Academic Writing Techniques

Lecture Note 4

Dr. Mohammad Kamal Hossain ACCA

Department of Accounting and Information Systems

Jashore University of Science and Technology
 Constructing Arguments in Academic Writing

4.1 Introduction
An argument is the foundation of academic writing, debate, and persuasive
(convincing/credible/believable) communication. Constructing a strong argument
involves presenting a clear claim and supporting it with evidence and reasoning. In
this lecture, we will explore:
1. The elements of a strong argument
2. The use of supporting evidence and examples
3. Common logical fallacies to avoid

4.2 Elements of a Strong Argument

A strong argument consists of several interconnected parts:
A. Claim (Assertion/Thesis Statement)
 A claim is the central idea or stance (position/attitude) that the
writer/speaker wants the audience to accept.
 It must be debatable, specific, and clear.
Example:
i) “Climate change is the most urgent challenge facing humanity today.”
ii) “Social media has a negative impact on teenagers' mental health."
B. Reasoning (Rationale)
 These are the justifications that connect the evidence to the claim.
 A reason explains why the claim should be accepted.
Example:
ii) “Because it leads to extreme weather, rising sea levels, and food insecurity.”
ii) "Because it leads to increased anxiety, depression, and poor self-esteem (self-
confidence)."
C. Evidence (Support)
 Evidence includes facts, statistics, examples, testimonies
(verifications/authentications), or research that back up the reason.
 The quality of evidence directly affects the credibility of the argument.
Example:
ii) “According to NASA, 2023 was one of the hottest years on record, with global
temperatures exceeding the 20th-century average by 1.2°C.”
ii) "A study by the American Psychological Association found that adolescents who
spend more than 3 hours per day on social media have a higher risk of mental health
issues."
D. Counterclaim and Rebuttal
 A counterclaim acknowledges opposing views.
 A rebuttal responds to and refutes the counterclaim, strengthening your
position.
Counterclaim/ Counterargument:
i) “Some argue that climate change is a natural cycle and not caused by human
activity.”
Rebuttal:
i) “However, the overwhelming majority of climate scientists agree that human
activity, especially carbon emissions, is the primary driver.”
Counterclaim/ Counterargument:
ii) "Some argue that social media helps teenagers build social connections."
Rebuttal:
ii) "While that may be true, excessive use still outweighs these benefits by increasing
the risk of cyberbullying and social comparison."
E. Logical Structure (Organization)
 A strong argument follows a logical progression:
1. Introduction with a thesis
 2. Body paragraphs with reasons and evidence
3. Counterargument and rebuttal
4. Conclusion that synthesizes the argument

Full Paragraph

Example 1:

Climate change is the most urgent challenge facing humanity today. Because it
leads to extreme weather, rising sea levels, and food insecurity. According to NASA,
2023 was one of the hottest years on record, with global temperatures exceeding
the 20th-century average by 1.2°C. Some argue that climate change is a natural
cycle and not caused by human activity. However, the overwhelming majority of
climate scientists agree that human activity, especially carbon emissions, is the
primary driver.

Example 2:

Social media has a negative impact on teenagers' mental health. Because it leads
to increased anxiety, depression, and poor self-esteem (self-confidence. A study by
the American Psychological Association found that adolescents who spend more
than 3 hours per day on social media have a higher risk of mental health issues.
Some argue that social media helps teenagers build social connections. While that
may be true, excessive use still outweighs these benefits by increasing the risk of
cyberbullying and social comparison.

4.3 Supporting Evidence and Examples

1. Types of Evidence
Type of Description Example
Evidence
Facts Verified truths from “Water boils at 100°C at sea level.”
reliable sources
Statistics Numerical data to “Over 70% of teenagers use social
support trends or claims media daily.”
Expert Statements from “Dr. Fauci stated that vaccines reduce
Opinion professionals or hospitalization risk.”
researchers
Examples Real or hypothetical “A student who studied online during
illustrations the pandemic scored 90% in final
exams.”
Anecdotes Personal stories or brief “I had a friend who benefited greatly
narratives from telemedicine during COVID-19.”
Case Studies In-depth analysis of “Finland's education model, which
specific instances emphasizes equity, shows high
literacy rates.”

4.4 Criteria for Using Evidence Effectively

 Relevance: Directly supports the claim or reason
 Credibility: Comes from reliable, unbiased sources
 Variety: Combines types of evidence for stronger persuasion
 Cited Properly: Gives credit to original sources or references

4.5 Avoiding Logical Fallacies (Myths/Misconceptions)

Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that weaken an argument. Recognizing and
avoiding these improves argumentative writing.
1. Common Logical Fallacies
Fallacy Definition Example
Ad Hominem Attacking the person “Don't listen to him—he failed
rather than the argument math in college.”
Straw Man Misrepresenting an “You want to reduce military
argument to make it easier spending? So you want the
to attack country to be defenseless!”
False Dilemma Presenting two extremes “You’re either with us or against
with no middle ground us.”
Slippery Slope Arguing one small step will “If we allow video games in
lead to disaster school, no one will study
anymore.”
Hasty Making broad claims from “One dishonest politician means
Generalization limited evidence all politicians are corrupt.”
Appeal to Manipulating emotions “If you care about your children,
Emotion rather than using logic you’ll ban junk food
immediately.”
Circular Repeating the claim as its “The Bible is true because it says
Reasoning own support so.”

4.6 Sample Structured Argument

Topic: Should University Education Be Free?
1. Claim: University education should be free for all students.
2. Reason: It promotes equal opportunity and reduces income inequality.
3. Evidence:
o “A study by OECD (2021) found that countries with tuition-free
education show higher rates of degree completion among low-
income students.”
4. Counterclaim: Critics argue it would strain government budgets.
5. Rebuttal: While true, countries like Germany and Norway offer free
education by reallocating resources and maintaining quality.
6. Conclusion: Free university education enhances social mobility and long-
term economic productivity.
4.7 Example
Sample Editorial: “Why Governments Must Invest in Public Transportation”
In recent years, cities around the world have faced growing traffic congestion,
pollution, and socioeconomic inequality. One of the most effective solutions to
these problems lies in expanding and improving public transportation.
Governments must prioritize investment in public transit systems not only to
reduce environmental damage but also to create equitable access to mobility for
all citizens.

First and foremost, public transportation plays a critical role in reducing carbon
emissions. Private vehicles are a leading contributor to air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions. According to a 2022 World Bank report, cities with high
public transit usage, such as Seoul and Zurich, produce 30% less per capita carbon
emissions than cities that rely heavily on personal cars.

Additionally, affordable and efficient public transportation helps bridge the

mobility gap between rich and poor. In many countries, low-income residents
cannot afford private vehicles and rely on buses and trains to access jobs, schools,
and healthcare. When transit services are underfunded or unreliable, these
populations suffer disproportionately. A study by the Brookings Institution found
that poor transit access is directly correlated with higher unemployment rates in
urban areas.

Critics argue that large-scale investment in public transportation is financially

unsustainable, especially in developing economies with competing priorities like
healthcare and education. However, this perspective overlooks the long-term
economic returns of transit investment. For every dollar spent on public
transportation, approximately $5 is generated in economic activity, according to
the American Public Transportation Association (APTA). Moreover, quality transit
systems attract businesses, reduce traffic-related costs, and improve overall
productivity.

In conclusion, investing in public transportation is not just an environmental or

social necessity—it is a long-term economic strategy. Rather than viewing it as a
cost, governments must recognize it as an essential infrastructure for a sustainable
and inclusive future.

Breakdown: Analyzing the Editorial

Component Content from the Editorial
Claim “Governments must prioritize investment in public transit
systems…”
Reason 1 “…to reduce environmental damage…”
Evidence for R1 “Cities with high public transit usage… produce 30% less per
capita carbon emissions…” (World Bank 2022)
Reason 2 “…to create equitable access to mobility for all citizens.”
Evidence for R2 “Poor transit access is directly correlated with higher
unemployment rates…” (Brookings Institution)
Counterclaim “Critics argue that large-scale investment… is financially
unsustainable…”
Rebuttal “…this perspective overlooks the long-term economic returns…
$5 is generated for every $1 spent…” (APTA)
Conclusion “…governments must recognize it as an essential
infrastructure for a sustainable and inclusive future.”

4.8 Classroom Practice Suggestion

Activity: Write a short argument on a current issue (e.g., AI in education).