent
Essay, Short Answer and Objective type tests respectively. There are
totally 10 questions for 50 marks.

Tests are also categorized based on the needs. They are called
Criterion referenced and Norm referenced tests.

A Norm-Referenced Test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment that gives

an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined
population, with respect to the trait being measured. This estimate is
derived from the analysis of test scores and possibly other relevant data
from a sample drawn from the population.

Many college entrance exams and nationally used school tests use
norm-referenced tests. The SAT, Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
compares individual student performance to the performance of a
normative sample. Test-takers cannot "fail" a norm-referenced test, as
each test-taker receives a score that compares the individual to others
that have taken the test, usually given by a percentile. An obvious
disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that it cannot measure
progress of the population of a whole, only where individuals fall within
the whole. Thus, only measuring against a fixed goal can be used to
measure the success of an educational reform program which seeks to
raise the achievement of all students against new standards which seek
to assess skills beyond choosing among multiple choices. Tests that set
goals for students based on the average student's performance are
norm-referenced tests.

Criterion referenced tests is to test if a predetermined level of

acceptable performance is developed and students pass or fail in
achieving or not achieving this level. The State achievement tests are
criterion referenced. Tests that set goals for students based on a set
standard are criterion-referenced tests.

The following table clearly gives the difference between criterion

referenced and norm referenced tests.

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Dimension Criterion-Referenced Tests Norm-Referenced Tests

Purpose To determine whether To rank each student with

each student has achieved respect to the achievement of
specific skills or concepts. others in broad areas of
knowledge.

To discriminate between high

To find out how much
and low achievers.
students know before
instruction begins and after
it has finished.

Content Measures specific skills Measures broad skill areas

which make up a sampled from a variety of
designated curriculum. textbooks, syllabi, and the
These skills are identified judgments of curriculum
by teachers and curriculum experts.
experts.

Each skill is expressed as

an instructional objective.

Item Each skill is tested by at Each skill is usually tested by

Characteri least four items in order to less than four items.
stics obtain an adequate sample
of student performance
and to minimize the effect Items vary in difficulty.
of guessing.

Items are selected that

The items which test any discriminate between high
given skill are parallel in and low achievers.
difficulty.

Score Each individual is Each individual is compared

Interpretati compared with a preset with other examinees and
on standard for acceptable assigned a score- usually
with other examinees and expressed as a percentile, a

338
 achievement. The grade equivalent score.
performance of other
examinees is irrelevant.

Student achievement is
A student's score is reported for broad skill areas,
usually expressed as a although some norm
percentage.
referenced tests do report
student achievement for
individual skills
Student achievement is
reported for individual
skills.

Table 16.1 Criterion- Referenced Tests & Norm- Referenced Tests

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the unit.

4. Give the different types of Class Room Tests.

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ __
5. What are the test items of a Class Room Test?

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6. What is Blue Print?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

STANDARDIZED TESTS

Standardised tests are those that are administered and scored in a

consistent subject matter to ensure legal status. The tests are designed
in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring
procedures, and interpretations are consistent and are "administered

339
and scored in a predetermined, standard manner." Almost all the formal
testing is standardized. Standardized test may result with important
consequences for the individual examinee.

Standardized tests are the ones that are conducted uniformly for
students at regional level and state levels. The tests are conducted to
test and categorize the students to go higher in their learning ladder or to
get a job for their livelihood.

VALIDITY

Whenever a test or other measuring device is used the validity and

reliability of that test is given importance. Just as we would not use a
math test to assess verbal skills, we would not want to use a measuring
device for research that was not truly measuring what we propose it to
measure. After all, we are relying on the results to show support or a
lack of support for our theory and if the data collection methods are
erroneous, the data we analyze will also be erroneous.

Test Validity: Validity refers to the degree in which our test or other
measuring device is truly measuring what we intended it to measure.
The validity refers to Concurrent validity, content validity and predictive
validity.

Concurrent Validity: Concurrent Validity refers to a measurement

device's ability to vary directly with a measure of the same constructor or
indirectly with a measure of an opposite construct. It allows you to show
that your test is valid by comparing it with an already valid test.

Content Validity: Content validity is concerned with a test's ability to

include or represent all of the content of a particular construct. When a
test has content validity the items on the test represent the entire range
of possible items the test should cover.

Predictive Validity: In order for a test to be a valid screening device for

some future behavior, it must have predictive validity. The SAT is used
by college screening committees as one way to predict college grades.
The GMAT is used to predict success in business school. And the LSAT
is used as a means to predict law school performance. The main
concern with these, and many other predictive measures is predictive
validity because without it, they would be worthless.

We determine predictive validity by computing a correlation coefficient

comparing SAT scores, for example, and college grades. If they are
directly related, then we can make a prediction regarding college grades

340
based on SAT score. We can show that students who score high on the
SAT tend to receive high grades in college.

RELIABILITY

Reliability is the consistency of a set of measurements or measuring

instrument, often used to describe the nature of a test. This can either be
whether the measurements of the same instrument give or are likely to
give the same measurement (test-retest) or in the case of more
subjective instruments, such as personality or trait inventories whether
two independent assessors give similar scores. Reliability is inversely
related random error. Reliability does not describe validity. That is, a
reliable measures measuring something consistently, but not necessarily
what it is supposed to be measuring For example, in computer
programming though the prescribed syllabus deals with Visual C++, the
students may take up a test on Visual Basic and reliability can be tested
in experimental sciences, reliability is the extent to which the
measurements of a test remain consistent over repeated tests of the
same subject under identical conditions. An experiment is reliable if it
yields consistent results of the same measure. It is unreliable if repeated
measurements give different results, can also be interpreted as the lack
of random error in measurement.
Different methods for determining Reliability

Test-retest method

A test is administrated to the same group with short interval. The scores
are tabulated and correlation is calculated. The higher the correlation,
the more the reliability.

Split-half method

The scores of the odd and even items are taken and the correlation
between the two sets of scores determined.
Parallel form method

- Reliability is determined using two equivalent forms of the same

test content.
- These prepared tests are administrated to the same group one
after the other
- The test forms should be identical with respect to the number of
items, content difficult level etc.,
- Determining the correlation between the two sets of scores
obtained by the group in the two tests.

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 - If higher the correlation, the more the reliability.

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST

A good test should possess the following qualities:

 Objectivity
 Objective Based
 Comprehensiveness
 Validity
 Reliability
 Practicability
 Comparability
 Utility

Objectivity

 A test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in

interpreting its scope as well as in scoring the responses.
 Objectivity of a test can be increased by using more objective type
test items and the answers are scored according to model answers
provided.
Objective Based

 The test should be based on pre-determined objectives.

 The test setter should have definite idea about the objective behind
each item

Comprehensiveness

 The test should cover the whole syllabus

 Due importance should be given all the relevant learning
materials
 Test should be cover all the anticipated objectives.

Validity (we have already discussed in the same Unit)

 Said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure.

There are different types of validity

- Operational validity
- Predictive validity
- Content validity
- Construct validity

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Operational Validity

A test will have operational validity if the tasks required by the test are
sufficient to evaluate the definite activities or qualities
 Predictive Validity

A test has predictive validity if scores on it predict future performance

 Content Validity

If the items in the test constitute a representative sample of the total

course content to be tested, the test can be said to have content validity.
 Construct Validity

Construct validity involves explaining the test scores psychologically. A

test is interpreted in terms of numerous research findings.

Reliability

 Reliability of a test refers to the degree of consistency with which

it measures what it indented to measure.

 A test may be reliable but need not be valid. This is because it

may yield consistent scores, but these scores need not be
representing what exactly we want to measure
 A test with high validity has to be reliable also. (the scores will be
consistent in both cases)
 Valid test is also a reliable test, but e reliable test may not be a
valid one.

16. 6 ITEM ANALYSIS

Any test can be administered having validity and reliability. But the test
items must be effectively answered by the students. If a test is too easy
every student will be able to score good marks but the test cannot be
considered a good tool. Similarly a test will be too difficult and only the
gifted students can attend the test items means, the test is not
appreciated. To eradicate such accidents in testing procedures, the test
items need to be analysed and that is known as item analysis. Item
analysis has two factors 1. Difficulty level and 2. Discriminating power.

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DIAGNOSTIC TESTING OR PROGNOSTIC TESTING

Diagnostic evaluations or tests are the tests provided for individuals or a

group or a class of students to identify the learning differences and
needs of the students who may have learning difficulties or disabilities,
or who are struggling within the academic environment. The evaluations
also examine executive functioning deficits, developmental delays,
attention deficits, and emotional factors that may be affecting
performance in school. A perfect diagnostic test warrants a team
approach which includes a licensed psychologist and an educational
diagnostician.

Also diagnostic or in other word Prognostic tests are given to predict

whether a student is likely to succeed in a particular field or not. The aim
of the diagnostic test is to analyze the difficulties of a student in a
particular phase of work. It aims to reveal reliable information concerning
his weakness in order to overcome them by concentrated action and for
detecting needs for remedial teaching. It is also used as an inventory
test to know how much the students have learnt on the given subject
matter. It also helps the teacher to identify those areas of knowledge
where the teacher has to stress while teaching the concept. As the
students vary every year diagnostic tests administered to different set of
students with different levels of understanding helps the teacher as to
how to carry the lesson in the class.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of

the Unit.
7. Mention the qualities of a Good Test?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

8. What is item analysis?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
9. Mention two advantages of Diagnostic Tests.

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

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 REM EDIAL TEACHING

Remedial testing is executed to find the level of understanding of the

students. Though it reflects on the difficulties in understanding of the
students, it also reflects on the teaching strategy of the teacher.
Diagnostic testing and Remedial teaching go in hand but for the way it is
designed. When diagnostic tests deeply test the difficulties of the
students level of understanding, it gives the direction for the teachers as
to what strategies should be taken to help the students understand the
concepts effectively. When teaching is done to rectify the difficulties in
understanding of the students after implementing the diagnostic test
then remedial teaching is provided to clear the understanding difficulties.
Here the teacher has to take different strategy in teaching that particular
concepts to those who are weak. Hence the teaching technique of the
teacher is modified. An effective method of remedial teaching may then
become the instructional method for the class. Thus both students and
teachers are benefited by this method. After the remedial teaching, a
test will be given again to confirm the grasp of the concept.
Benefits of Remedial teaching

Remedial Teaching facilitates self-awareness and an understanding of

obstacles to success. Teaching focuses on strategies to overcome these
obstacles. When individuals become more successful at managing their
day to day learning responsibilities and meeting their goals, benefits
include increased success at school work at home, decrease frustration,
increase self-esteem and increase satisfaction in studies. Students have
weak skills related to academic organization, time management,
planning and completion of projects would benefit from these type of
remedial coaching.

ONLINE TESTING

As computers were introduced in teaching learning process worldwide

accessing of information is being practiced. There exists virtual learning
with the help of virtual universities. There on thousands of online
programmes that help an individual to carry out learning from anywhere
in the globe accessing information from any remote system at any time
at low cost. The online providers so as to ensure the attainment of
objective conduct evaluation using real time mode of operation. The
learner can take up the test from the place where he/she resides and
with the help of a computer and internet facilities tests can be

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undertaken by the students. Evaluation will be done online. This type of
online test investigates the learning level, speed, timeliness, apt answers
and individual efficiency in the stipulated time. While undergoing these
tests, unlike the other traditional test, a student is tested in all skills of
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Since Online tests also tests orally
with interactive mode of accessing, the student receive the sender's
questions properly, reflect on it and react in a speedy manner with right
responses using all the multimedia gadgets that are required while
taking the test. Thus it provides a real evaluation on the learning of the
students.

QUESTION BANK

Question banks are organized into topics, which contain individual

question. Use topics to organize questions, for example, to match the
structure of your course. Topics can also indicate learning objectives,
key topics, or other organizational schemes. Using the questions in
question banks, you can create classroom unit tests and assignments.

Question Bank File Structure

Questions are stored in a text file called a question bank that consists of
a list of topics. In each topic is a list of questions. Each question bank
contains one or more topic. Each topic has a corresponding topic
statement in the script file. The other statements in a question bank
script file define questions. Each question consists of a series of related
statements, all containing the same prefix, which indicates the topic and
question numbers.
Each question must contain the following elements.

 Question mode
 Question statement
 Answer

Designing a question Bank

1. Create a question bank. Because of the range of question types

supported by the concerned education authorities, you can include a
much wider range of classroom-tested assignment materials.

2. Once you have selected the source for your questions, adapt the
source question material into the Question Banks. Decide what type
of question mode works best for your source material. Decide what
feedback, comments, hints, solutions, and related links are

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 appropriate. You may also consider the range of tolerance, margin of
error, and required format for correct answers.

3. Use information fields to tag your questions with information indicating

authorship level of difficulty key topic related topics, page reference,
or other outside link information. Because the information fields are
entirely user specified, consider how you might want to use your
questions, interrelate them in assignments, and what performance
reporting dimensions might be useful.

4. If your question takes advantage of the system's powerful algorithmic

variable generation capabilities, you must use appropriate variable
definitions, data ranges, parameters, and other limiting conditions
for each variable.

Advantages of Question Bank

Question Banks helps to reduce the time spent in preparing

Achievement and classroom tests. Since it is set with high degree of
consistency containing all the objectives necessary for evaluation, any
teacher made tests is of equal standard as that of standardized tests. As
the Question Bank covers all the course material including all sorts of
questions, the questions will have face and content validity. Since
question Bank covers wide range of questions, students can be
practiced with different types of question set ups and can prepare better
for their examination. Since the Question Bank is tailor made any time
reference can be possible.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
Unit.
10. What is Online Testing?
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
11. What is Question Bank?
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
12. Mention two advantages of Question Bank.
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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LET US SUM UP

Evaluation is systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance

of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards.
Evaluation is used to characterize and apprise subjects of interest in a
wide range of human enterprises, including the other human services.
Evaluation is the process which that guides any process. It gives
direction for the future activities. Without feedback no person can
proceed and process further. Proper feedback is provided by perfect
evaluation.

GLOSSARY

 Diagnostic testing - A diagnostic procedure is an examination to

identify an individual's specific areas of weakness and strength in
order determine a condition, disease or illness.
 Evaluation - the making of a judgment about the amount,
number, or value of something; assessment
 Item analysis - An item analysis is a post hoc test which means it
is a measure used after the test has been taken. Many teachers
use an item analysis after a test to be certain all of the questions
are fair.
 Measurement - the action of measuring something
 Remedial teaching - It is a process of removing the pupils‘
learning distortions or subject matter difficulties that have crept
into the understanding and concept and use of that subject while
learning

 Standardized test - A standardized test is a method of

assessment built on the principle of consistency: all test takers
are required to answer the same questions and all answers are
graded in the same, predetermined way.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Continuous Process.
2. To understand the level of achievement in learning by the
students and the efficiency of teaching
3. Formative and Summative evaluation
4. Oral, written and performance tests
5. Objective type, Short Answers and Essay types.

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 6. It is a figurative explanation of test construction. It gives the clear
picture of the objectives, content to be tested and the scores to
be awarded
7. Validity, reliability, practicability and utility
8. Item analysis is analysis made after the administration of the test
to find out the difficulty level of the test items and the
discriminative power of the learners
9. Helps the learners to identify their difficulty in learning and helps
the teacher to frame new strategies in teaching
10. Test that is conducted through computers through networking is
called online testing.
11. Question Bank is a collection of questions pertaining to a
particular subject with specified objectives covering a wide range
of question items.
12. 1. Helps the learners to practice for examination
2. Helps the teachers to select the needed questions.

SUGGESTED READINGS

LokeshKowl. Methodology of Educational Research. Vani Educational

Books.

Mangal, S.K. Statistics in Psychgology, and Education. Tata MC

GrawHillPublishing Company.

Vashist, S.R. Theory of Educational Evaluation. New Delhi: Anmol

Publications Ltd.

Raman, K.V. Computers in Chemistry. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing

CompanyLimited.

Andrew, S.Tanenbaum. Structured Computer Organization. Prentice -

Hallof India Limited.

Rajaraman, R. Basic Computer Science and Communication

Engineering. Scitech Publications,

Vanaja, M. (2007). Methods of Teaching Physical Science. Chennai:

Neel Kamal Publications, PVT.Ltd.

Downic, N.M. & Heath, R. W. (1974). Basic Statistical Methods. New

York: Harper International Edition, Harper & Row Publishers.

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Web Resources

 https://www.wku.edu/ste/objectives/definition_and_rationale.php

 http://easyprojectmaterials.com/application-of-audio-visual-aids-in-teaching-
computer-science-in-senior-secondary-schools/

 https://www.slideshare.net/iumamaheswari/pedagogy-evaluation-in-computer-
science

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BLOCK 5 INCLUSIVE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES FOR
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 17 Differentiating Teaching strategies and Universal Design for

students with disabilities

Differentiated Teaching Strategies

Adapting Practices of developing Inclusive Schools

Universal Design Learning

Unit 18 Teaching Learning Materials for students with disabilities in

inclusive classrooms

Inclusive TLM
Adaptation of TLMs

Unit 19 Co-curricular activities for students with disabilities

19.1 Co-Curricular Activities with Adaptations

Unit 20 Adaptation of evaluation procedure for students with

disabilities
Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings.

INTRODUCTION

Education became one of the most important aspects of everyone‘s life.

Though the outlook of human race looks similar; the needs of every
individual is more diversified in all the avenues of life. The educational
needs of the human beings particularly the people with disabilities
demand empathetic minds to understand the minute differences in their
capacity to learn. This Block will help you to understand the educational
needs of the children with disabilities by providing elaborate basic
information about differentiating teaching strategies, Universal Design
Learning, Teaching Learning Materials, Co-curricular activities and
adaptation of Evaluation procedures for the children with special needs.

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 OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block, you will be able to,

 Explain the differentiating teaching strategies;

 Describe about the Universal Design Learning;

 Mention the ways to adapt the TLM for inclusive setting

 Elaborate the co-curricular activities

 Narrate the adaptation of evaluation procedures for children with

special needs at inclusive schools

UNIT 17 DIFFERNTIATING TEACHING STRATEGIES & UDL

Special education is the education which meets the need of those

children who are deviant from average children either mentally,
physically and or socially. The children may suffer from emotional
disturbance, mental retardation, deafness, dumbness, blindness and any
other ailments which hamper the intellectual growth of the individual.
The teaching methods in special education schools also differ from
standard schools. So, special education needs those teachers, who love
to take up challenging tasks. In fact, special education is not a separate
system; it is an integral part of the total programmes of education only.
Inclusion attempts to ensure that children with special education needs
be placed in a normalized educational environment which is appropriate
to their individual needs and is frequently operationalized through what
is referred to as ―mainstreaming‖.

Differentiating Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategies are methods and techniques that a teacher will use to
convey information and to support the students through learning
processes. These are also known as instructional strategies. It can be say
that teaching strategy is a generalised plan for a lesson which includes
structure, instructional objectives and outline of plan necessary to
implement the strategies. Before entering the class, the teacher plans
what to teach (content), how to teach (teaching methods), why to teach
(instructional objectives), and will assess whether the objectives are
achieved or not. You have learnt about these in general in the previous
Block and Units. Recall the teaching methods you learnt already and let
us understand the teaching strategy.

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Differences between Teaching method and Teaching Strategy

Teaching method Teaching strategy

it is limited to the presentation of when we try to achieve some

subject matter objectives by any method it
becomes strategies

methods come under strategy Strategy is actually a combination

of different method. for E.g.
Lecture or textbook or question
answer method can be never be
used separately

it is a micro approach it is a macro approach

teaching as an art it considers teaching as science

effective presentation of subject its purpose is to create conducive

matter learning environment

classical Theory of human it is based on modern theories of

organization organization

Work is important Behavior of students and teachers

and their mutual relationship is
important

The principles of Effective Teaching Strategy

Devlin and Samarawickrema (2010) proposed ten principles of effective

teaching strategy. They are:

1. Teaching and curriculum design need to be focused on meeting

students‘ future needs, implying the development in students of
generic capabilities such as critical thinking, teamwork and
communication skills, amongst others;
2. Students must have a thorough understanding of fundamental
concepts even if that means less content is covered;
3. The relevance of what is taught must be established by using
real-life, current and/or local examples and by relating theory to
practice;

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 4. Student beliefs must be challenged to deal with misconceptions;
5. A variety of learning tasks that engage students, including
student discussion, need to occur in order that meaningful
learning takes place;
6. Genuine, empathetic relationships with individual students
should be established so that interaction can take place;
7. Teachers should motivate students through displaying their own
enthusiasm, encouraging students and providing interesting,
enjoyable and active classes;
8. Curriculum design should ensure that aims, concepts, learning
activities and assessment are consistent with achieving learning
outcomes related to future student needs;
9. Each lesson must be thoroughly planned but flexible so that
necessary adaptations may be made based on feedback during
the class; and
10. Assessment must be consistent with the desired learning
outcomes and should, therefore, be authentic tasks for the
discipline or profession.

So far we have seen the importance of teaching strategies. Can we say

that a single teaching strategy fits to fulfil the needs of all the students at
common? No. Here comes the role of differentiated teaching strategies.
Differentiated Teaching strategy

In each and every classroom the students vary in terms of culture,

gender, motivation, abilities, learning styles personal interests etc., by
considering the varies learning needs, the teacher has to teach so that
all children in the classroom can learn effectively.

Special education has the same objectives as those of regular education

such as human resource development, social reconstruction, civic
development, vocational efficacy, etc., In India, special education is an
emerging discipline and an essential part of the modern education
system. It includes all aspects of education, which are necessary to
successfully administer the course and training programmes for
abnormal students. The stream of special education requires specially
designed courses and particular type of instructions to be used for
teaching the students, who are uncommon. In fact, special education
demands special techniques and strategies to be adapted for successful
exercise.

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Differentiated teaching occurs when a teacher plans a lesson that
adjusts either the content being discusses, the process used to learn or
the product expected from students to ensure that learners at different
starting points can received the instruction and succeed.

The meaning of differentiated teaching strategy indicating three main

elements: 1. Content-what a student needs to learn or how he will gain
access to the knowledge, ideas, and skills; 2. Process – how the
student will come to master and own the knowledge, ideas, and skills; 3.
Product – how the student will summarily show what he learnt and as a
hidden element Learning environment will also plays a key role.

Benefits of Differentiated instruction:

 Through pre-assessment, the knowledge, understanding and

skills of students will be determined prior to the unit of study
 Based on the students interests, intelligence tasks can be
allotted
 Teachers can locate the appropriate resources
 Since the mastered materials of students are identified, it is easy
to proceed with further without any boredom to the students.
 Instructional activities will be flexible
 Through ongoing assessments, the teachers can gather
information about students knowledge, capabilities to direct
future planning.

Let us now discuss on the core elements of Differentiated learning:

1. Differentiating Content:

Based on student‘s readiness and interest, differentiating content for

various Children with Special Needs in Inclusive education should have,
Reading material at varying readability levels and presenting ideas
through auditory and visual means, teaching by making small groups for
individual concentration, re-teach if necessary, buddy teaching or peer
teaching etc., In this regard, for various types of children with special
needs, the content or curriculum should be adopted.

The concept curriculum is the totality of experiences gathered by a

learner both inside and outside the classroom. From the above
statement it is very clear that curriculum is not the one which is printed in
the form of course material but the complete experience of the learner
on the prescribed content of study. But this is little harder for those who
affected by one or more physical or mental disorders due to inability to
get inputs through sensory organs.

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Curriculum adaptation for Children with Visual Impairment

The Visually impaired children are expected to cover the same

curriculum and syllabus as their sighted peers under inclusive set
up. But cur riculum as it is may not be suitable to the visually
impaired child, appropriate adaptations are to be make so that he
visually impaired receive the information through touch and
hearing. Adaptations in the curr iculum and teaching approaches
for multi-sensory exper iences are to be taken care of.

While adapting material for visually impaired children teacher

must bear the following points in mind:

1. As far as possible materials are to be used in the original

form.

2. Material has to be duplicated in format accessible to visually

impaired children ( large print, Braille, JAWS).
3. Models can be effectively used to substitute the experiences.

4. Right equipment should be chosen. The adapted materials are

to be friendly for sighted also.

5. Use easiest approach to adapt material, adapt material on the

spot, teacher should be cr eative in adapt.

These children could be divided into two main types. Those for
who Braille or recorded tapes must be the medium of instr uction
and children with low vision, who can read print with
magnification in good and defused lighting.
Curriculum adaptation for Children with Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment is a great barrier to the normal development

of language.

Language being a ver y powerful tool of learning its importance in

academic achievement cannot be underestimated. It should be
remembered that to help hearing impaired individual develop
optimally in all aspects of learning i.e., social, emotional and
cognitive, it is imperative that early intervention begins with the
identification of the hearing impaired child during pre-schoolin g
programme.

Mainstr eaming seems to work well for students with mild to

moderate hearing loss. Most students with hearing impairment
can hear satisfactor ily with amplification ( i.e., hearing aid) and

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therefore, can attend school and function well with their non-
handicapped peers. Children with mild to moderate hearing
impairment need to be taught well with information presented
orally and a combination of textbooks, lectures and class
discussions. Three different approaches are used to teach
students who are deaf - Speech only (oral communication) Sign
only ( manual communication) Speech and sign together (total
communication).
Curriculum adaptation for Children with loco motor disabilities

The educational programs of children with loco-motor disability are often

similar to those of non-disabled children. For many children, particularly
those with loco-motor disability that affect their motor functioning, some
treatment of the disability takes place in the school such as hands on
therapy, assistive devices/ special devices and appliances, medication,
surgery, modification of the environment for barrier free etc

Curriculum adaptation for Children with learning disabilities

The education of children with learning disabilities has been taking place
in general classrooms even after the specialization emerged in the
special education. This field gets an evolutionary process from traditional
approach of special/segregate classrooms to the recent approach of
―inclusive schooling‖. The learning disabled need self-contained
classrooms with the help of parents, general teacher, resource teacher
and the peers.

Both the special teacher and the general teacher should show the
following competencies:

 Have the ability to take advantage of every child‘s individual

interests.

 Use a child‘s internal motivation for developing needed skills.

 Should be able to structure the environment in a way so that

students are motivated and are actively engaged.

 Believe that every child in the class is their responsibility.

 Find out how to work with each child, rather than assuring that
someone else will tell them how to educate a child.

 Know about different instructional strategies and how to use

them effectively. This also includes the ability to adapt materials.

 Learn what skills a child needs and to provide appropriate

teaching approach.

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  Show flexibility and high level of tolerance for ambiguity.

 View each child in the classroom as an opportunity to become a

better teacher rather than a problem to cope with.

 Have excellent observational skills to see as to what caused the

behavioral problem.

 Above all, all teachers need to believe that ‗All children can
learn.‘
Curriculum adaptation for children with Intellectual Disabilities

Special education for mildly retarded children (children having I.Qs 50 to

70), whether in mainstreaming or special classroom environment would
continued to focus on
(i) Developing basic academic skills.

(ii) Social competence.

(iii) Personal adjustment.

(iv) Occupational adequacy.

For severe retarded children, training on self help or daily living skills
such as dressing, feeding and toileting are to be provided; Emphases
should generally be given on (1) language development, (2) self -help
skills, (3) socialization and (4) preparation, for living and working in
sheltered environment.

2. Differentiating Process

For differentiating process, the activities should involve all students,

possibility to work on their own pace, to be interested, should get hands-
on-experiences etc.,

Teachers must work actively and deliberately to reach its goals in

Inclusive education.

The various models of inclusion are listed below:

Resource Model

In this program, children receive special instruction from the learning

disability specialist called resource teacher in the resource room for
limited periods each day and most of the time in the regular classroom.
The resource teacher concentrates on the skills peculiar to learning
disabilities and leaves curriculum matters to the regular classroom
teacher. Thus, it allows teachers to serve more children.

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The resource model mainstreams the children general classroom with
the cooperative work of regular classroom teachers and resource
teacher. It encourages non-disabled in the same chronological age peer
group acceptance, social amicability and sharing of information.

This approach has been used successfully in a variety of settings in both

urban and rural schools and at various levels. The regular teacher
assumes major responsibility for all the children with disability in
the general programme. The resour ce teacher is responsible for
instruction in special techniques or skills required of the children
with all disability. One full time resource teacher can manage 8 -
10 children with all disability in the resour ce programme. As far
as possible, the children should be distributed in different
classes/ sections, preferably not more than 2 in one
class/section.

Itinerant Model

This is an educational plan in which the children with all disability

is enrolled in a regular class in his/her home school where his/her
needs are met through the combined efforts of the regular teacher
and the visiting itinerant teacher qualified to offer special ser vice.
The salient features of the itinerant programmes are as follows:

 The children in this programme are distr ibuted in different

sch ools.

 The itinerant teacher has to travel ever y day to reach the

children.

 Each child will be visited by the teacher twice or thrice a

week. However , Children with all disability of primary
classes should be given frequent visits. In this case,
limited number of children with all disability should be
enrolled at the primary level especially in the beginning
stages of the itinerant programme.

 Each school will not be having a resource room. For the

itinerant teacher, a resource kit is advisable.

 The schools selected for the programme can be within a

radius of 8 kms. However , this distance depends upon the
topography of the locality.

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  Depending upon the topography, the itinerant teacher
should be provided with transpor tation arrangements like a
bicycle or a motor cycle can be given.

 Itinerant program enrols more children in the locality reduces

considerable expense and thus it is cost-effective.
Dual Teaching Model

In the dual teaching model, the regular classroom teacher assumes the
responsibility of assisting the children with disabilities in addition to
his/her regular classroom work. The regular teacher who meets the
special needs of the children is given some incentive. Necessary training
to such teachers is provided through short-term package programs.
Consultant Model

An increasingly popular approach to serving the disabled students is the

teacher consultant model. The consultant supports the regular
classroom teacher, other staff members, and parents in delivering
services to disabled students. The functions of the consultant include
assessment, program design, material development and adaptation,
demonstration of methods and program evaluation. However, the
consultant does not directly serve disabled students through instruction.
The teacher focuses on the student needs; the consultant focuses on
training and motivating the teacher.
Teaming Model

The special education teacher is assigned to one grade level team with
one planning period per week for the team. The special education
teacher provides student information, possible instructional strategies,
modification ideas for assignments/tests, and behavior strategies. The
team meets on a regular basis, establishing consistent communication
among the team members. The team model is presented so teachers
are not working independently to achieve success with their students. All
team members work together and broaden their knowledge in various
areas, whether they are from general education or special education.
Collaborative, Co-Teaching Model

Using this model, the general education and special education teachers
work together to teach students with/without disabilities in a shared
classroom. Both are responsible for instructional planning and delivery,
student achievement, assessment, and discipline. Students receive age-
appropriate academics, support services, and possible modified
instruction. This model provides a minimum of scheduling problems,

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continuous and ongoing communication between educators, and lower
student to teacher ratio than the teaming or consultant models.

Ways to Organize Collaborative Teaching

 One teacher, one support - This organization works well for

teaching a unit where one teacher is more expert than the other.
Students still have two teachers to ask questions of and get help.

 Parallel teaching design - The teacher divides the class into

groups and teaches them simultaneously. The student to teacher
ratio is low, more time is devoted to learning versus students
waiting for help, opportunities for re-teaching are immediate,
support for the teacher is present, communication is constant,
and behavior problems can be minimized.
 Station Teaching - This collaborative teaching model divides up
content and students so that teachers or students rotate at the
end of a unit. It is ideal for subject matter taught in units with no
particular sequence. Benefits include the opportunities for re-
teaching are immediate, the student to teacher ratio is low,
teachers become experts with material, and communication
among teachers is constant.

 Alternative Teaching Design - In this model, one teacher leads

an enrichment or alternative activity while a second teacher re-
teaches small group of students if they are having difficulty with
content. Math is compatible with this design where a lot of re-
teaching is done.

 Team Teaching – Teachers, professionals and therapists work

together to deliver the same material to the entire class.
Teachers circulate around the class providing immediate re-
teaching and a lower student to teacher ratio.
3. Differentiating Products

Providing chances to the students to express required learning in

terms of Scrape book, brochure, written form, visualization,
drawing, assignments etc.,

They should be allowed to work on their products individually.

4. Differentiating Learning Environment

School environment means buildings, roads, parks, gardens and
other places, services, modes of transportation, products of daily
use, etc., The environment should be such a way that provides
learning without distraction, collaboration to be simple it should

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 be a barrier free environment. Barrier free environment is one
which enables people with disabilities to move about safely and
freely and to use the facilities within the built environment.

Some other important considerations for a barrier free

environment are:

 Seatingposition
 Lighting
 Safety considerations
 Explore the possibility, through the class teacher of the
school implementing ―a keep to the left" rule for
movement around the school
 School should be free of unnecessary hazards such as
electric cables trailing across the floor, doors left ajar,
windows or cupboard doors left open at head height etc
 As a general rule, visual displays should be bold, clear, well
contrasted and as near to eye level as possible. Tactual
displays or those involving Braille should be lower, to
facilitate comfortable tactual exploration. While demonstrating
to the child, the teacher should describe everything clearly
 While teaching, the teacher should be careful that the
children get a clear view of his/ her face
 Ensure that all children, including the visually impaired child
has access to materials in an appropriate format, whether it is
books, diagrams, maps, etc,
 Say the notes aloud as you put them up on the blackboard,
so that they can then be recorded if necessary.

The Adapting practices of developing inclusive schools

 Understanding inclusion as a continuing process, not a one-time

event.

 Strengthening and sustaining the participation of all students,

teachers, parents and community members in the work of the
school.

 Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools to

respond to the diversity of pupils within their locality. Inclusive
settings focus on identifying and then reducing the barriers to
learning and participation, rather than on what is ―special‖ about
the individual student or group of students, and targeting services
to address the ―problem‖.

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  Providing an accessible curriculum, appropriate training
programs for teachers, and for all students, the provision of fully
accessible information, environments and support.

 Identifying and providing support for staff as well as students.

A. Planning Units and Lessons for children with disabilities

To be successful in adapting activities and materials for young

children with disabilities, the following Key Ideas must be considered.

 Inclusion is a term that refers to involving young children with

disabilities and their families in all activities that are typical for
children of that age. Inclusion is a value that says that all children
belong, regardless of their abilities, gender, race, or ethnic
background. When including young children in typical early childhood
settings, some planning will be needed to make sure it is successful
for everyone.

 To adapt activities for young children with disabilities, regular age-

appropriate toys can be used with little or no adaptations.

 Adapting materials involves a lot of creative thinking and is often

easier when a team of people other teachers, therapists, or
specialists working with the child and child‘s family brainstorm ideas
together.

 Not all children with same disability need the same adaptations. They
differ. Therefore, it is important to think of adaptations for a particular
child, not a disability.

 A developmentally appropriate curriculum focuses on the learning

characteristics of children at different developmental levels but
individualizes for the unique interests, strengths and personalities of
the child. When young children with disabilities are included in
programs that use a developmentally appropriate approach, the types
of individualizations that are already used for young children without
disabilities must just be extended to meet the needs of all children.

a. Involving a child in an activity even if he cannot perform all the steps

of the activity. Some children with disabilities may not be able to do
all the steps of an activity that their typically developing peers can do.
However, the child with disabilities should still be involved in as much
of the activity as possible.
B. Adapting Unit Plan and Lesson Plan for Children with Disabilities

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The first step an educator should take when starting to write lesson
plans for students with various disabilities is to look at their files to
determine their eligibility for special education services, the interventions
the students have had and the students current level of performance,
this can be also achieved by conducting a pre-assessment.

When dealing with students with various disabilities in the same

classroom, it can be a little challenging to do a lesson plan that is
individualized and goal oriented for each student. When writing a lesson
plan for students with various learning disabilities, always focus on the
main principles of teaching students with disabilities which are:

 Engagement - Teachers should always make sure that they make

the lesson engaging to the point that the student is motivated to learn
from the desire of being competent and for the love of learning, rather
than for a grade, teachers approval or acceptance into a good
college.

 Belonging, competence, value and safety - Students with various

learning disabilities have to feel that they belong, are safe and are
valued before they really exert fully in the classroom, this is a critical
dimension of an effecting learning environment.

 Connections with constructs - This is also known as relevance

where the student has pre-existing understandings of the subject
matter being taught.

 Information with conceptual frameworks - Special educators

should focus on making the students understand the facts and ideas
within the context of what is being taught, so that knowledge can be
organized in ways that will help with retrieval and application.

 Meta-cognition - This is where students are encouraged to verbalize

their thinking in order for the teacher to monitor their understanding
and internal dialog or conversation. Meta-cognition allows students to
activate background knowledge, self explain in order to improve
understanding and note failures in their comprehension.

Universal Design Learning for Students with Disabilities

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) gives all students an equal

opportunity to succeed. It is a set of principles that provide teachers with
a structure to develop instructions to meet the diverse needs of all
learners.

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UDL provides a blueprint for creating flexible goals, methods, materials
and assessment that accommodate learning differences. Though the
―Universal‖ term is there, it is to understand that it is not imply a single
optimal solution for everyone. So, various approaches are to meet the
different needs of the differently abled. Though Universal Design at first
focused on barrier free environment particularly the school buildings,
later, the principles of Universal design were applied to the desig n of
curriculum and classroom pedagogy not only to the normal children but
also to the children with special needs. UDL gives importance to the
individual differences and by eliminating the barriers, provides access to
learning.

David H. Rose, Ed. D is the first person defined the UDL and mentioned
that the curriculum will have four parts: instructional goals (what to
achieve), methods (how to achieve), materials (based on what) and
assessments (whether achieved or not).
Principles of UDL:

 Accessibility of all children

 Flexibility in use, participation, and presentation
 Supportive learning environment
 Consideration of learners and learning methods
The 3 important tenets of UDL are multiple methods of presentation;
multiple options for participation and multiple means of expression.

Examples of multiple methods of presentation

 Content could be presented using multiple media, such as oral
lectures, textbooks, charts or diagrams, audio tapes, and videos.
 The same content could be changed from one medium to another,
such as oral output for students with reading difficulties or pictures
and illustrations for students who need a visual image.
 Materials would have adjustable presentation characteristics —
changeable font style and size, highlighting of main concepts
Examples of multiple methods of participation

 Students would choose their preferred method of learning new

material. One child might learn vocabulary by playing a game in a
race against the clock; another might create stories or even artwork
to incorporate the new words.
 Content would be tailored to match kids' interests. For example,
math principles could be taught using topics ranging from hockey to
horses.

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 Materials would provide extra support where students need it. For
reading practice, independent readers could read silently from a
book. Students needing more support might read computer- based
stories where they could click on a troublesome word to hear it
pronounced or have the entire text read aloud.
Examples of multiple methods of expression

 Assignments would be accepted in various formats. A student

who finds written expression difficult might show his
knowledge orally; another might turn in a report, write a play,
or develop a project to demonstrate learning.
 ―Paper and pencil" exercises could become "computer and
printer" exercises for students who are slowed down by
the physical effort of writing, or for any student who prefers
using a keyboard.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end

of the Block.

1. What are the main elements of differentiating teaching

strategies?
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2. Who defined UDL at first?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

UNIT 18 TEACHING LEARNING MATERIALS FOR INCLUSIVE

EDUCATION

Teachers can teach effectively with the help of appropriate Teaching

Learning Material (TLM). Learning through the aid of pictures or other
visuals creates a better understanding in the minds of the learners. At
the same time, TLM discourages memorization as a technique of
learning since it facilitates comprehension. In an inclusive classroom the
role of TLM is more valuable. In earlier conventional educational system
the students were classified as per their needs and hence curriculum

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and TLM were specific to the needs of the students. With inclusive
philosophy, today, the classrooms have students with diverse needs.
Their family support, abilities/disabilities and learning qualities differ from
each other‘s to a great extent. For such a class what is required are
flexible classroom strategies and strong support from appropriate TLM
so that all students benefit from the teaching. In a classroom where
students are from various cultural, linguistic background and some of
them have disabilities; keeping the pace of learning is bound to be little
difficult. Appropriate TLM will facilitate teaching and learning.

Providing learners with learning experiences in relevant situations

beyond the four walls of the classroom can give them idea of the context
of the concept being transacted along with a sense of environmental and
cultural appreciation.
Many students with disabilities require assistive technology to participate
in and benefit from their educational programs. A range of technology
solutions are available to support student performance, achievement,
and independence in the following areas:

 academics and learning aids,

 aids to daily living,

 assistive listening and environmental aids for the hearing

impaired and deaf,
 augmentative communication,

 computer access,
 leisure and recreation,

 seating, positioning, mobility, and vision.

Students who have access to the appropriate technology solutions that

they need are more likely to be successful in their educational programs.

Inclusive TLMs

The teacher teaching in an inclusive classroom should develop the

following kinds of TLM:

 3-D
 Visual and auditory aids
 Tactile aids
 Models

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Real objects should be given first preference as they give opportunity for
hands-on and experiential learning to ALL children.

It is important that children in every grade able to acquire the grade level
competencies and skills before they move up to the next grade. Thus, it
is important to look at ways that can make education more accessible for
all children. One of the ways is through the use of Learning Resources.
This is an important resource for the teachers to enable and enhance
the learning process of children. Therefore learning resources play a
significant role both for the teacher and learner to facilitate learning.
There are different types of learning resources such as concrete
materials (TLM), devices, activities, ICT and open education resource
which provides ample opportunities for developing effective classroom
pedagogy, besides shaping participatory and collaborative processes of
learning. It also facilitates professional development of a teacher.

Open education resource (OER) is a revolution in the field of education

resources. This technology is developed with the objective of knowledge
development in the field of education and research. OER designates
―teaching, learning and research materials in any medium, digital or
otherwise, that reside in the public domain or have been released under
an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and
redistribution by others with no or limited
restrictions. This includes course materials, modules, textbooks, videos,
tests, software, and any other tools, materials, or techniques used to
support access to knowledge." (UNESCO, 2002)
The success of developing effective inclusive practices largely depends
on teachers. Thereby it becomes essential for teacher to understand the
significance of these resources because it helps the teacher to make
learning effective for all learners in terms of understanding the concept,
assimilation and generalization. The teachers should consider that the
teaching learning material should provide information through multi-
sensory approach i.e., audio, visual, tactile and kinesthetic. One of the
major aims of National Curriculum Framework (2005) is designing,
providing for, and enabling appropriate teaching learning systems that
could realize the identified goals. The National Curriculum Framework
(2020) aim at move the education system towards real understanding
and towards learning how to learn for which focus is on the curriculum
frameworks and transaction mechanisms for ensuring the skills and
values are imbibed through engaging processes of teaching and
learning.

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 Adaptation of TLM

The teaching learning material used should not only be appropriate

according to the need of the child but also according to: Child‘s IQ level,
chronological age, need and interest. The teaching learning material
should provide information through multi-sensory approach for best
understanding i.e., usage of maximum sense organs: audio, visual,
olfactory, tactile and kinaesthetic etc.,

Tips to remember while using to the children with special education

needs

 Children with Intellectual Disabilities

o Break the tasks into small steps
o Avoid overwhelming, one step at a time
o Environment where visual aids viz., charts, pictures, and
graphs are useful.
o Most people are kinaesthetic learners, who learn by
doing. Hands-on tasks are to be provided to the
intellectually disabled
o Providing direct experiences during the abstract concept
teachings Ex: gravity
o Use of prompts for right answers
o Rewards for behaviour modifications
 Children with hearing impairment
o Maximum use of visual media
o Converting the audiotapes, video tapes into print format
o Visual cues instead of aural Ex: lights
o To increase the new vocabulary, labelling
o Usage of written announcements
 Children with visual impairment
o For low vision persons, using large print or 3 d models
o Braille, embossed directions
o Tactile formats for the total blind
o Modify instructions to auditory/tactile presentation
o Make all handouts and assignments available in an
appropriate form: .g., regular print, large print, Braille, or
cassette, depending on the optimal mode of
communication.

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 Check your progress
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.

3. What are OERs?

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

4 Mention few kinds of teaching learning materials in Inclusive

schools
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

UNIT 19 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS WITH

DISABILITEIS

Inclusive education means education of all students, where all students

are equal participants in the learning process. Provision of inclusive
education involving students with disabilities is based on the belief that
those with disabilities should not have to depend on specialised services
alone, to benefit from educational resources, activities and practices that
are otherwise available to all. Inclusivity is maintained when all members
of a group are able to participate in its activities, which means,
provisions made are considerate of all members and not just those from
specific groups or, with special abilities, disabilities, and/or needs.
Co-Cu rricular Activities with Adaptations
Accommodation

Accommodation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum, or

classroom environmen t to accommodate a student’s needs so he / she can
participate in, and achieve the teaching-learn ing goals.
Some examples include:

 use of audio tapes, electronic texts where available, having peer/

classmate to assist with class activities, or simply re-organising
seating of a child who may be unable to be attentive, easily
distracted, or distracting others in the classroom

 alternatives to written assignments to demonstrate knowledge

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 andunderstanding (e.g. through oral presentations, drawing or
other artistic presentations)

 extended time to complete assignments or tests

 computer software which provides text to speech/speech to text

capabilities, when available;

 provide for multiple experiences with materials to allow for

different learning styles or needs, also to help reinforce learning
(for example, learning how plants grow in multiple ways –
through class textbooks, through hands-on experience by
growing one in the class, preparing observation record of its
growth, and through group or whole class discussion about the
on-going learning).
Modifications

Modifications involve making changes to learning goals, teaching

processes, assignments and/or assessments to accommodate a
student‘s learning needs. E.g., (sample lessons on pg. 29-43). For
example:

 changing the assignment to accommodate a student‘s learning

needs: allowing use of letter-cards to spell words as a
modification to saying the spelling aloud, allow the student with
intellectual impairment to utilise concrete and/or more hands-on
experiences, changing the conceptual difficulty level for some
students.

Co-curricular activities are an integral part of curriculum which provides

educational activities to the students and thereby help in broadening
their experiences. Co-curricular activities can be defined as the activities
that enhance and enrich the regular curriculum during the school hours.
All co-curricular activities are organised with specific purpose which vary
according to the nature and form of such activities.

In inclusive education where children with disabilities are taught together

co-curricular activities acts as instrument to create inclusive
environment. All learners get chance to participate in different co -
curricular activities and perform according to their potential. The
inclusive environment provides opportunities to participate in those
activities which were not present in the exclusive environment. In order
to ensure the holistic development of an individual, provide chance to
thrive beyond the subjects prescribed in the syllabus, co-curricular
activities are important.

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Importance of Co-curricular activities:

 They boost the creativity and innate talents

 Enhance the learning process
 Bring sense of belongingness
 Keep children physically active
 Foster social skills, moral skills
Types of Co-curricular activities

 For physical development and coordination: Dance, Yoga,

Sports, NCC, aerobics
 For Psychomotor development : gardening, book binding,
tailoring, knitting
 Cultural development: drawing and painting, Dance and Music,
Theatre plays
 Intellectual development: quizzes, debate, essay writing, poem
recitals, story writing, spelling bees
 Social development: volunteering, conducting festivals or
competitions, social work (independent/ in groups)
 Academics related: book clubs, exhibitions, poetry recitation,
debates, story-writing, preparation of charts, school magazine
editor
i. Sports and Games
 Cricket, Football, Golf, Gymnastics, Hockey, Basketball etc.,
ii. Uniformed Groups

 NCC, NSS, Scouts etc.,

iii. Performing Arts

 Piano, Violin, Drama, Dance etc.,

iv. Visual arts

 Drawing, Painting, etc.,

v. Clubs and Societies

 Art club, Debate club, Computer club, Green club etc.,

The curriculum cover all subjects including language, speech therapy,

vocational training are also parts of curriculum. Co-curricular and
extracurricular aspects such as dancing, sports and games, the main
focus should be on preparatory skills, improving motor skills to reduce

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the effect of disability and training in the use of specific equipment
relevant to the disability.

Art, Craft and Music

Art is a very effective medium of self-expression and communication. It

provides a number of media such as dance, drama, music, painting,
sculpture, carving, puppetry, etc., for self-expression and communication
with the world, and helps in developing self-confidence and self-worth in
learners. Art classes may also encourage many students to take up this
creative mode of self expression as their profession in future life. For
students with special needs, art education also acts as a healthy leisure
activity. To gain access to these areas students may require alternative
activities or opportunities, additional time etc.,

Health, Hygiene, Yoga, Sports and Physical Education

These components are important for students with special education

need to improve the following:

 personal health and physical development

 Movement concepts and motor skills

 Mental health including peace

 Relationships with other people

Studies and experiments have indicated that most of the children with
disabilities can play a number f games without any support or special
effort.
Work education

Work education provides students with SEN studying at the secondary

level an opportunity to understand the world of work and readies them
for possible future careers. Obviously, everyone has to earn his/her
livelihood by employment in appropriate work. The curriculum should
provide for proper career counselling and also for training in pre-
vocational skills. The pre-vocational skills include acquisition of work
skills, awareness of work ethics, appropriate work habits, and
responsibility sharing. Pre-vocational skills training should also include
development and inculcation of values such as honesty, punctuality,
dignity of labor, respect for teamwork, and productivity consciousness.
Students with SEN may take more time to adjust to the work setting, the
work environment, their colleagues, and also to the idea of money
management. Liaising between the world of work and education will also
provide an opportunity to the employer to observe and suggest further

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improvements. This can also be an opportunity for students with SEN to
get absorbed or to get selected for jobs while studying. This interface
between the world of work and education will also help in changing the
attitude of people in general and in creating awareness in society about
students with SEN. In order to bring about effective liaising between the
world of work and education, the curriculum should be in proper
harmony with the demands and needs of the industry. In other words,
the mainstream school curriculum should provide the facility of
vocational streaming.

Accommodation in Approaches and Techniques

Blind students can participate in many co-curricular activities.

The following examples will illustr ate this point.

1. Adapted chess is available and blind and sighted students

can play together.

2. Ordinary playing cards have been adapted and again blind

and sighted children can play together.

3. Cricket ball can be adapted and blind and sighted students

can play cr icket together. In fact, blind students can also
participate in the school tournaments.

4. Blind students can join in essay writing competition.

5. Blind students can engage in debating, stor ytelling,

recitation and other similar activities along with sighted
children.
6. Blind students can play Kabbadi, Skipping etc.,.
7. With some help, they can engage in running races.

8. Blind Children can play musical chairs.

Many more activities can be designed by an innovative teacher.

a. Accommodation In Approaches And Techniques In Teaching
Children With Visual Impairment (VI) Disabilities

When speaking, face the class.

 If you feel the VI student is not attentive, touch her/him on the

shoulder or arm to draw attention; this also helps in indicating to the
student that you are including her/him in your instruction s and
discussions.

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 Provide large print, Braille versions when needed so that the VI child
can follow the classroom‘s text-based teaching and lessons along
with the sighted peers.

 Assign a peer to provide help or assist when needed

 Use real objects to allow the student to learn and experience through
touch

 Provide students with tactile graphs and diagrams where available.

 Consider alternative assignments

 Use mixed-groups: divide your class in smaller groups, this will allow
closer and needed teaching utilising the concrete material for your VI
student.

 Re-organise the classroom so that you can easily assist the VI

student when needed, such as a semicircle or a circle classroom
arrangement.

 Be flexible in accepting deadline for assignments (to the VI student

and to any of the classmates when they are involved in a group
assignment, as the student with VI may require more time to process
some ofthe information that would be easily accessible to the sighted
peers.)
 Give specific directions in addressing the whole class

 Use verbal expressions to go with facial expression in class.

 If a VI child is not attending or following your directions, it is likely that

s/he does not understand what is the expected behaviour in the
classroom Make sure the student understands whatis expected of
her/him.

b. Accommodation In Approaches And Techniques In Teaching

Children With Hearing Impairment

 Arrange the classroom so that students can see each other, e.g.,
organising the class in a circle or semicircle allows all students to see
each other.

 Avoid drawing too much attention to the learners with HI, while
maintaining inclusivity of all learners in the classroom.

 When showing diagrams, pictures etc.,, use slower speech so that

the HI child can follow your expressions and also look, study the
illustrations.

 Use shorter sentences, clearer speech.

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 Associate words with real objects, pictures; for example, the colour
concept (examples on pg. 54-58)

 Use pictures (flash cards), real objects, real experiences,

dramatisation, and activities.
 You can write key points on the board or chart.

 When utilising group work, make sure that the student with HI can
follow all the group members‘ discussions.
 Develop communication amongst children through play activities.

 Organise groups in smaller numbers.

 Remind the group members to take turns in speaking to allow the

student with HI to follow and participate with all.

 Encourage children to develop communication strategies so that they

can get into the style of students with HI.
c. Accommodation In Approaches And Techniques In Teaching
Children With Physical Impairment

 For children with problems in writing, modified (large grip) pencils

may be provided. A classmate can help by taking notes. Carbon
paper can be used for making copies. Extra time for writing should be
given if the child is able to write on his / her own and there should not
be undue emphasis on the quality of writing as long as it is legible.

 Students can use adapted brushes, modified pencils and thick

markers that can be gripped easily, for drawing. Alternatively the
children can use stamping methods or paste cut outs. The books,
papers, brushes etc., can be fixed on the table with the help of tape
etc., so that they do not slip down.

 For assessment, have students present the material orally or if

required, with the help of a scribe. Use objective type, multiple type
questions using yes/no or true/false answers

 Peer support and/or group work will help in performing various

activities like studies, eating, moving around and also sports
activities.

 Plan alternatives for athletic or cultural activities to encourage

participation of all students. For example, while playing cricket, the
student can act as umpire. While performing a dance show, the
student can perform on a wheelchair or crutches.

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 Repeat instructions and recheck after student completes oneor two
exercises.

 Mathematics can be taught using concrete objects, matching, sorting

and identifying exercises.

 In teaching language, written outline, graphics and pictures to support

text are helpful. The student may repeat by mumbling to
himself/herself. This helps in better grasp.

d. The activities and skills necessary to teach children with

Intellectual Disabilities:
1. Training of daily living skills

The first and foremost training to be given to the children with mental
retardation is on daily living skills based on their I.Q. and the degree of
retardation. It is the prime duty of the psychologist is to assess the IQ
and nature and degree of retardation with the help of other professionals
related to this field. Through Individualized Education Plan, the following
skills for daily living can be taught to the children with mental retardation.
i. Eating and Drinking Skill

ii. Toileting Skill

iii. Brushing Skill

iv. Bathing Skill

v. Dressing Skill

vi. Grooming Skill

vii. Menstrual hygiene

viii. Shaving etc.,

2. Functional Academic skills

i. Functional reading
ii. Functional writing

iii. Functional arithmetic

3. Other Skills

i. Money management skill

ii. Travel skill

iii. Home management skill

iv. Computer handling skills etc.,

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 Check your progress
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the

end of the Block.

5. List out any two accommodation techniques in teaching the

Visual impaired

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6. Mention few Daily Living Skills of Children with Intellectual

Disabilities
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

UNIT 20 ADAPTATION OF EVALUATION PROCEDURES

Singhal (2004) in her study on existing practices at school level stated

that teachers regard the mainstream as curriculum-oriented and
examination-driven, with pressures of ―high achievement‖ .she noted
teaching in India stands subordinated to examination and not
examination to teaching. Thus, the focus is on the completion of a rigid
and vast curriculum.

Collaborative forms of assessment for inclusive classrooms

Collaboration between and consultation with the student, parents,

caregivers, and other relevant people enable educators to gain a good
understanding of the students‘ strengths and needs. The differences
between traditional assessment methods and collaborative forms of
assessment are as shown in the table.

Traditional assessment Collaborative assessment

Based on medical model Based on an ecological model

Focuses on deficits within the Focuses on abilities, strengths, and

student / of the student needs

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Assessment procedures are Assessment procedures are
unrelated to the curriculum and related to the curriculum and
learning context context of learning

Hierarchical expect model-there is Team members are seen as equal

inequality between the student and in human dignity
the ‗examiner‘

One-shot assessment approach Assessment is a continuous

process

Student sis viewed as passive Students is viewed as active

recipient of assessment participant and collaborator

Focus is on the learning products Focus is on the learning process

or outcomes achievement of the
student

The assessment is carried out by Parents and other relevant people

a specialist working in isolation are consulted and involved in the
assessment.

Flexible strategies for assessment and accreditation have been

recommended by the Open File on Inclusive Education (UNESCO,
2001). Appropriate assessment enables,

 Students who are talented and gifted to move at their natural

learning pace
 Students who progress more slowly than their peers to move at
their own pace whilst still being part of the content of themes and
lessons
 Students experiencing specific learning problems to receive
creative and effective support to maximize their success.

The Open File gives examples from various countries with the following
strategies:

 They break or weaken the link between assessment and

Progression.
 They relate assessment to broad objects on which the curriculum
is based rather than to the making of specified content
 They develop flexible forms of accreditation

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 Adaptation of Evaluation Tools for Children with Disabilities

Developmental assessment plays an important role in early intervention.

Test results form a basis for the support children (0 – 6 years) receive
and are therefore of large clinical importance. It is thus essential that
assessment instruments are reliable and valid. The validity cannot be
taken for granted when children have impairments that influence the
results of a measure of skills in a different area of development. Various
ways have been and are being developed of accommodating existing,
well-studied assessment instruments to increase their validity for specific
groups of children with special needs. The question is if it would, in the
long term, be possible to development an accommodation method that is
widely applicable and not specific to one instrument and/or target group.

The aim of this special issue is to inform readers about new

developments in early developmental assessment, namely the
accommodations that need to be made in cases in which one or more
developmental areas that are not the subject of the assessment are
impaired and hinder optimal test behaviour.

The special issue welcomes research and review articles on the new
developments in early developmental assessment (i.e.,, test, screening
instruments, and observation instruments), including but not limited to
the following topics:

 assessment of cognitive development in children with visual

impairment

 assessment of language development in children with motor

impairment
 assessment of cognitive development in children with multiple
disabilities

 specific strategies or statistical methods for developing or

accommodating tests for children with disabilities.

A learning disability is a disorder in basic psychological processes,

which manifests itself in considerable difficulties acquiring and
implementing skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
conceptualization and/or mathematical competence. The learning
disability is unexpected with regard to age, level of education or IQ. It
does not apply to learning difficulties resulting from visual or auditory
impairment, kinesthetic deficiencies, cognitive developmental delay,
emotional problems and/or external circumstances, such as
environmental, cultural or socioeconomic deprivation, nor do they apply
to deficiencies resulting from inadequate or deficient teaching.

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Implications

Students with disabilities should be expected to meet the standards of

the English Curriculum. They have been diagnosed by a psycholog ist or
an educational specialist and their abilities and specific areas of
disability have been identified. Recommendations for modifications and
required instruction have been made. It is vital that the English teacher
read the diagnosis and recommendations and apply them when
teaching. It is strongly recommended that English teachers of students
with learning disabilities, whether in an integrated or a separate class,
receive appropriate training in order to be qualified to teach this student
population. It is likewise recommended that the English teacher in a
regular class consult with the special education teacher in the school or
with another professional when designing the program of studies for this
student population. In most cases, it is possible to integrate the goals of
the English Curriculum within the framework of the Individual Education
Plan ( IEP). Assessment should be continuous and separate based on
their ability and level of the individual. Assessment techniques should
be unique and designed to measure the predefined objectives for the
child.

Assessment should be continuous and formative in nature by

incorporating during the teaching and learning process. While teaching
additional steps should be taken so that learning can take place
effectively.
Individualized Assessment for Children with Disabilities

Educational assessment of a student with special needs can be

challenging and, if not administered correctly, can provide a
misrepresentation of the child‘s actual academic abilities. For instance, a
standardized written test would not be relevant for a disabled student
who has delayed or inhibited language acquisition. In this hypothetical,
seeking a verbal justification or response is also problematic.
Subsequently, it is essential for the educator to understand the
idiosyncrasies of the student‘s disability, and have a solid knowledge of
his/her potential to ensure content is relevant whilst still being
challenging. Although development may be delayed, it does not mean
that some learning in the area is impossible, but rather that it is different
to the expected ability at that chronological age.

Despite more clinical relevance, Children with Neurodevelopment

Disabilities offers a guide to insightful assessment methods which
educators can employ to ascertain the abilities of a child with special
needs. Knowledge of the student‘s disability is essential prior to the

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commencement of the teaching-learning process, as this allows
educators to be aware of possible challenges to learning, in addition to
some relevant preparation regarding how best such challenges may be
overcome. The editors emphasize the necessity of liaising with the
parents to quickly deduce a substantial amount of valuable information
regarding the child. This includes strengths and weaknesses, behavioral
problems, particular interests, medication, and current functional and
cognitive abilities. Parents are an invaluable source of information and
support in the quest to provide the most fulfilling education for a student
with special needs (Will, 1985). Thus, ongoing communication between
parents and educators is encouraged.

Most desired assessment is a combination of formative and summative,

however, sometimes this is not feasible for some students with a
disability (Friend &Bursuck, 2002). After meeting with the student and
parents, the initial in-class assessment is conducted by the teacher. This
forms an understanding of the most appropriate ongoing assessment
tools to be employed in evaluating the student‘s learning (Turnbull,
1995). It also provides an estimation of the student‘s current ability. Over
time, educators develop an understanding of the child‘s personality and,
as with a neurotypical student, it becomes apparent when content is
feasible and is being understood. This form of observational assessment
allows for instantaneous adjustment of content (Falchikov, 2013). A
supplementary advantage of having a firm rapport with the student is the
ability to deduce the emotional response to learning. That is, should the
student be experiencing frustration, the teacher is able to redirect the
lesson or to permit a short break. The knowledge of the student and
his/her personal needs during the learning process is vital, as in some
cases (such as children with Asperger‘s Syndrome) the child may refuse
to reattempt a challenge if previous experience has resulted in failure
(Fawcett, 2009).

Detailed understanding of the child is imperative. Furthermore, in

knowing the personality of individuals with special needs, educators are
able to teach to the individual, as opposed to teaching to the disability
(Mansell& Beadle-Brown, 2012). This is empowering and dignified for
both the student and the teacher. Assessment accommodation is
another component necessary for successful evaluation of students with
special needs. Assessment accommodation refers to adjustments made
to the method of testing and can consist of modifications such as timing,
setting, presentation, response, and scheduling (Gregg, 2009).
Additional adjustments may include any alternate accommodation
provided that does not fit into one of the five aforementioned

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adaptations. Assessment accommodation is not enacted for the
student‘s academic advantage, more so it is essential in ensuring the
child is not penalized due to his/her disability. For example, a child with
cerebral palsy can be given additional time or the aid of a scribe to
record their responses. In this instance, the student may have similar
cognitive abilities to his/her classmates but would be severely
disadvantaged without consideration of the physical limitations to
complete the test. Accommodation provides the most accurate and
comprehensive representation of the true ability of a student with special
needs, by making the test relevant and accessible to the individual
(Abedi, 2009).

Identification & Assessment

1. Good communication between a student‘s home and school, parents

and teachers/principals, will help to identify potential SEN as early as
possible.

2. In-school measures used prior to full assessment should in clude

screening for sensory impairments. They should also include the use
of varied teaching methods by teachers – which should reflect a
degree of flexibility with the general education programme, especially
within the mainstream environment.
3. Before individualised adaptations are made to the curriculum,
teachers should be satisfied that other alternative strategies have
been attempted – such as small group work, buddy systems, or
active/experiential learning.

4. No single method of assessment should be used as the sole means

of identifying the needs of a student.

5. Assessment methods and contexts may vary according to individual

needs. As such, assessment should be appropriate to the age and
development level of individual students. They should also have
credibility with all IEP team members.

6. Both informal and formal methods of assessment should be utilised,

rather than relying only on standardised tests, as these can be
unsuitable for certain disability types (e.g. Autistic Spectrum
Disorders). Such assessment methods may include observation,
interview, task analysis, or environmental assessment.

7. Identification, assessment and later planning procedures/tools should

be cognisant of each individual student‘s language and culture, as
these comprise a vital context for learning and development.

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Evaluation/Review

a) Students with SEN should be evaluated on all parts of their education

programme using the same established standards for other students
whenever possible.

b) The effectiveness of an IEP should be evaluated in terms of: student

performance and progress; implementation issues (e.g. time/staff
available); team co-ordination issues; and any additional outcomes,
positive or negative.

c) Adequate progress may be measured to,

a. Closes the gap in attainment between the student and his/her peers –
or stops the gap growing

b. Is similar to that of peers starting from the same baseline

c. Matches or improves a student‘s previous progress

d. Ensures access to the curriculum

e. Demonstrates increased independence, behaviour, or social or

personal skills

f. Is likely to lead to appropriate accreditation

g. Is likely to lead to participation in further education, training and/or

employment

d) Evaluation procedures should accommodate the type and range of

adaptations and modifications identified in each individual student‘s
plan. Any requirement for and use of adapted evaluation procedures
should be recorded in the plan.

e) Plans should be formally reviewed at least once a year, and ideally

more often. More frequent evaluation may be necessary, especially
for younger children. In general, frequency of review should be
guided by the individual needs of each student and the provision
made to meet those needs.

f) Ongoing monitoring should be part of the IEP process between

formal evaluation/review periods, with ongoing communication and
feedback between IEP members an essential feature.
In general

• Parents and students should be included to the fullest extent possible

at all times.

• There should be a shared responsibility for planning and collective

accountability for outcomes amongst members of the IEP team.

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• There should be a consensus on educational and other goals.

• Socialisation and behavioural contexts, priorities and targets should

be central elements of each child‘s plan. Inclusion within peer groups
can become more of a barrier to educational inclusion in mainstream
settings as students move beyond primary level.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the

end of the Block.

7. Differentiate the collaborative assessment from that of

traditional
assessment_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8. Describe the Open File on Inclusive Education
___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

LET US SUM UP

It is important to bring about a number reforms at various levels in order

to develop a ―school for all‖ having an inclusive curriculum. The
curriculum need to be balanced in such a way that it is common for all,
and yet takes account of the individual needs of all learners. It is also
important to take into consideration pedagogical issues. The curriculum
should be accessible to all children and for this specialist support would
be required. Care then has to be exercised to ensure that learners with
special needs are not segregated from the mainstream by providing this
specialist support. How the school organizes itself to be an effective
school that takes care of the individuals‘ needs of all pupils is another
issue to be considered. While being flexible in the time table and delivery
of the curriculum, the school should also provide for the resource
support needed in the form of special educators, assistive devices, and
teaching learning material. The professional development of teachers
and educators is an important issue and must incorporate attitudinal
change, and the knowledge and skills necessary to lead to an inclusive
society. Finally, no initiative towards inclusive education would be
complete without collaborating with parents and without the eternal

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support of NGOs and special schools for providing inputs on training,
curriculum delivery, assessment etc.,

GLOSSARIES

 Accommodation - adjustment, as of differences or to new

circumstances
 Co-curricular activities - experiences that are connected to or
mirror the academic curriculum. Co-curricular activities are
typically, but not always, defined by their separation from
academic courses
 Collaborative learning - collaborative learning is an educational
approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of
students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or
create a product.
 Curriculum adaptation - A process of adjusting the existing
curriculum to meet the diverse needs of learners of all abilities.
 Daily living skills - Daily living skills, sometimes referred to as
activities of daily living (ADLs), are routine, self-care tasks in
which most people participate on a daily basis without assistance
 Differentiated teaching strategies - tailoring instruction to meet
individual needs
 Inclusive education - Inclusive education means all children in
the same classrooms, in the same schools
 Modifications - the action of modifying something.
 Peer tutoring - Peer tutoring includes a range of approaches in
which learners work in pairs or small groups to provide explicit
teaching support
 Universal design learning - Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
is an approach to teaching and learning that gives all students
equal opportunity to succeed.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Differentiating content, Differentiating process, Differentiating products

and learning environment
2. David H. Rose, Ed. D

3. Open Education Resources are the materials in the public domain or

open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and
redistribution by others.

386
4. Tactile, 3-Dimentional, Visual and auditory aids, models

5. Tactile and auditory assistance in understanding the concepts to the

totally blind; Provide large print to the partially blind

6. Daily Living Skills:

i. Eating and Drinking Skill

ii. Toileting Skill

iii. Brushing Skill

iv. Bathing Skill

v. Dressing Skill

vi. Grooming Skill

vii. Menstrual hygiene

viii. Shaving etc.,

7. Collaborative assessment and traditional assessment

Traditional assessment Collaborative assessment

Based on medical model Based on an ecological model

Focuses on deficits within the Focuses on abilities, strengths, and

student / of the student needs

Assessment procedures are Assessment procedures are

unrelated to the curriculum and related to the curriculum and
learning context context of learning

Hierarchical expect model-there is Team members are seen as equal

inequality between the student and in human dignity
the ‗examiner‘

One-shot assessment approach Assessment is a continuous

process

Student sis viewed as passive Students is viewed as active

recipient of assessment participant and collaborator

Focus is on the learning products Focus is on the learning process

387
or outcomes achievement of the
student

The assessment is carried out by Parents and other relevant people

a specialist working in isolation are consulted and involved in the
assessment.

8. Flexible strategies for assessment and accreditation have been

recommended by the Open File on Inclusive Education (UNESCO,
2001). Appropriate assessment enables,

 Students who are talented and gifted to move at their natural

learning pace
 Students who progress more slowly than their peers to move at
their own pace whilst still being part of the content of themes and
lessons
 Students experiencing specific learning problems to receive
creative and effective support to maximize their success.

SUGGESTED READINGS

 Inclusive Education for Special Children – MaitreyaBalsara, 2011

– Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, New Delhi.

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web
&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjx9sCSv4XyAhX5qksFHc
uQBiMQFjARegQIGhAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.samarthan
am.org%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F02%2FInclusive_education_te
acher_training_module.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3FySku87RoAY0sT7v
OzPvg
 https://leverageedu.com/blog/types-of-co-curricular-activities/

 https://medinclusiveeducation.weebly.com/preparation-of-
tlm.html

 https://www.teachervision.com/teaching-strategies/teaching-
strategies-for-using-materials-in-an-inclusive-classroom

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Web Resources

 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7756599/

 https://www.edu-links.org/index.php/learning/importance-accessible-
learning-materials ED455648.pdf

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