GROUP 2:

CELLS AND
BATTERIES
Electrochemical Energy
Early in the history of electrical science, laboratory physicists found
that when metals came into contact with certain chemical solutions,
voltages appeared between the pieces of metal. These were the first
electrochemical cells.The chemicals and the metal have an inherent
ability to produce a constant exchange of charge carriers. If the
galvanometer and resistor are left hooked up between the two pieces
of metal for a long time, the current will gradually decrease, and the
electrodes will become coated. All the chemical energy in the acid will
have been turned into electrical energy as current in the wire and
galvanometer. In turn, this current will have heated the resistor
(another form of kinetic energy), and escaped into the air and into
space.
Primary and Secondary Cells
Some electrical cells, once their chemical energy has all been changed
to electricity and used up, must be thrown away. These are called
primary cells. Other kinds of cells, such as the lead-and-acid type, can
gettheir chemical energy back again by means of recharging. Such a
cell is a secondary cell. Primary cells include the ones you usually put in
a flashlight, in a transistor radio, and in various other consumer
devices. They use dry electrolyte pastes along with metal electrodes.
They go by names such as dry cell, zinc-carbon cell, or alkaline cell
The Weston Standard Cell
Most electrochemical cells produce 1.2 to 1.8 V. Different types vary
slightly. A mercury cell has a voltage that is a little less than thatof a
zinc-carbon or alkaline cell. The voltage of a cell can also be affected
by variables in the manufacturing process. Most consumer-type dry
cells can beassumed to produce1.5 V.

Storage Capacity
Recall that the common electrical units of energy are the watt-hour
(Wh) and the kilowatt-hour (kWh). Any electrochemical cell or battery
has a certain amount of electrical energy that can be obtained from it,
and this can be specified in watt- hours or kilowatt-hours. More often,
though, it's given in ampere-hours (Ah).
Grocery Store Cells and Batteries
The cells you see in grocery stores, department stores, drugstores, and
hardware stores provide 1.5 V, and are available in sizes known as
AAA (very small), AA (small), C (medium large), and D (large). Batteries
are widely available that deliver6 or 9 V.

Alkaline Cells
The alkaline cell has granular zinc as the negativeelectrode, potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte, and a device called a polarizer as the
positive electrode. The construction is similar to that of the zinc-
carbon cell. An alkaline cell can work at lower temperatures than a zinc-
carbon cell. It lastslonger in most electronic devices, and is therefore
preferred for use in transistor radios, calculators.
Simplified drawing of the construction of a zinc-carbon electrochemical
cell. and portable cassette players. Its shelf life is much longer than
that of a zinc- carbon cell. As you might expect, it costs more.
Transistor Batteries
A transistor battery consists of six tiny zinc-carbon or alkaline cells in series. Each
of the six cells supplies 1.5 V. Thus, the battery supplies 9 V. Even though these
batteries have more voltage than individual cells, the total energy available from
them is less than that from a C cell or D cell. Transistor batteries are used in low-
current electronic devices such as remote-control garage-door openers, television
(TV) and hi-fi remote controls, and electroniccalculators.

Lantern Batteries
The lantern battery has much greater mass than a common dry cell or transistor
battery, and consequently it lasts much longer and can deliver more current.
Lantern batteries are usually rated at 6 V, and consist of four good-size zinc-
carbon or alkaline cells.
MINIATURE CELLS AND
BATTERIES

RONALD DAVE M. ALFANTA

MINIATURE CELLS AND BATTERIES

Lithium Cells and Batteries

Silver-Oxide Cells and Mercury Cells and
Batteries Batteries
Silver-Oxide Cells
and Batteries A silver-oxide cell is usually found in a
buttonlike shape, and can fit inside a
small wristwatch. These types of
cells come in various sizes and
thicknesses, all with similar
appearances. They supply 1.5 V, and
offer excellent energy storage for the
weight.
 Silver-Oxide Cells
and Batteries

Silver-oxide cells can be stacked to

make batteries. Several of these
miniature cells, one on top of the
other, can provide 6, 9, or even 12 V
for a transistor radio or other light-
duty electronic device.
Mercury Cells and
Batteries A mercury cell, also called a mercuric-
oxide cell, has properties similar to
those of silver-oxide cells. They are
manufactured in the same general
form. The main difference, often not
of significance, is a somewhat lower
voltage per cell: 1.35 V.
 Mercury Cells and
Batteries

If six of these cells are stacked to

make a battery, the resulting voltage
will be about 8.1 V rather than 9 V.
One additional cell can be added to
the stack, yielding about 9.45 V.
Lithium Cells and
There are several variations in the
Batteries
chemical makeup of these cells; they
all contain lithium, a light, highly
reactive metal. Lithium cells can be
made to supply 1.5 to 3.5 V,
depending on the particular
chemistry used. These cells, like
silver-oxide and mercury cells, can be
stacked to make batteries.
 Lithium Cells and
Batteries
Lithium cells and batteries have
superior shelf life, and they can last
for years in very-low-current
applications such as memory backup
or the powering of a digital liquid
crystal display (LCD) watch or clock.
These cells also provide high energy
capacity per unit volume or mass.
LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

RONALD DAVE M. ALFANTA

 Lead Acid Cell
This has a solution of sulfuric acid, along with a lead
electrode (negative) and a lead-dioxide electrode
(positive). These cells are rechargeable.

LEAD ACID
Automotive batteries
Made from sets of lead-acid cells having a free-
flowing liquid acid. Lead-acid batteries are also available

BATTERY
in a construction that uses a semisolid electrolyte. These
batteries are sometimes used in consumer electronic
devices that require a moderate amount of current.

Large Lead Acid Battery

Such as the kind in your car or truck, can store
several tens of ampere-hours. Their main attributes are
that they can be charged and recharged many times, and
they are not particularly expensive.
NICKEL-BASED CELLS AND
BATTERIES

RONALD DAVE M. ALFANTA

Nickel-Based Cells
and Batteries
Nickel-based batteries are available in packs
of cells. These packs can be plugged into
equipment, and sometimes form part of the
case for a device such as a portable radio
transceiver.
 Button Cells
Those little things you find in cameras, watches, memory
backup applications, and other places where

Nickel-Based
miniaturization is important.

Flooded Cells
Cells and Used in heavy-duty applications, and can have storage
capacity in excess of 1000 Ah.

Batteries Spacecraft Cells

Made in packages that can withstand the rigors of a
Configurations and deep-space environment.

Applications
Solar Panels
can be used while the satellite is in sunlight, but during
the times that the earth eclipses the sun, batteries are
needed to power the electronic equipment on board the
satellite.
 Never discharge nickel-based cells all the way until they
totally die.

Nickel-Based If a nickel-based unit is used over and over, and is

discharged to the same extent every time, it might begin
to die at that point in its discharge cycle.

Cells and Nickel-based cells and batteries work best if used with

Batteries
charging units that take several hours to fully replenish
the charge. So-called high-rate or quick chargers are
available, but these can sometimes force too much
current through a cell or battery.
Cautions

NiMH cells and batteries have replaced NICAD types in

many applications. In most practical scenarios, a NICAD
battery can be directly replaced with a NiMH battery of
the same voltage and current-delivering capacity, and
the powered-up device will work satisfactorily.
POWER
SUPPLIES
Power Transformers
Power transformers can be categorized as step-down or step-up. As
you remember, the output, or secondary, voltage of a step-down unit is
lower than the input, or primary, voltage. The reverse is true for a step-
up transformer.

Step-down
Most solid-state electronic devices, such as radios, need only a few
volts. The power supplies for such equipment use step-down power
transformers. The physical size of the transformer depends on the
current. Some devices need only a small current and a low voltage. The
transformer in a radio receiver, for example, can be physically small. A
ham radio transmitter or hi-fi amplifier needs more current. This means
that the secondary winding of the transformer must consist of heavy-
gauge wire, and the core must be bulky to contain the magnetic flux.
Step-up
Some circuits need high voltage. The cathode-ray tube (CRT) in a
conventional home television set needs several hundred volts. Some
ham radio power amplifiers use vacuum tubes working at more than 1
kV dc. The transformers in these appliances are step-up types. They
are moderate to large in size, because of the number of turns in the
secondary, and also because high voltages can spark, or arc, between
wire turns if the windings are too tight. If a step-up transformer needs
to supply only a small amount of current, it need not be big. But for ham
radio transmitters and radio or television broadcast amplifiers, the
transformers are large, heavy, and expensive.
Transformer Ratings
Transformers are rated according to output voltage and current. For a
given unit, the volt-ampere (VA) capacity is often specified. This is the
product of the voltage and current. A transformer with 12-V output,
capable of delivering 10 A, has 12 V × 10 A= 120 VA of capacity. A high-
quality, rugged power transformer, capable of providing the necessary
currents and/or voltages, is crucial in any power supply. The
transformer is usually the most expensive component to replace.
Rectifier Diodes
Rectifier diodes are available in various sizes, intended for different
purposes. Most rectifier diodes are made of silicon, and are known as
silicon rectifiers. Some are fabricated from selenium, and are called
selenium rectifiers. Two important features of a power-supply diode
are the average forward current (Io)rating and the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) rating.
Average Forward Current
Electric current produces heat. If the current through a diode is too
great, the heat will destroy the P-N junction. When designing a power
supply, it is wise to use diodes with an Io rating of at least 1.5 times the
expected average dc forward current. If this current is 4.0 A, for
example, the rectifier diodes should be ratedat I_o = 6.0 A or more.
Note that Io flows through the diodes. The current drawn by the load
is often different from this. Also, note that Io is an average figure. The
instantaneous forward current is another thing, and can be 15 or 20
times the I_o, depending on the nature of the filtering circuit.
Some diodes have heatsinks to help carry heat away from the P-N
junction. A selenium diode can be recognized by the appearance of its
heatsink, which looks something like a baseboard radiator built around
a steam pipe.
Diodes can be connected in parallel to increase the current rating
over that ofan individual diode. When this is done, small-value resistors
should be placed in series with each diode in the set to equalize the
current. Each resistor should have a value such that the voltage drop
across it is about 1 V under normal operating conditions.
Peak Inverse Voltage
The PIV rating of a diode is the instantaneous reverse-bias voltage
that it can withstand without the avalanche effect taking place. A good
power supply has diodes whose PIV ratings are significantly greater
than the peak ac input voltage. If the PIV rating is not great enough, the
diode or diodes in a supply conduct for part of the reverse cycle. This
degrades the efficiency of the supply because the reverse current
bucks the forward current.
Diodes can be connected in series to get a higher PIV capacity than
a single diode alone. This scheme is sometimes seen in high-voltage
supplies, such as those needed for tube-type power amplifiers. High-
value resistors, of about 500 Ω for each peak-inverse volt, are placed
across each diode in the set to distribute the reverse bias equally
among the diodes. In addition, each diode is shunted by (that is,
connected in parallel with) a capacitor of 0.005 μF or 0.1 μF.
Half-Wave Circuit
A halfwave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the transformation.
It is defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an
AC voltage waveform to pass while blocking the other half cycle.

At A, a half-wave rectifier circuit. At B, a full-wave center-tap rectifier

circuit. At C, a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.
 Half-wave rectifier is much less than the peak transformer output
voltage, asshown in Fig. 21-2A. The peak voltage across the diode in
the reverse direction can be as much as 2.8 times the applied rms ac
voltage.
Most engineers like to use diodes whose PIV ratings are at least 1.5
times the maximum expected peak reverse voltage. Therefore, in a half-
wave rectifier circuit, the diodes should be rated for at least 2.8 × 1.5, or
4.2, times the rms ac voltage that appears across the secondary
winding of the power transformer.
Half-wave rectification has shortcomings. First, the output is difficult
to filter. Second, the output voltage can drop considerably when the
supply is required to deliver high current. Third, half-wave rectification
puts a strain on the transformer and diodes because it pumps them.
The circuit works the diodes hard during half the ac cycle, and lets
them loaf during the other half.
 Half-wave rectification is usually adequate for use in a power supply
that isnot required to deliver much current, or when the voltage can
vary without affecting the behavior of the equipment connected to it.
The main advantage of a half-wave circuit is that it costs less than
more sophisticated circuits.

At A, the output of a half-wave rectifier. At B, the output of a full-

wave rectifier. Note the difference in how the effective (eff) voltages
compare with the peak voltages.
Full-Wave Center-Tap Circuit
A better scheme for changing ac to dc takes advantage of both
halves of the ac cycle. A full-wave center-tap rectifier has a transformer
with a tapped secondary (Fig. 21-1B). The center tap is connected to
electrical ground, also called chassis ground. This produces voltages
and currents at the ends of the winding that are in phase opposition
with respect to each other. These two ac waves can be individually half-
wave rectified, cutting off one half of the cycle and then the other, over
and over.
The effective output voltage from a power supply that uses a full-
wave center-tap rectifier is greater, relative to the peak voltage, than is
the case with the half- wave rectifier (Fig. 21-2B). The PIV across the
diodes can, nevertheless, be as much as 2.8 times the applied rms ac
voltage. Therefore, the diodes should have a PIV rating of at least 4.2
times the applied rms ac voltage to ensure that they won't break down.
 The output of a full-wave center-tap rectifier is easier to filter than
that of ahalf-wave rectifier because the frequency of the pulsations in
the dc (known as the ripple frequency) from a full-wave rectifier is twice
the ripple frequency of the pulsating dc from a half-wave rectifier,
assuming identical ac input frequency in either situation. If you
compare Fig. 21-2B with Fig. 21-2A, you will see that the full-wave-
rectifier output is closer to pure dc than the half-wave rectifier output.
Another advantage of a full-wave center-tap rectifier is the fact that it's
gentler with the transformer and diodes than a half-wave rectifier. Yet
another asset: When a load is applied to the output of a power supply
that uses a full-wave center-tap rectifier circuit, the voltage drops less
than is the case with a half-wave supply. But because the transformer
is more sophisticated, the full- wave center-tap circuit costs more than
a half-wave circuit that delivers the same output voltage at the same
rated maximum current.
02

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