Principles of Dota Communications DATA COMMUNICATION The transfer of data ; receiver both interpret on one machine to another machine such that the sender and ive cada _data correctly is called data communication. Data com ts concemed with the transmissi a isi the form of bits 0 and 1. Some f. insmission of digital data. This transfer of data is in of data. * form of transmission medium is necessary for this exchange Effectiveness of data communication The effectiveness of a data communication syste i eff m depends on the following thi characteristics : = pen So 1 Delivery : Data must be delivered to the correct destination. Data must be received only by the intended user. 2, Timeliness : The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data is useful when it is delivered at the right time. Real-time delivery of data means that it is delivered as it is produced, in the same order, and without any significant delay. 3. Accuracy : The system must deliver data accurately. Data must not be altered in the course of transmission. If any errors take place while data is being transmitted, these errors must be corrected before data can be used. COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM. Adata communication system is made up of five components. These are : 1. Message : The message is the information or data to be communicated. A message may consist of text, pictures, audio, video, or a combination of these. 2. Sender : The device that sends the message is called the sender. This may be a ‘computer, a video camera, a Web camera, or a telephone instrument. { rough which a message travels from the sender to edium:E.g., coaxial cable wire, twisted pair wire, fiber- ‘word “channel” is also used to refer to the ye receiver. ss the message is called the receiver. This can et, or a mobile (telephone) instrument. that control the process of data devices exchange data, there must beroe agreements on how this exchange will take plac sender transmit data, in which Innguage, what if ¢ process of data transmission, and how these errors url - that all the data has been transmitted. All these iusuer 47 rm called the protocol. DATA REPRESENTATION Computer is an electronic device. It uses four different nur; binary, octal, and hexadecimal. Each of these systems has system that we use in everyday life for counting is the decimal nu numbering systems are positional numbering systems. That is, the pr, a number decides its value in that number. E.g., consider the number 36; 6 is in the hundreds place. So the value of the digit 6 is 600 (since: 6 » number is written as 3596, the position of digit 6 is now in the unit's place. « digit 6 is just 6 (since 6 x 1 = 6). Base or radix : The number of different symbols used in a numb: its base or radix. Decimal Number System This is the most common numbering system and we use it everyday for Characters used : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Base : 10, since there are 10 symbols used in this system. Example: 1 Consider the decimal number 754. This can be written as : 700 + 50 = 4 In the figure below, we separate out each digit of this number and multiph appropriate power of the base (10). 4 7 fo +5 +10 +h et = 700+ 50+ % = 754 | digit position The position of the digit ; igit is extremely important. E.g,, i of Bet the following number : $47, and this can be shown = fale ce digh 7 atthe end = 500+ 40+ 7 = 547 [digit | Position ————munications Binary Number System A computer is an electr i 5 {Wo states: ON or OFF. The ON m1 Nn clectronic machine and it has two stat 5 LWO states: ON o: is indicated by th a ie digit 1 and the OFF gicmn, only two symbols are used, Dam 1 Me HO. Thus, i the binary mum Symbols : 0 and 1. Bast +2, snes two symbols are used in this system E digit, 0a is cs : d pute A rrounot ve lise han 4 bit (abbreviated from the words binary digit). y Bt callled a byte. A byte i (RAM Nibble: A group of 4 bits is called a nibble secavonin herman memoy GA Word : A group of two by ended by the CPU” Coes fOFMS A word. A word is the smallest unit of data that can be Octal Number System Octal number system is cove on Te as son is used by programmers to represent binary numbers in a on ord octal means 8. Hence, the base of this numbering system Symbols used : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6,7 Base : 8, as eight symbols are used in this system. Hexadecimal Number System ‘Hex’ means 6 and ‘dec’ means 10, So the hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols. The need for hexadecimal number system was felt as numbers expressed in binary system become lengthy and difficult to use. Long strings of binary numbers can be expressed in a more compact form by using hexadecimal numbers. Symbols : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, A,B, C,D,E,F. Base : 16, as there are sixteen symbols in this system. rrr . COMPUTER CODES ASCII Code: One of the most widely used coding systems to represent data in the computer CII is the abbreviation for American Standard Code for memory is the ASCII code. A‘ Information Interchange. ASCII code uses the rightmost 7 bits of the 8-byte bit to represent numbers, alphabets, and special characters. With 7 bits, we can represent 128 individual characters (27 = 128). In the ‘extended ASCII code, all the 8 bits are used to represent characters and thus we can have 255 characters which include many mathematical symbols, Greek alphabets, and box-drawing characters. Unicode Unicode is a data representation system in which every character is provided its unique code. While ASCII code could display the letters of English language, most of the other languages and their characters could not be handled by ASCII. Unicode consists of more than 1,00,000 characters representing many of the languages including Indien languages. U! independent of the operating system. It is the most widely us eee em, Windows . and Vista use Unicode for intemal character encoding. Unicode uses 16 bits for data representation. ection of two or more computers such that they terconnection of ; jain ‘resources or ormatin. "These computers can be li ie ines, or dhrough satellites.wee 4 Computer Systems All networks must have the following : 4 APB cations cy a, @ A resource to share such as printer, modem, a, s software or hardware. * database, te. Ras, © A medium for transmission of data Ge, a communication A a @ Aset of rules governing how to communicate (Protocols) ink like Ade, 8 Distributed Processing Distributed processing means that processing of data wil processor. These multiple computers communicate with each other On more th, network. In distributed processing, a task is divided among many oyu age computer is not responsible for all the processing, but each separate oo 1s, AS part of the processing job. ™Puter hangs? Applications of Distributed Processing 1. Intemet, (World Wide Web) 2. Scientific computing, including grid computing 3. Real-time process control, e.g. nuclear power plant Control syst control system em, 4. Banking system 5. Airline and railway ticket reservation system 6. Telecommunications, cellular networks Advantages of Distributed Processing 1, Distributed databases : One computer system may not have the capacity store all the data of an organization. In such a case, the database is distibines among multiple computer systems. 2. Security : The system can be designed so that a user can perform a limited set operations and on a small set of the database. E.g., a bank may allow acces we database through an automated teller machine (ATM) but these transactions limited only to the user's account, and not on the entire database. 3. Faster problem solving : When many computers are working at the same tim: on different parts of a problem, the problem can be solved faster than bya singe machine working alone. Typical applications are breaking encryption coda, complicated scientific calculations, weather forecasting, etc. 4. Collaborative processing : Multiple computers and multiple users may interac onasingle task, . S. Security through redundancy : Multiple computers Tunning the same program at the same time provide security through Tedundancy. If one computer fails, the others can carry on the job. What is meant by the term data communications? sigs the five components of a data communications system. tare the three criteria necessary for an effective data co; icati stem’ Explain, in brief, the term protocol. muninonons sytem? hie is meant by the Positional numbering system? Mustrate with an example. t are the different numbering systems used by computers? i What is distributed Processing? se Pay paLT Principles of Data Communications s 8. Whatare th 4 ¢ advanta or % Gi ‘ees il 7 ive three applications ata Processing? . ted processing. , BJECTIVE QUESTIONS . Multiple Choice Questions Fill in the blanks : complete the fol. tine SPPropriate alternatives from th: ose given and 1, The exchange of inf tent ‘Ormation between computers is governed by a set of rules called (a) Media 2. Abyte consists of Ped Protocol (©) channel (@) sender @2 &) 4 3. The transmission medi oe ‘the i Goue ium that carries the message is referred to asthe _. © communication channel (© recever 4. The base of the hexadecimal system is : . @ b) 6 © 10 @ 16 5. Which of the following parameters is important for effective data transmission? (@) Timeliness, (©) delivery (© accuracy (@) all of the above 6. The most common coding system in use today is (@ ASCII, (&) EBCDIC (© Unicode @ None of the above 7. What is the full form of ASCII? a) American Standard Code for International Interchange b) American Standard Code for Interchange of Information ©) American Standard Code for Information Interchange d) American Software Code for Information Interchange 8. Unicode isa___ bits code for character representation in a computer. @8 @) 16 © 32 @ 64 9. The extended ASCII code system uses bits for data representation. @7 @)8 © 16 @ 32 10. Which of these is / are essential for a computer network? (a) Aresource (>) Amedium © Protocols @ All of these . M. tre three important goals of data communications are delivery at correct destination. accurate delivery and _- . . (a) late delivery (b) timely delivery . 7 (d) on the spot delivery (©) next day deliveryoe Computer Systems and Applications (Ty 3 PPAR TY. Bem, 12, Aprotocol decides = a) at what speed sender transmits data b) how to deal with errors that take place c)_ the language to use for communication d) all of the above ANSWERS (1 -b), (2-0), G- 0), (4-d), (5 - d), (6- ©), (7 - ©), (8 - b), (9 -b), (10 ~d), (yy (2-d) % State whether the following statements are True or False : 1, The term ‘data communications system’ refers to electronic systems that t over distances, Data communication is concerned with the transmission of analog data. Real-time delivery of data means data is delivered without any significant delay, Channel refers to the medium between the sender and receiver. The process of data communication is controlled by a set of rules called ‘protoco! Protocol is not necessary for data communications. ransmit ¢:, In a data communication process, the sending device can only be a computer. Computers use the decimal number system. The base of the decimal number system is 10. 10. Binary number system is a positional number system. 11. A group of 4 bits is called a byte. 12. The radix of the hexadecimal numbering system is 16. 13. The binary number system uses only two symbols. 14. The character 8 is one of the symbols used in the octal number system. 15. ASCII code is used to represent numbers, alphabets and special characters, 16. Extended ASCII code uses 8 bits to represent a character. 17. Unicode system of character rep: characters. 18. Unicode uses 16 bits to represent any character, 19. Unicode can be used to represent characters of Indian languages, 20. In distributed processing, processing of data occurs on 21. Banking system and ticket reservation system are exam Unicode is dependent on the operating system. 23. A computer network is useful only for sharing expensive hardware, A database can be a shared resource in a computer network. 25. Multiple computers Sunning the same program at the same level of security by way of redundancy. eyo Ren 2 resentation is used only for English language More than one processor. ples of distributed processing tink yy "Me Provide an addition:Nenwork Basics and Infeastructy rrr 7 PNET Ty MULL TTY, ‘he 4 — 2 We VME TTY T Chapte 4 Mod: ule q Ceeeae so tee eee! NET WORK BASICS AND INFRASTRUCTURE UO DUST cbckobebohekebebapepeb ees ee spepepepepepepenepepepapep ener eR pee COMPUTER NETWORK A computer new i can share resources ore is an interconnection of two or more computers such that they onde vatiety ef cab an information. These computers can be linked together using a communica cables, telephone lines, or through satellites. The computers in a network te with each other using a set of rules known as protocol. All networks must have the following : 1. A resource to share such as printer, modem, database, etc. 2. Amedium for transmission of data (i.e., a communications link), 3. Asset of rules governing how to communicate (protocols). NETWORK GOALS AND MOTIVATION The basic reasons why computers are networked are as follows 1. Cost reduction by sharing hardware & software resources: Costly hardware such as printer, modem, CD-ROM drive, etc can be shared by many computers ina network. Similarly, software packages can be shared by many connected it computers. 2. High reliability = The same data systems so that if one computer fai computer in the network. 3. Communications : Using e-mail, video etc. is possible because of computer networks. 4. Greater flexibility : In a network it is possible to connect systems of different types such as PCs, ‘Windows-based or Unix-based systems. fithi k is . Centralized ion and security of the resources within a networ} : possible. It fs possible to permit the use of certain resources to certain users, “_ others are prohibited from using those resources. (g., laser printer to be user only by certain users) is replicated (duplicated) on many computer ils, data can still be retrieved from another conferencing, instant messaging, chat,§ enn Computer Sy ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS Computer networl offer the following advai Resource sharing : Hardware devices and data can 1 even if they are located in different places within a bain ted by user may be within the same room, or separated by manne The Fe Typical example is the Internet, 7 2, Saving money : Certain resources like a printer can be and shared by many users. Since a printer is used for a ‘ necessary to provide every computer with its own printer, to be used by a user, she can issue a print comm, esouree any thousands of, ang ome, onnected inane XY Shor time, . Whenever 4 yi and from her comput print job will be executed on a remote (distant, or not local) eter and computer to which printer is physically called a print server, mute, 7 3. File Server : It is possible to have a file server which stores files and h the gan theses can be accessed by any computer in the network. In this case, the users clients and the computer which provides resources such as printe r ca called the server. This arrangement is called the client-server model, 4. Scalability : Scalability is the ability to increase the performance of a sy adding more processors. In a mainframe system, when a system is full, it mn replaced by a larger and more expensive system. In the client-server model. clients and new servers can be added as needed. nt 5. Increased Productivity : Networks increase productivity as several people ¢ enter data at the same time. They can also share the same data. 6. Communications : A computer network is a powerful communication medi, for users who may be separated by large distances. Using a computer network easy for two or more people who are working on the same project and who far apart to write a report together. When one user makes a change to an oni document, the others can see the change immediately, instead of waiting seve days for a letter. Computer networks can also be used to send files from one u to another in a very short time. E-mail, instant messaging, chat and vid conferencing are some of the techniques used. 7. High Reliability : Computer networks provide high reliability by providing t same data on multiple computers. For example, all files could be stored on two three machines, so if one of them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), t other copies could be used. For certain applications like banking, air tal control, etc., it is important to be able to continue operating even if sor hardware/software faults take place. DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETW ORKS Above the advantages of computer networks far outweigh their disadvantages, |! realize that there are certain disadvantages of computer networks : networks are expensive to set up as they require additional hardwe : and devices. . ‘skilled personnel such as network administratt ff, to users, and ensure that a user can accé er work. In using the network resources,vor 9 ers in a nerwork. i data Other connpaters 9 6. Users con wore fails, TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS All : Sassi nae tL OMMUNET ReTWorks can be clasified into three categories based on the fol a) Size (number of computers) of the network. b) Geographical range of the network i.c.. the distance it covers. ° Ovnenship ie., owned by a single organization. a public body lke the municipal poration, a national organization like the Indian Railways of airlines. or a global organization. The three types of computer networks are: Local : Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and Wide Area Network (WAN). Local Area Network (LAN) dE. BZ | 2 | (ee) a 4 a Fig. 1 : Local Area Network (LAN) A local area netwcrk is a network of computers in a limited geographical region, €.8., within a room or a building. Figure. 1 shows an interconnection of many workstations anda file server throu, .a central connecting device called a hub. Features of LAN The main features of a local area network (LAN) are : 1. Alocal area network (LAN) is owned by a single organization. 2. ALAN can consist of as few as 2 computers, or as many as 100 computers and peripherals such as printer, modem, etc. 3. All the computers and peripherals are in a single room or within a building or a campus. 4. All computers and peripherals are within a range of a few kilometers. 5. One of the computers may be a file server while the others are called workstations. 6. LANs use a shared media such as a cable which is spread throughout the area to cover the various computers. 7. LANshave a speed of about 100 Mbps. 8. There is very little delay in transmission of data. ITY B.Com - Com. Sys. de Appl (Sem.-V)vor Compuuer Systems and Applications (FY. ic, mye ” in the transmission process, few errors take place P 9. Very angement of computers in a network is called the * 10. Litt use any one of the following topologies: the star to, and bus topology. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Network topole, POlORY, ring top’ Branch Office 80km, Branch Office km Branch Office Factory Fig. 2: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ‘eatures of MAN . ‘The main features of a metropolitan area network (MAN) are : 1, Ametropolitan area network is spread out over a bigger area compared to a Lan E.g,, it may occupy an entire metropolis area (i.e. a city) or a large campus. 2. AMAN is owned by a single organization or may be shared by many organizations within a city. 3. AMANis used to provide interlinking between various LANs. use a MAN to interconnect all its local . Ametropolitan area network may span a distance of about 50-70 kms. MAN supports real-time transaction backup system. The data transfer speed is very high in a MAN. These are usually based on ring topology, . The medium used for transmission of data Thus, Eg.,a company can area networks in various parts of a city. but star topology is not used. is fibre optic cable,| Nenwork Basics and ffrastucture woe Features of WAN ‘The main features of a wide area network (WAN) are 1. Awide area network covers many cities, 2. A WAN interconnects many smaller LAI network. 3. WAN will use various communication technolo) satellite communications, and undersea cal 4, Communication channels between compu telephone company, or a satellite service car 5. Wide Area Networks operate at lower speed of 6 There are more chances of data being lost or © transmission. 7. Different types of computers, using different operating together. 8. WANS use the mesh topology. 9. Examples of WAN are: banking networks to support ont reservation systems, Indian Railways reservation sj : international cargo and courier companies. ‘Thus, the main difference between LAN and WA area and uses satellite or microwave for transmission of da’ smaller region such as a office building or a campus and 1 is wired medium such as UTP cable or coaxial cable. ates, bout 1 NETWORK STRUCTURES The way in which individual computers (called nodes) on nt other computers depends on how they are organized. The two basic structures (or architectures) are: server-based (client-server model), network. 1, Client-Server model (Server-based) Shared printer Cleat 2 Client 3 Fig. 4: Client-Server Model type i dedicated to provide ame of network, certain computers called servers, are jto the other computers, called clients. The client and server are connected ab.rrr Comte Stems nd Applications ye By r Mos, Features of Client-Server Network 1, Allresources are controlled through the server, a, Thivis a distribute ion structure that divides tasks between the ofa resource oF $0 or8), and service requesters (called ¢ an 4, ‘The client is the requesting machine and the server 'sthe supplying maching” «ite 15 aro file-server, print server, e-mail database serve 5. The most common type of client-server arrangement is a local area ety, (LAN) consisting of PCs connected to a network server, th 6. The network server scrves all the clients on the LAN, ient program running on a computer can request @ specific data from, 7 wen The sever program will fetch the data and return it to the client © & 8. In tis way, « LAN permis all the clients to share the hardware and sofia, Server, fay 5 resources, 9, The most commonly shared resources are disk storage devices and printers. Advantages of Client-server architecture 1. Centralized resources and data securit ity : These aspects are controlled direc from the server, 2. Flexibility : New technology can easily be integrated into the workstations (clients) may be added o: without disturbing the entire network, 3. Interoperability : All components, i.e., client, 4 Scalability : Additional workstations (client clients can be removed without disturbing the Disadvantages of client-server architecture system. Additions non-working clients can be Temoves server and network work together ts) may be added or non-working entire network. 1, Expensive : The cost of. Server and network Operating system can be quite high for a small organization, 2 Maintenance : Large networks Tequire skilled manpower for networt administration and maintenance, * Sere be dodicnag ly : Usually the server will not be used for routine tase licate . vit . not being utllgad pra ‘or network-related activities, Hence one computer is 4 2. PeertorPeee = On server : If the sever fails, the whole Network will stop working. Ina Peer-to-peer network {also called P2P . there’ are Sine com no dedicated seen Mer ig +B: Peerto.Peor NetworkNewwort Basics and Infrastructure woo ser of ers - 8g, 2. This arrangement is cuitable than 10, 3. Since the users are located in the same area, (e.g. th a very important issue ° 4. Users can freely access data and other resurces on all oxen Advantages of Peer-to-Peer architecture 1. Simplicity of design - no major costs of & involved. - Since there is no server, all nodes 3. This network is not dependent on other comput network will continue to work as each compute: others. 4, Linking computers in peer-to-peer network is © model. S. Computers can be connected in peer-to-peer network to share broadbant Internet, printers, and other expensive resources. 6. A full-time network administrator is not required to maintain this type of networt Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer architecture 1, Since there is no server, administration of the networr is difficult. 2. There is no security of data and other resources. 3. Itis more time consuming to maintain the software on individual computers. 4. P2P networks are designed for small number of users. If the number of users increases beyond 10, network performance begins to deteriorate. OT), SPLEITY 5 TR, x NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ‘Network topology is the geometric and physical arrangement of a computer network. A computer network consists of nodes and links. A node may be, for example, a computer, while a link is the am | communication path between the nodes. The word |e oom “channel” is also used for the link. , ‘There are four main topologies : (a) star, (>) bus. @BL. i el (© ring, and (d) mesh topology. We discuss the first SF three topologies here. Mesh topology is outside the scope of the syllabus. 1. Star Topology This is the most common arrangement of computer systems and links between them. All devices are ‘connected to central hub. The function of the hub is to deliver the data to-and from the computers. The hub (dients) are connected directly to a central system (the hub). ; 5 mode Gan communicate only with the central hub and not directly with : i nly by ti from one node to another, it can be done only Re central in tum will deliver it to the destinarion sWata\to the central hub, whichrrr 4. logy tages of Star Topo! aan ne easy to add and remove nodes (clients). 2. Ifone of the nodes fails, the network continues to work 3. tis easier to diagnose network problems through the central hub Disadvantages of Star Topology 1. Ifthe central hub fails, the entire network will fail 2. More cable is required in this topology as each computer must —_ "the central hub. 2. Bus Topology Fig. 7: Bus Topology This topology is very popular with local area networks. A single cable building and all nodes are linked along with this communication line. This cable the bus or backbone. The two ends of the cable are terminated with terminators} imagine a bus picking up various people from one bus stop and dropping off travels, and then picking up a few more. Features of Bus Topology 1. Allnodes (clients) are connected to the cable by drop lines and taps. A drop I a connection running between the device and the main cable. A connector that punctures the sheathing of the cable to create a contact w metal core. 2° There is a limit on the number of devices that can be connected onto the n cable. Only one device is allowed to transmit at a time. There is a. terminator at each end of the cable. The ay 5. The bus is considered to be ident on the signal that is being transmitted. There is a collision handii i can , NB system Which ensures that data trav it TT “tnd is delivered Correctly at the destination, ara travels without erro Topology YS Very easy to setup, Mter fails on the network, then the others are not affected. Used to extend the bus configuration, the least amount of, ology cabling and is therefore very cost effective, ® fault in this topology,Network Basies and Infrastructure 2. Ifnew nodes are added, the data transfer rate on the 3. This topology is not suitable forlarge networks 4, Signal reflection at the nodes can cause deterioration in the 5. Ifthere is a fault or a break in the cable, all transmistion o- 3. Ring Topology Fig. 8: Ring Topology Ring topology is also used for local area networks. In this avengeme cable passes from one node to another until all nodes are connected in the or loop. There is a direct point-to-point link between neighbouring noces. Features of Ring Topology . 1, Each device is connected to the two adjacent devices on either sce, a ring or a loop like structure. A “token” is circulating in the network. Any device thet warts to vens== cee must first capture the free token and replace the data with is own messege. |The signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, == & reaches its destination. |. The address of the sending device and the receiving Cevice are the message to be transmitted. The message travels along destination computer. . Each device handles every message that flows in the nework, Any data ranszined by 2 node nos fooming 2. 5. 6. The links between computers are unidirectional comes back to the same node. Advantages of Ring Topology 1. Ring networks can extend over longer distances than other types of networks. 2. Ring topology offers high performance for a small network 3. Since each device is connected only to its two neighbours, ediing o7 removing nodes in the network is easy. leadvantages Topology . 1, Hany na eral, then the entire network will sop workng 2. itis relatively expensive and difficult to install 3. ‘Troubleshooting is difficult in this type of network.puter Siystens ana LESS 6 ree c NETWORK MEDIA : WIRED AND WIR: NE OS Network media refers to the data, It is the actual path ove Somputerdtevice to another. This data transmission can take place ay media or wireless. Wired Media : Examples of wired imeiln include re Pale and Coma ale 6 wire is very commonly used. Copper media can be used! in following, venys Me, | Copper Medin | | | [en | = | ean paz =a] Fig. 9 : Use of Copper Media HAMMAN LY 4, ‘Twisted-pair cable Twisted-pair cable isa type of cabling that is used for telephone communication ig most networks. It consists of two copper conductors twisted together. Each conduc, inside a plastic insulation. The wires are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated b adjacent pairs. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, there my, be interference due to electrical signals in them. Twisting the wires cancels th, interference. ‘Two basic types of twisted-pair cable are used: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) ant shielded twisted pair (STP). Twisted Pair Outer Jacket : \ \ Fig. 11 Rd-4s jack 4 connector called RJ-45 jack. RJ stands for Registerec diameter (approximately 0.43 cm) and hence due to it than other types of networking media. pst of the major networking architectures. aly available.Nerwork Basics and Infrastructure reo Disadvantages of UTP Cable © UTP cable is more likely to be affected by electrical noise and other types of interference. © UTP cables cannot be used for connecting devices if the distances between devices are very large. @ Signal weakens as the distance increases. Typically, these are not used beyond 100 metres, © Transmission speeds are low. COAXIAL CABLE Coaxial cable consists of a solid copper conductor surrounded by a flexible plastic insulation, braided copper shielding. and an outer jacket. It is a high frequency transmission cable. AE waa Fig. 12 : Coaxial Cable Fig. 13 : BNC Connector Advantages Coaxial cable supports data transfer speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps. Itis relatively inexpensive, although it is more costly than UTP on a per-unit length. Reduces electrical interference Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances than twisted-pair cable. For example, Ethernet can run approximately 100 meters (328 feet) using twisted-pair cabling. Using coaxial cable increases this distance to 500m (1640.4 feet). Disadvantages © tis difficult to bend around corners due to its thickness. © More costly, and difficult to install. FIBER OPTIC CABLE Fiber optic cable uses a beam of ight for ransmiing dats. ber ops sable consi of a central glass core surrounded . Asists several layers of protective material. ‘Advantages of fiber optic cables @ Jt can transmit signals over much Pig. 14: Fiber Optie Cable Jarger distances that copper media such as coaxial cable and twisted pair cable. Ie is not affected by electrical signals. acti carry data at very large speeds i.e. at speed of light ; eee transmission medium compared to UTP and coaxial cables. ‘The maximum run of a fibre optic cable is 2000m. ’e. Fiber optic cables are more expensive. © These cables are more difficult to install.Computer Systems and Appleations (EY. Com 5, 18 WIRELESS MEDIA a radio frequencies (RF) or infrared any Waves ireless communication uses ra al Ava Network. In a wireless LANs me , between devices " fc ial distribution, ‘Alor transmit data pe wireless hub, or access point, used for signi ‘eral component is digital data using radio frequency signals. ernet transfers digit @ Wireless Int i devi i . laptop o ith a Wi device, such as a mobile Phone, 1240p oF pry @ Itallows a person vate connect to the Internet via access points (AP) a dial ovonnectivity isusful for business travelers who need acces to Intemery @ Wireless con cals, and airpons ireless router can connect a is jecess i useful at home. A wireless ro BrOUp gg © This type ore oteat tone multiple computers) to an adjacent wired Networ, ah aes DSL or cable modem) to establish home networking. ‘e Most mobile telephone operators now offer Internet access through Mobile ‘© Most phones. ilable i hopping malls and i are available in many cafes, s ° Ce wegion covered ‘by access points is called a hotspot. vantages of Wi-Fi Access - “ @ Anetwork can be set up without cabling and wiring rides access to the Internet in outdoor areas : 7 Scerean move from one access point to another and use the Intemet. © A large number of hotspots are available at cafes, shopping malls, college campus, Disadvantages of Wi-Fi Access @ Wi-Fi network has limited range They have a poor security. ; Intemet connection speed of wireless network is lower than that They are easily affected by interference. College t of wired network. @ computer network we hardware includes computers, peripheral d tequire hardware and software. Network hub, bridge, ete, Hub levices, network interface cards (IQ), router, A hub joins multiple com ) toy it gether to form a single Segment. All computers can communicate directly with each other. A hub includes a series of por Pal many ports, For exampl ts in which we can insert a network cable. Hubs can le, a five ports hub wi i puters (or other network devices a will connect four com; te id the ‘ en e puters, and the guia! pt ae, “fpnnections tO another hub or similar device. Larger hubs Ahub simply Teceives clectical signal, incoming Packets, May amplify the os and broadcasts these packets Out to all te : Retwork, luding the one that Originally serit A bride is a dex: More oicient nan oeviCe using whi mS. A bridge one ced eoREME a large Retwork int Used to conn, tWo networks togethe smaller, er, Mig..15 : HubNetwo: sic and Infrastructure : ree 19 A bridge monit. ir . pass packets of OTs the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can fnaintain optimum performance the correct location, A bridge manages the traffic to at a busy intersection durin; nce on both sides of the network. A bridge is like a traffic cop network, but it does ig Tush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the Snot allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can b : iges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. (Corporate LAN Segment Marutacturng Segment switch Fig. 16 : A bridge used to join two networks ‘ Auten is a device that provides a central connection point for. ables ym. workstations, servers, and peripherals. Switches are hardware devices that are used to connect multiple computers in a network. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. | Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. A switch does not send network packets to all computers on the LAN. They send the information to the correct location directly. Switches : @ Usually have 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports @ Are often used in a star or star-wired ring topology @ Are sold with specialized software for port management @ Are usually installed in a standardized metal rack. Fig. 17: Switch Router A router translates it similar to a bridge. Rou information (data packets) from one network to another; it is ters select the best path to send a message, based on the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart aay enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts. While bridges know the addresses of ia all computers on each side of the feet network, routers know the addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even listen” to the entire network to determine which sections are busiest. ~ they can thens redirect data around those sections until they clear up. In order to connect a LAN to ter serves as the translator between the e to send the data 19216802 router. The rout we need a Iso determines the best rout and the Internet. Iravos Computer Systems and Applications (ry. on Be ) Sy wet signal traffic efficiently ste messages between different network topologies such as bus, Star, ang Say K PROTOCOLS nected on the Internet. So ters of different types are cont e . Some ys Of be running UNIX operating systems while others may be running, the, ‘operating systems. For all these computers to communicate wit h each wie Each op, speak a common language and follow some common rules, he set of rules, which enables different types of computers to communicate i 1, is called a protocol. } ission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP / IP) i from one tocol used by the Internet for transferring messages computer ieeatied the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP / IP 0 sterm actually refers to two parts <, ‘Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) : The job of the TCP is to br bal every piece of data into small parts called packets. Each such packet alo contains the address of the sender and the receiver. Internet Protocol : The job of the Internet Protocol (IP) is to find Out how the data will go from point A to point B passing through a series of TOULETS. These packets of data are sent over different paths until they reach their final destination, This is somewhat similar to the way regular mail passes through several post offs before it reaches its final destination. As the packets arrive at the destination, Top takes over again, identifying each packet and checking to see if it is intact. Once it ‘has received all the packets, TCP reassembles them into the original. ures of the TCP/IP Protocol TCP isa reliable connection-oriented. Protocol with the following features : 1. Its allows error-free transmission. 2. Incoming byte stream is fragmented (broken down) into a number of shorter ‘Messages and these are passed on to the next layer. 3. Atthe receiving end the TCP eassembles the messages into an Output stream 4. TCP also handles flow control — to Control data transfer rate so that a slow receiver isnot flooded with data from a fast sender, 5. A connection must establisi etwer ; . transmission begins," hed between the sender and the receiver before 6. TCP creates a virtual cireuit be: transmission, tween sen: der and receiver for the duration of the 7. TCP begins each tr i is jc : : Way (connection establishment? alerting the receiver that segments are on theirNetwork Basies and Infrastructure Layers of TCP/IP Model rrr a The functionality of ea, ch athe Appiieation bya layer of the TCP model is as follows : This is equi . (discussed Saivatent to the combined OSI Session, Presentation, and Application layers handled by the Applicat le functions handled by these 3 layers in the OSI model are a) FIP_ Her ication layer. This layer contains the higher level protocols : 2 oan ransfer Protocol - basic file transfer between hosts (computers) » MTP ~ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (for email) 8 dan TP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (for web browsing) a unit remed at the application layer is called a message. capsulat : it ayenoree wae ion of Data : TCPAP protocol suite encapsulates data units at various » a the Application layer, the data unit created is called a message. e Transport layer adds a header to form either a t wi ort layer segment with TCP or a user ©) Each segment created by TCP includes : i) Asequencing number for re-ordering after receipt. ii) An acknowledgement ID number iti) Source address and destination address iv) Checksum — for error detection v) Data vi) And other fields The Network (or Internet) layer adds another header to form a datagram. A datagram is a self-contained message unit which contains sufficient information to allow it to be routed from the source to the destination. The protocol used at the data link layer encapsulates the datagram into a frame and this is transmitted across the transmission medium. Transport Layer © This layer is represented by two protocols - TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol). @ UDPis simpler but is used when reliability and and speed - such as speech and video where a but speed is important. §Network Layer or Internetwork Layer ; ‘a rk Protocol (IP) is an unreliable and connectionless datagram Protooe i service. There is no error checking. IP does its best to i Jot fon its destination ‘but with no guarantees. Noise can cause bit ansm teen and datagrams maybe discarded due to timeout errors. security are less important than size loss of few data is not significant,oc Systems and Applice IP transports data in packets called dave IS: . 9 Each datagram is transported separately. naa key Datagrams can be of variable lengths (upt . / o Datograms may travel along different routes and may arrive out Ose, IP docs not keep track of the routes. IP does not have the facility to reorder d A datagram contains a header and data. tua ains a number of fields including source and destinati, ‘The header contains ein Most DSL Internet providers offer ADSL service to home users. ADSL stands for ymmet Hi Subscriber Line. In this type of service, the upload speed is Asymmetric Digital u ‘than the download speed. Ft, iin DSL DSL technology transfers data from the computer to the phone line via a a 2 DSL’ B nolOBY allows simultaneous transmission of digital data and ‘ ices, 60 phone and fax usage is not affected when you are connected to d is much faster than dialup Internet access.Com; ster Systems and Applications (Typ, « eee et and phone servi rane for Intern 0 ai, M re can use thesame PRO. oy affected while you are con x, * Hers the voice / fax servi at is, internet. ‘on 7m isa dedicated connect oe . your neighborho a users in re which isin ant case not shared. telephon Service plan does not need to be tied with cable TV service 4, Easy setup. Disadvantages of DSL Internet ‘Account _ Slightly higher cost than dialup Internet aces . 1 High + security risk than dialup connection. A personal firewall is ness, 2. Highe . protect your computer. Al phone wires are not suitable for DSL available in rural or remote areas. Connection speed is affected by the distance between your phone line and operation center. 3. THE DIAL-UP ACCOUNT Dialup connection requires the use of a modem and a phone line to dial iniy, Internet service provider's (ISP) node, in order to get access to the Internet, 2. Aslong as the Intemet is being used on this type of account, the phone line is and so it cannot be used for voice and fax calls. " The data transmission rate is usually 56 Kbps or less. Dialup Intemet access was very popular in the past but is now steadily replaces broadband Internet services. ” Advantages of Dial-up Account Since everyone has a phone line, di i . dialup connection is available to everyone x= a computer and a modem. senor 2. Dialup may be the only choice i 1e oF available for rural or ré et broadband connection is not available, emote areas wie 3. Low, is i Cost if Intemet is used only occasionally. There is no monthly fee. nection speed is not affected by th, the signal is transmitted throug,“ service. So, this service may 3. 4. communications Program like Telix Lynx,Internet roe 3. It offers very high data transmission it t unlike fata tra speed which also remains constant unlike broadband, where speed may fluctuate. 4. The maximum distance from the subscriber to the telephone exchange is more than that for DSL accounts, 5. This type of account i , , + SPOS seaegeunt is now not very commonly used as faster and cheaper 6. The initial setup cost of hardware and usage charges are very high for ISDN account. ° "SHARING AN INTERNET CONNECTION A single Internet connection can be shared with other computers in a local area network (LAN). To do this, we need additional hardware and software. We must install a software program that will serve as a proxy server, that is, that will give the nenworks computers access by proxy, Windows XP and higher versions natively offer Internet sharing features. However, the more users there are, the lower the bandwidth for each of them will be, since the users will share the bandwidth with each other. Sharing an Intemet connection reduces the expenditure on connection charges. It also permits the administrator to control which sites can be allowed or blocked. For example, an organization may set up Internet connection in such a way that employees have access to all sites except a few forbidden sites such as social networking sites. SERVICES ON THE INTERNET Internet is an evolving medium. As computer hardware and software technology grow, richer applications are appearing each day on the Internet. A few of the services available on the Internet are : 1. World Wide Web (WWW) 2. Electronic Mail (E-mail) 3. Blogs 4. Usenet Newsgroups 5. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) and Instant Messaging 6. Telnet 7. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) We discuss here only the first three sel syllabus. 1, WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) ; . , The World Wide Web (or WWW) is a section of the Intemet, and not the complete Internet itself. The WWW i: t rapidly growing, easiest to use and most popular sue I Ee emet WWW gives the user a graphical, easy- method of communicatis emet, The : pu ance for cag documents on the Internet, The WWW makes it to! ink various files or pages on the Internet. ‘A.user can click on certain words or ‘avhich wil display another document. a Ww -yieb : Wide Web a! ; ea tiee documents with each other by using hyperlinks x t i for use. ye and make available 5 ; Ee ich of still images, animated images, movies and sound T ; rvices as the others are outside the scope of theComputer systems and APPICAONS FY, = n be viewed through any com, Put, ir yages cal ike a web browse; my _ c like a er. 4. Open stand on and aPPFOPANe a ou ta ¢ ingemet connection 20 ME gto access the in ant 5. Base of use Jus DOM" ick and download a file 0 Your comp, 6, Downloading facility : J be published at a fraction of the cosy te ' can ap : Information can b 7 ereeP nal methods, and this in around the world, 8. Updated information as necessary. Tools of WWW =) Browser i Internet user's computer, which is usey., ext arcane ied re On wide Web. Examples of popular brous,, ae Explorer, FireFox, Opera, Safari and Lynx. While Internet Explorer Feo and Opera are graphical browsers, Lynx is a text-based browser. Text, images, aug, ‘ideo can be retrieved through a graphical browser. The main functions of a browser are : Connect to the host machine, get the document, and display it. Retrieve documents from machines scattered across the Internet, as user 5, from link to link. 3. Downloading files, that is, transfer a copy of the file from a remote comps your own hard disk. 4. Printing a web page. 5. Finding text on the current page. To access a web page the user has t formation is available to millions of" + «Iris also possible to update this information ac 5, ‘0 type the Uniform Resource Locator CURL): address. like www.myexamnotes.com in the space provided. If the user accesses cer ‘Stes frequently, then he can store the URLs in the “] ” or “1 ” ofthe words oe oho an “suring Bookmark” or “Favourites” menu. 0: Gifierent web pages, + Surfing the web means following hyperinis >) ByperText Markup Language (HTML) ‘The prefix hyper means “extended in leo are used along wi ; é we are developed ne Ihe setup is referred to as hypermed Grr), ® computer language called the HypetTe: it Mr Ptohdes the folowing features . ion allows ten, Braphics, movies and anit mation to become a part of We 8 way to link fro, om Tste anywhere inthe we pi8® % another either within 4 Paniculanss embedded in them, By cli 01 web site. Hyperlink text is ust der, Test Of the text on a Web paInternet oe \ (4) Uniform Rerource Locator (URL) ° " Each Web page has a uniq Web addresses look like this * “adres hitp//www.myexamnotes, com/index. html ‘www.myexamnotes.com;www.nasa.gov, Each URL consists of three parts : sows | 1. a protocol pan | 2. ahost pant 3. adocument name | For example, consider th : j je address butpi/www.myexamnotes.com/index.html : cif owser hep tells the Web br that it is making a World Wide Web connection P is the abbreviation for HyperText Transfer Protocol. oh hil remmnotes.com is the location of the web server, that i, the computer ic web pages are stored (name of host computer) ree henal is the filename of the Web page that you are trying to access. Usually. b ‘¢ default page (or, opening page), loaded by the browser when you enter a web site. This is also called the home page. called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) 3. 3. ELECTRONIC MAIL E-mail is the short form of electronic mail. It can be defined as the exchange of messages and computer files between computers over a computer network. It is the method through which messages can be sent to other Internet users. It is the most frequently used component of the Internet. It has also been termed as the “killer app” of the Internet. Advantages of e-mail 1. Itis almost instantaneous. 2. Even if the recipient is not connected to the Internet, the message is delivered into his mailbox from where he can retrieve it the next time he logs on to the Intemet. E-mail is very cheap. Many free Web-based email services are available on the Internet such as Gmail.com, outlook.com, yahoo.com, rediffmail.com, etc. saving in cost of printing, 3. Since the message is in an electronic form, there is a paper, and storage. 5, E-mail messages can be encrypted so that they are not tampered with. 6. Itis possible to send an e-mail message to many people at the same time. is Je to send attachments with en e-mail message; these attachments may picture, a movie, a chart, or any ‘other type of document generated 4. esses follow a standard pattern of addressing. A typical e-mail address Ske this : someone @ servername.domainname — AT" (@) sign is the narhe of-the use on efore the “A OMe mail server where the e-mail is after the @ sie” vent with gmail.com may have 1 that uniquely identifies stored and the athe Lip eaieeee sat i the user name, and gmail.com is mined p ariywhere within an e-mail address eserver. There is no space/EalComputer Systems a OPP CBINS TY By as How ¢- and forward” principle. Messazes are yp, ffi + or works o7 tHe “S forthen stored until the network traf, Fre mail scrver ‘e where the process is repeated unty (2 sender 10 the the next mail s mall very ti the are then forwarded 0 Thus, we can say that e-mail works very much jij. ty aches its destin he re ee col (POP) Post Office Prot Teotocol (POP) is a protocol for servers on the Internet th The Post Offce e-mail. Post Office Prot.” 1 Service Provider's computer to yore, ‘and forward emai Sore ae sthe messages from your Interne! . e server after the transfer is complet, ™ dovelonds moves he resage fom th Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) enables E-mail messates 10 be on one stem to another. One of the most popular software used for sending and ree, mail is Outlook Express. E-Mail Etiquette Netiquette is online etiquette. You should be aware of the following snetiquette” when communicating via E-mail : 1. Follow the conventions for standard business writing, 2. Don't assume that your E-mail messages are private. 3, Do not send unsolicited E-mail, particularly commercial mass mailings i, known as “spamming’). fi 4, When writing, do not type in ALL CAPS. Receiving and sending emails with attachments An attachment is a document or ‘i ce eu to about any other type of file, along with an email. Most email sites and sofers tas feature denoted by “Attach*, This is shown below for Outlook Express. aes Receiver's email address Attach button an button, This brings up a dial? dare More than one file ca" * ail, Se will Considerably slow dos as 4 ME. email service provides © B. In such cases a large fileInternet 7 ; rrr 9 Oe omreond cas with attachments, following precautions should be taken : . Unexpect: i tte - tach email ichments : Never open unsolicited or unexpected email attachments until you ve confirmed from the sender. 2 Never double. cick + Never double click on attachments in your email client vr co 'y have been tested. Such attachments could cause loss of data by infecting, a "hea, with a virus or other destructive software. 3. Unsafe file types : Never i it it file extensions: bat, com: - open any email attachment with any of the following 4 Unknown file types : Never open any email attachment or intemal email link with a file-type extension you do not recognize. 5. Microsoft file types : Never open any email attachment or internal email link or a recognized Microsoft document type (e.g, .doc, xls, ppt. r -Pps) even from someone you know and trust without first running an updated virus scan program on it. Ask for plain text : If you receive a .doc, xls other unsafe file type as an attachment, even from someone you know, ask them if they will convert it to art, .xt or .cvs and then resend it to you. Then delete the original email and attachment. Sending emails with attachments 1. Avoid sending attachments if the same information can be sent as a plain text. 2. Rather than sending a .doc file as an attachment, it's best to cut and paste the .doc content into your email as text. Or convert the doc file to .pdf format. 3. We can also convert .xls files to .csv (comma-delimited format) before sending. This minimizes the risk of spreadsheet macro and script viruses: 4. Only if it is essential to retain document formatting should you send unsafe file types. First run an updated virus scanning program on the file to be attached. 3. BLOGS The word ‘blog’ is a short form of the term weblog, It is a website, usually maintained by an individual. The various features of a blog can be summarized as follows 1. Ablogisa personal diary, but put up on the Web so as to share information. ‘A weblog is a collection of text, images, and media files, arranged in reverse chronological order. . The activity of updating a blog is called “blogging”. ps a blog is called a “blogger”. written on a particular topic - e.g. photography, politics, 6. 2. mgs are t ted very frequently - often everyday. ; A blog has : groll” — it is a list-of links to other related sites. ane rz put up on a blog, the older erries are “archived”, These ol 2, ailable on the main blog website but can be seen in the Archives 9g. Visitors to a blog can leave behindInternet wre ” White receiving emails with attachments, following precautions should be taken : 1. Unexpected email «ttachments : Never open unsolicited or unexpected email attachments until you ve «-onfirmed from the sender. bile Banta paae : Never double click on attachments in your email client y have been tested. Such attachments could cause loss of data by infecting your computer with a virus or other destructive software. 3. Unsafe file types : Never open it \ file extensions: .bat, .com, exe, vbs smal aactmens wih any of We lowe 2 4 Unknown file types : Never open any email attachment or internal email link with a file-type extension you do not recognize. 5 Microsoft file types : Never open any email attachment or internal email link with a recognized Microsoft document type (eg, .doc, xls, -Ppt. Or .Pps) even from someone you know and trust without first running an updated virus scan program on it. Ask for plain text : If you receive a .doc, .xis other unsafe file type as an attachment, even from someone you know, ask them if they will convert it to .rtf, «xt or .cvs and then resend it to you. Then delete the original email and attachment. Sending emails with attachments . 1. Avoid sending attachments if the same information can be sent as a plain text. 2. Rather than sending a .doc file as an attachment, it's best to cut and paste the .doc content into your email as text. Or convert the doc file to .pdf format. 3. We can also convert .xls files to .csv (comma-delimited format) before sending. This minimizes the risk of spreadsheet macro and script viruses. 4. Only if it is essential to retain document formatting should you send unsafe file types. First run an updated virus scanning program on the file to be attached. 3. BLOGS The word ‘blog’ is a short form of the term weblog. It is a website, usually maintained by an individual. The various features of a blog can be summarized as follows : 1. Ablogisa personal diary, but put up on the Web so as to share information. 2. A weblog is a collection of text, images, and media files, arranged in reverse chronological order. _. 3, The activity of updating a blog is called “blogging”. ‘person who keeps a blog is called a “blogger”. vere uc written on a particular topic - e.g. photography, politics, > ently - often everyday. groll” -itisa list of links to other related sites. 7 put up on a blog, the older entries are “archived”. These old able on the main blog ‘website but can be seen in the Archives very freq! i a special feature ofa blog. Visitors to a blog can leave behindry « 7 Systems and Applications ¢7 yy Cn rrr ° =. 1. Each device connected to they mp ADDRESS met Protoco’. Ing The term IP san fi vsmilar to the telephone system where each su identified. bo uniquely identi ; ice me ain ewe SES ny IP address isa ay be [00 : 216.27.61. iseay on we ntemet. A typical addr parts (hence the word uae) Of the addrec”! ded quad notation, ee part, the number can vary from 0 to 255, by the dot (.) symbol. so represented in binary format. Each decimaj i oat hs eo ivatent binary form consisting of 8 bits, and the dot represented in its eget dress now has 32 bts. One space is added of? TPa TS re readable. Thus, the above IP address 21 6.27.61.13 bits to mi represented in binary form as follows : 11017000 00011011 OO111101 1000100) ib 27 61 137 There are no leading zeros in an IP address. Thus, the following is an invalid a 123.45.067.89 ; ‘A minture of decimal and binary notation is not allowed. So the following ai invalid : 11011000.27.61.137 IP addresses are unique. Each address defines one and only one connection ; Intemet. Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address, But if a devi, two connections to the Internet, via two networks, it has two IP addresses, DOMAIN NAMES Every computer on the Internet has a unique IP address. But this numeric IP add: difficult to remember. Just imagine if you have to call all your friends by their m numbers instead of their names! It would be impossible, The domain ame is the computer niame that can be used instead of an IP add Domain names are easier to remember for human beings; e.g,, it is easier to remembe ain Name System, Itis an Intemet servi o tem. ervice that transi resses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're eas: “addresses. Every time we use’a don lame into the Corresponding IP address. ! ase (muah translate to 198.105,232.4 Th Phical regions or on the bsssrermcom is used f . cot m “ for Commercial organizations such as www.google.com pov is used for government organizations top-level domain -level domait » i Tor tevel oe main (TLD) indicates the nature of the computer system containing the account. i Ing are the common top-Icvel domain names : @ com Business and commercial interests @ edu Universities and other educational institutions @ gov State and federal government @ int — Intemational organisations @ met Special internet systems @ org Nonprofit and other organizations SEARCHING THE WEB The WWW is a vast collection of interlinked documents, With millions of pages on the Internet, it would be impossible to search information by visiting every web site! A search tool should be able to direct the user to the source of information. A search engine is a means of searching for information on the Internet. Types of search tools @ Search indexes or Search Engines : Search indexes allow users to find specific documents through keyword searches, If you have to search for, say information on monuments then just typing monuments will result in thousands of sites being listed that contain information about monuments. However, if you need information only about monuments in India, in South India, then entering the key words monuments, South India will result in more focused search. ‘A search engine is a tool that searches for websites based on words that we give as search terms. Search engines look through their own databases of information in order to find what it is that you are looking for. Example : Google.com, Bing.com, and Ask.com are the most popular search engines. How search engines work? 1. ‘Type a query into a search engine. 2. Search engine software quickly sorts find matches to this query. . 3. The search engine's results are ranked in order of relevancy. | The following diagram shows the results retuned by the Google.com search engine : Query typed into the search through millions of pages in its database to See eeo eS iio - Conn. Sys. & Appl: (Sem.-¥)| Applications (1.Y. B.Coy ” engines. The advanceg ., ‘Most of the Ti! the advanced search rei inks and get more relevant informay, Phrase search (* "! We put the most important words in double Quotes i search ("75 We Pato. caree for commerce BOCAS 1S NOW ung, Bg. the same ee rca graduates”. ‘We observe ie Goose ne d is a eg 00 Inks that are relevant Google will sea ct “commerce graduates”. 2, Search within a specific ) 2 Gon from a given seh ea ates sitexworw.mt.acin willetur about 22 pages Dut ony. torarvte of wonv.mu.acin which isthe Web site of University of Mumbai,” + Someti do not want a specific word, . Terms you want to exclude( - ) : Sometimes we it 3: Tear inthe resuls. We must put a minus sign () before that word. Eg: exclude the word “post” from the previous query, we can.write our query x follows: [commerce graduates - post site:www.mu.ac in}. Now the search enginy will return all pages except those that have the word “post” in them. 4. Boolean Search : The three Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT are used i: define search queries more accurately. We now explain these three operators: 5. The AND operator : The AND operator is used when we want to find all te words in the document. E.g. the query [commerce AND careers AND graduate siteewww.mu.ac.in] will search for all pages on the website www.tu.ac.in which contain all the words “commerce”, “careers", and “graduate” t 6. The OR Operator : When we want to find one word or the oth \ operator. Eg, to find all documents containing the either the word "corun; the Gk “finance”, the query is {commerce OR finance]. We can also use the rine| character (|) to form the query like this: [commerce | finance) }O use the pipe| 7. The NOT operator : This o is used wt ” | but some other word should not ap year. ne Trent one word fn the ques | search for all documents with the coat ; ed (commerce NOT finance] wil | ance” but not having the word | search + 1 2) : Google allows us to specify tha, site (alter) : Google allo ve sample, the we, “commerce”, If we definitely want one term, , and ‘ auey follows. one of two or more other terms, we form the "tien (Computers OR finance) search for all docum: i " orgs computer or finance, ents which contain the word careers and one of the following table ‘summarizes th . [Operator l€ Use Of these Operators ; Result Searches “commerent go PAGES which contain the words Smittce” and also “careers” Searches fo commerce" cu igh%8®5 Which contain the words Ce" oF “finance” or both, Pages — ut not “not contain the wordsSa Directories : A directory on the World Wide Web is a list of web sites classified by ich classifies information into various topic. For example, Yahoo is a directory. whi categories such as Arts, Science, Computers, Recreation, Politics, etc. A directory depends ‘on humans for its listings. The number of resources we can find through a search dire is far less than those obtained through a search engine. But a search director usually aves more relevant results. e Meta Search Engines A meta search engine ‘hes those of other engines. "Metacrawler" and Dogpile, for information, but instead searcl ‘of each of the other search engines such as Lycos, instance, search the databases WebCrawler, Excite, AltaVista, and Yahoo. Using multiple databases will mean that the search results are more comprehensive, but slower to obtain. The advantage of using @ meta search engine is that the user does not have to type the same query separately in different search engines. CYBER CRIME, CYBER LA’ HACKING, SNIFFING, SPOOFING CYBER CRIME Cybercrime is defined as.“unlawful acts wherein the computer is either @ tool or 2 target or both”. Cybercrime involves criminal activities that are traditional in nature. such as theft, forgery, fraud, defamation, all of which are subject to the Indian Penal Code. (ybercrime| is known by different names such as e-crime, or electronic crime. In ybercrime, computers and computer networks are used to commit a crime against an idi “an organization, @ business, government, or against another is a search tool that doesn't create its own database of i ivi i i bank “criminal activity performed entirely in cyber space, such as bal jdentity thefts, or criminal acts performed physically but using, ized access to computers, stealing information, sniffing, spoofing, horse attacks, and worms are all ways in which cyber-crimesComputer Systems and Applications cry, wor 4“ ‘Types of Cybercrimes SPatfelevant or unsolicited messag sine purpose of advertsin, Pl use Spying ic is the act of obtaining secrets without the Cyber spying or cyber ecPton ts information may be personal, sensitive P of the holder of the int om individuals, competitors, governments for econom¢ ox of lssed manure, ott It uses Internet, networks or individual compyre, Pola or iey sofware like Trojan horses and spyware. Reading anoth, the use of email is cyber spying. d scti ee ber fraud is the use of Intemet or software to defraud victims oF take ada them by stealing personal information which can lead to identity theft. Cyber 1 vandalism and phishing are concepts related to cyber fraud. Cyber theft may be defined as the fetching of data from the server by using 7 techniques ie., hacking, breaking and entering, masquerading and pirating the im Property. es sent over the Internet typically to 4 large, 1 hishing, spreading malware, etc. is caljgg’ Mx vandalism are DoS (denial of service) attacks, malware attacks, etc. Phishi . The thief sends a deceptive email to the recipient tricking him account details. The phisher will Provide the user a link to “si cifically to collect personal information. That formation w: used against the victim, later. Phishing attacks that target specific individuals are speat-phishing. Viahi Vishing uses VoIP Woice over Intemet Protocol) to make a Phishing attack. The viste mw estates to the victim Posing as a representative of the victim's bank, som: automered a mors ‘some other highly Important message. Other times these calls will bz information Prompts. The plan is to Bain access to the Victim's financial ani Cyber Terrorism a epertamerm isthe se of Intemet based attacks isruption a in terrorist activities, including act aah computer Networks, especially of Persone ‘Computers CYRERLAW ternet, by the Means of tools Such as computer viruses. Sbeday is 9 term Tihs: aM Used to d . NOR parties scribe the legal 'Ssues related to use of communication ibe ¥ “cyberspace”; ! oe emer, Iris an intersection of many leg SON OF expression, and jurisdiction. aFe covereg in the f . foll : ‘Act, 2000, Owing acts 2000 in 2098,