AUTONOMOUS TRANSPORTATION OF

FINISHED GOODS (ATFG)

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ASHWIN T (171001023)
DEEVEISH J V (171001030)
KARTHIKEYAN R (171001048)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(An Autonomous Institution; Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai-600025)

ANNA UNIVERSITY – CHENNAI 600025

MAY 2021
 SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An Autonomous Institution; Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai-600025)

ANNA UNIVERSITY – CHENNAI 600025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “AUTONOMOUS TRANSPORTATION
OF FINISHED GOODS (ATFG)” is the bonafide work of “ASHWIN T
(171001023), DEEVEISH J V (171001030),KARTHIKEYAN R
(171001048)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. S. Ramesh Babu M.E., Ph.D. Mr. M.NISHAL M.E.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,

Submitted for the project viva-voice Examination held on …………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ABSTRACT

An Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) is a set of cooperative driverless vehicle, used on

manufacturing floor and coordinated by a Arduino-based control system. AGVs-based

Material Handling Systems (MHSs) are widely used in transportation of goods from the

production unit to the storage copmpartment. One of the challenge in MHSs is how

flexible and save time and thereby increasing the marginal profit. It should be designed in

a way that it can easily change its path when an static or dynamic obstacle is in its path.

The main focus of this study is to make an AGV with the convenient materials, simple

and applicable routing system and more importantly reducing the time, useful labor and

increasing the marginal profit . For this propose an AGV is basically modeled and

designed with SOLIDWORKS software and developed with special specifications such

as alternating the speed of the AGV according to the load capacity placed over it.

Moreover the flexibility of the system is improved employing three more sensors which

make the plan more intelligent dealing with multi directional guiding paths. Also

benefiting in achieving various speeds at respective load capacity. Finally the users are

able to load the finished goods and transport it across the guiding path and thereby saving

time, money and useful labour.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to our

principal Dr. S. GANESH VAIDYANATHAN, Ph.D., for offering to take up the
project in the college and extending all the facilities for successfully completing
the project.

We are highly grateful to Dr. S. RAMESH BABU, Ph.D., Head of Department of

Mechanical Engineering for his kind support and permission to use lab facilities at
all the times.

We would also thank to Dr. S. SARAVANAN, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical

Engineering for their support and cooperation.

We would also thank to my supervisor Mr. M. NISHAL M.E., for his

invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this
research. We are proud to record that I had the opportunity to work with an
exceptionally experienced Professor like him.
.

ASHWIN T

DEEVEISH J V

KARTHIKEYAN R
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Chapter Name Page No.

No.
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Chapter 1
 1 INTRODUCTION

Automation has become the core of modern manufacturing so much so that, no company

is able to survive in a competitive market without automating its operations. In fact the

term automation basically refers to the use of computer and other automated machinery

for the execution of tasks that human labor would otherwise perform. Automation is used

to manage systems and to control processes, thus leading to reduce the necessity of

human intervention.

Nowadays, manufacturers seek to implement methods of automation appropriate to their

needs and purposes. Companies automate their activities for a variety of reasons.

Increasing productivity is normally the main aim for companies desiring competitive

advantages. Automation reduces human errors and improves the quality of output. Other

reasons of automation include the presence of hazardous working environments and the

high cost of human labor in such areas.

In order to have adequate automation, there are number of issues to be taken into the

account. Depending on the product and area, the components of automation might be

different, but there are some elements that must always be considered such as the field of

automation, scale or size of the place that is going to be automated, and what level of

flexibility is required.
One of the key components of automation in a manufacturing process is the MHS. This

system is responsible for loading, unloading, moving or generally transporting any type

of materials (raw material, work in process, and finished good) within and out of

manufacturing cells such as warehouses, machines and assembly lines. MHS consisted of

different components (i.e., Conveyors, AGVs, Robots, Automated Storage and Retrieval

system). Utilization of components, either individually or from combination point of

view, is determined by its application or pre-assigned flexibility.

In this study, AGV is considered as the most flexible equipment of MHS. An AGV is a

driverless transportation system used for horizontal movement of materials. On the other

hand, it is an unmanned vehicle, controlled and driven by a host computer, to carry out

the required material movement in a manufacturing floor. AGVs can be used in both

interior and exterior environments such as manufacturing, distribution, transshipment and

(external) transportation areas. In manufacturing areas, AGVs are used to transport all

types of materials related to the manufacturing process.

Since the introduction of AGVs, there have been two methods of steering namely; close

path and open path, which are employed based on the application, area size, cost and

etc.

In the close path steering system, a line embedded or buried on the ground and a sensor

set at the bottom of the AGV detects the line and guides the AGV to follow the line.

There are two types of line in such systems, namely colorful line and magnetic line. The

latter is embedded and former is buried in the ground and Color magnetic detective

sensors are the two employed types of sensors. In such steering system the paths are fixed

therefore frequent changes of design are not adopted in to nature of such systems.

Consequently, flexibility and changeability of design is less likely.

Therefore, open path steering system came through to cover the problems inherent in the

former system in which there were no physical paths for AGV. However, there were

some virtual pre-define ones on the controlling unit. Thus, the paths could be changed

without physically changing the system. In such systems there are two orthogonal lasers

rows. Crossing these orthogonal laser lines, the workshop becomes like a grid area.

Using grids, paths are assigned in the supervisory control. Therefore, the location of the

AGV and also the probable deviation is controlled and supervised by the supervisory

unit. In this steering system, although the accuracy and flexibility are high, it is much

more costly compared to the close path steering method.

The proposed model is based on the close path system and introduces a unique movement

for AGVs and steering model for the system. This has the main advantage of

conventional close path method with fewer disadvantages in employing technical

decision, making processes and heuristic algorithm for the steering system with specific

hardware and software design.

In this method there is a colorful path from the initial position (home) to all of the

stations. This path consists of a main path and three side paths, originating from the main

path. Each side path ends to a station. And a perfect supervisory system is employed to

control all the movements.

The examining area of the proposed AGV is a water can filling station named Solar

Water located at Mowlivakkam, Chennai

The first chapter introduces the necessity of employing a FMS and advantages of using

AGVs in those systems. It also introduces the subjective environment of the proposed

AGV with a brief explanation of steering model.

The second chapter will review the history and back ground and the latest improvement

of the AGVs in some aspects.

Chapter three will show the hardware design and all the component of the AGV. It will

analyze of all the possible movements and also introduces some part of the software

design dealing with hardware components.

Chapter four will illustrate the steering method including algorithm, dispatching rolls,

deviation classification, deviation control, station recognition, idling and interface

controllers.

The fifth chapter will discuss the results and reliability of the plan graphically and

mathematically and also provide the best adjustments and specifications for the AGV to

reach the goals under its specific conditions.

In the end, it is expected that all equipment should be integrated with the aid of the host

computer of the system and the proposed AGV.

 Chapter 2

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) have played a vital role in moving material and

product for more than 50 years. The first AGV system was built and introduced in 1953.

It was a modified towing tractor that was used to pull a trailer and follow an overhead

wire in a grocery warehouse. By the late 1950's and early 1960's, towing AGVs were in

operation in many types of factories and warehouses.

The first big development for the AGV industry was the introduction of a unit load

vehicle in the mid 1970s. This unit load AGVs gained widespread acceptance in the

material handling marketplace because of their ability to serve several functions; a work

platform, a transportation device and a link in the control and information system for the

factory.

Since then, AGVs have evolved into complex material handling transport vehicles

ranging from mail handling AGVs to highly automated automatic trailer loading AGVs

using laser and natural target navigation technologies.

In fact the improvement of AGVs over the last decade is deeply indebted to development

of Scheduling, Algorithm and Steering methods. The problem of scheduling of AGVs

and the other supporting equipment has been extensively studied by Basnet and Mize [3]
and Rachamadugu and Stecke [4] currently providing the most up-to-date and

comprehensive reviews in this area.

Han and McGinnis [5] have developed a real time algorithm in which material handling

transporters are considered. Schriber and Stecke [6] have shown how the additional

consideration of the material handling system and limited buffers degrades the system

performance. Sabuncuoglu and Hommertzheim [7, 8] have highlighted the importance of

material handling and they compared several AGV dispatching rules. They have also

shown how the buffer capacity can affect the performance of the system. Flexibility,

which is a distinguishing feature of FMSs, has received an extensive amount of attention.

Routing flexibility (i.e., alternative machines and processing routes) has been considered

by Wilhelm and Shin [9], Chen and Chung [10], and Khoshnevis and Chen [11]. These

studies have indicated that dynamic routing (i.e., a path determined dynamically during

schedule generation) performs better than a preplanned routing. Rachamadugu et al. [12]

have proposed a quantitative measure of sequence flexibility and have shown that perfect

sequence Flexibility improves system performance. Similar observations have been made

by Lin and Solberg [13]. In most work to date, tools, pallets/fixtures and their availability

are not modeled adequately. A static allocation of tools is usually assumed in these

studies.
However, some researchers have considered a limited tool magazine capacity and the

changing of tools from central tool storage [14]. One purpose of this thesis is to develop

an algorithm that can be used to investigate the research issues discussed above. This

algorithm should not only consider the major elements of FMSs but also generate high

quality schedules in a reasonable amount of time. In this thesis, the basic structure and

characteristics of such an algorithm is described.

Kim et al. [15] proposed a deadlock detection and prevention algorithms for AGVs. It

was assumed that vehicles reserve grid blocks in advance to prevent collisions and

deadlocks among AGVs. A graphic representation method, called the "reservation

graph," was proposed to express a reservation schedule in such a form that the possibility

of a deadlock can be easily detected. A method to detect possible deadlocks by using the

reservation graph was suggested.

Maxwell and Muckstadt [16] first introduced the problem of AGV flow system design.

While their main concern is vehicle routing, they also address material flow path and

station location design issues. The flow network they used, known as conventional

configuration, is composed of unidirectional arcs. Gaskin and Tanchoco [17] developed

the first integer programming model for material flow path design. Given a fixed network

of aisles and fixed pickup and delivery stations, the model assigns direction to arcs to

minimize the total trip distances of loaded vehicles. Goetz and Egbelu [18] developed an

alternative model, where the station locations no longer are fixed but restricted to the
 nodes on the boundary of the cells. Sun and Tchernev [19] provide a comprehensive

review on the models developed for conventional configuration. Afentakis [20] states the

advantages of the loop layout as simplicity and efficiency, low initial and expansion

costs, and product and processing flexibility. Loop layout has been studied by many

researchers including Bartholdi and Platzman [21], Sharp and Liu [22],

Kouvelis and Kim [23], Egbelu [24], Banerjee and Zhou [25], and Chang and Egbelu

[26]. Bozer and Srinivasan [27] initiate the concept of tandem configuration as a set of no

overlapping, bidirectional loops, each with a single vehicle.

Another problem in steering issues is to schedule several AGVs in a non-conflicting

manner which is a complicated real-time problem, especially when the AGV system is

bi-directional. In fact, many conflicting situations may arise such as head-on and

catching-up conflicts when the AGVs or the guide-paths are bidirectional and if no

efficient control policy is used to prevent them. Several conflict-free routing strategies

have been proposed and can be classified into two categories:

1. Predictive methods: Aim to find an optimal path for AGVs. The conflicts are

predicted off-line, and an AGV’s route is planned to avoid collisions and

deadlocks [28-30].
2. Reactive methods: the AGVs are not planned and the decisions are taken in a real-

time manner according to the system state.

These methods are based on a zone division of the guide-path and consider them

as nonsharable resources [31-33]. Predictive methods give good performance, but

are not very robust since they do not take into account real time problems.

However, reactive methods are very robust but the resulting performances can be

poor because the decisions are taken by considering a very short-term time horizon

[34, 35]. In this thesis due to specification of the whole plan (presence of only one

AGV) a kind of predictive method is proposed.

In early 1990s Fuzzy logic came through to control and manipulate whole of the

material flow in manufacturing floors. The main indication of employing this

system on AGVs was the ability of controlling multiple AGV in a same time

without collision.

Fuzzy logic is a very useful nonlinear control method that can be used to control

very complex models or plants, which are formidable to model. Fuzzy linguistic

terms allow the user to incorporate the heuristic knowledge of the plant in control

law synthesis. Lakehal et al. [36] proposes fuzzy logic control for path tracking. It

is based on position and orientation errors with respect to the reference path.

Controlling two independently driven wheels achieves both the Longitudinal and
Lateral control of the vehicle. However, only simulation results are presented.

Senoo et al. [37] used experimental results of a three wheeled mobile robot to

discuss the stability of a fuzzy controller. It is also stated that fuzzy control was

implemented in order to achieve reduction of steer energy, while maintaining

better steer angle when compared with PI control.

Fuzzy logic has found useful applications in control among other areas. One useful

characteristic of a fuzzy controller is its applicability to systems with model

uncertainty and/or unknown models. Another useful characteristic of a fuzzy logic

controller is that it provides a framework for the incorporation of domain

knowledge in terms of heuristic rules.

Wuwei et al [38]. They presented the new navigation method for AGV with fuzzy

neural network controller when in the presence of obstacles. Their AGV can avoid

the dynamic and static obstacle and reach the target safely and reliably.

Wu et al. [39] used fuzzy logic control and artificial potential field (APF) for AGV

navigation. The APF method is used to calculate the repulsive force between the

vehicle and the closest obstacle and the attractive force generated by the goal. A

fuzzy logic controller is used to modify the direction of the AGV in a way to avoid

the obstacle.
Lin and Wang [40] proposed a fuzzy logic controller for collision avoidance for

AGV. They combined fuzzy logic with crisp reasoning to guide an AGV to get out

of trap since memories of path and crisp sequence flows are handled by non-fuzzy

processing. Their designed AGV was able to avoid collision with unknown

obstacle.

Alves and Junior [41] used a step motor to turn the direction of the ultra-sonic

sensors, so that each sensor can substitute two or more sensors in mobile robot

navigation.

Perhaps Sugeno [42, 43] has done one of the pioneering researches in mobile robot

navigation using fuzzy logic control. The fuzzy control rules, which he defines for

the controller, were derived by modeling an expert driving action. He made a

computer model of a car in microcomputer to find fuzzy rules. The speed of the

designed car was constant; then, the control input to the car is only the angle of the

steering angle

Mehdi Yahyaei [44] has design a AGV using fuzzy logic system and a rotational

ultra-sonic sensor to steer the AGV to avoid collisions and obstacles. He also

employed a programmable logic control (PLC) as the processor which makes the

AGV to be ultimately fit to the industrial environments.

 Chapter 3

3 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

The procedure of designing an AGV is a complicated process. Some issues which

directly impact the design of the proposed AGV are listed and widely explained.

These issues are not only hardware but also software issues. Software is not just

constants in inputs but it is variable and outputs must be chosen to specify the

design. Furthermore, these issues interact with each other so that each cannot be

considered separately but all must be considered simultaneously.

3.1 Vehicle Hardware Design

3.1.1 Movement Modeling

One of the most challenging parts of designing the AGV is the movement

modeling. Movement modeling highly depends on the size of the area, expected

maneuvering ability, position of stations and allocated path between them.

Furthermore, it becomes much more vital if the area is small with restricted

moving space so that the vehicle should be designed to move and make U-turns,

sharp turns, curve turns and of course handling deviations.

Typically, standard AGV’s are distinguished by having an axis in one rotational

degree of freedom at the back and the front axis in two rotational degrees of

freedom is to guide the vehicle on the arbitrary path. The most important

advantages of such model are the accuracy and simplicity which make the plan

highly applicable. However, there is a big disadvantage which is the weakness in

maneuvering on the sharp turns. In fact, in such models the minimum radios of the

turn carve is restricted.

Despite of advantage of implementing standard models, another model has to be

used. It is because of the specifications of the place for which the AGV is

proposed. Due to the need of an AGV with the ability of any type of movement

and turns, the military movement model is chosen. In this model there are 4

motors installed on each corner, connected to motor controller kit. This kit

receives the commands and respectively controls and drives each motor

independently. It means that the vehicle is able to perform U-turn even on a point,

which is the hardest and sharpest movement. Benefiting from this model, the

vehicle is capable to perform all types of movements and turns. The following part

will illustrate it with figures of all different capabilities of the vehicle.

3.1.2 System Configuration

The configuration of the vehicle forces is shown in figure 1. It is seen that the two

sprockets in the middle of the AGV are driving wheels, which are actuated separately by

two DC motors. So there are two trajectories of line and arc for this kind of AGV. The

center of linking line between two driving wheels is the kinematics origin of AGV.

3.1.3 Design Computation

In order to be able to configure the design computation of the AGV, it is assumed

that all of the wheel force is applied to a point which is at the center of each wheel

in each side.

Material chosen for square tube is MILD STEEL

Density of mild steel = 0.007480 and 0.008 kg/cm3

Dimension of square tube = 2x2x0.2 cm

Volume of square tubes = 2*(8*60*0.2) + 4*(8*40*0.2) = 448 cm3

1)Weight of the square tube frame = density * volume

= 0.008*448 = 3.584 kg

Practical weight of the square tube frame = 3.1 kg

Material chosen for sheet to base is POLYMETHYL METHACRLATE

Density of Acrylic = 0.00118 kg/cm3

Volume of sheet = 60*40*0.3 = 720 cm3

Weight of sheet = 720*0.00118= 0.84 kg

2) Weight of frame after fabricated using acrylic sheet

= 3.1+0.84

= 3.94 kg

3) Weight of the motor mounts, wheels = 1 kg

 4) Weight of electronic components, motor, motor drive, ultrasonic sensor, IR

sensor, battery = 1 kg

5) Theoretical torque of the motor used

= 8kg-cm

No of motors used = 4

Torque contributed by the motor = 8 + 8 +8+8 = 16kg/cm

Estimated load to be carried by the AGV = 5 kg

Total load to be driven by the motor = 10.94 kg

Factor of safety = Max load/Working load

= 32/10.94

= 2.9

It is good to load 80% of the load contributed by motor

Thus, the motor would be capable of carrying the load estimated.

3.1.4 Components of AGV

1. Chassis

 Base and Supports:

The proposed AGV’s chassis is made of a square tube (20x20x2) mm of mild

steel perfectly welded in order to be able to stand the heavy weight of the other

components and the maximum expected load. In addition, the base is surrounded

by the same perpendicular profile (400x3000 mm to hold the covers and withstand
 unexpected load, collisions, anything unpredicted or further from the project

subject and other applications.

 Motor mount:

On each side there is special thick plate (42x40x1.5) millimeter to hold the motors.

Each plate has 7 slots one for the motor shaft of diameter 25 mm in the middle and

the remaining 6 slots of diameter 4 mm, 60 degrees from each other, to tight and

adjust the motor in the right place in order to make the AGV sufficiently mobile.

This part is highly accurate therefore it is produced by the CNC milling.

2. DC Motor Drivers:

There are four 12V-3A DC electro motors adjusted and tighten to the motor

mounts on each side. These motors are considered to drive the AGV. It produces

torque of 8 kg-cm.

3. Electrical components:
  Batteries: Two 12V-4A batteries are assigned to supply the required

energy for the drivers and the main unit. These batteries are placed at the

back side of the vehicle to balance the weight and keep it close to the

center.

 Arduino Kit: This unit is the brain of the AGV. It has 32Kb micro

controllers which are meant to control all of the components for each of two

25 applications. It consists of one processor for each, programmed with

respect to the application requirements and expected respond.

Infra-red Sensor: An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to

sense some aspects of the surroundings. •IR Sensor is positioned at the bottom of

the device to detect the line.

 Ultrasonic Sensor: An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that

measures the distance of a target object by emitting ultrasonic sound waves,

and converts the reflected sound into an electrical signal. Ultrasonic waves

travel faster than the speed of audible sound. Ultrasonic sensors have two

main components: the transmitter and the receiver. Ultrasonic sensor is

positioned at the front of the device

 Motor Driver Kit: This driver has power input from the batteries and

output is divided into 127 units so that the speed is from 0 to 127. It also
 controls the polarization of outputs and provides the clockwise and

counterclockwise rotation which leads to forward and backward linear

movement. Considering the independent control for each side with respect

to the program,

 Switch: A switch is considered and placed at the back cover, connected to

the electrical circuit of AGV after power supply. Therefore, it turns the

vehicle on and off.

 Load cell: A load cell is a force transducer. As the force applied to the load

cell increases, the electrical signal changes proportionally. Load cell is

placed below the plate in the box to check the weight of the object placed.
3.2 Path and Guide-Path Design
T

he essential capability of an AGV is to transport the finished goods to distant

location. The loading and unloading station is known as AGV target where the

AGV has to travel from and to across the predefined path.

3.2.1 Interaction of Paths and Sensors

The visual line embedded on the floor or ceiling. Usually, the visual line is the

path in which the AGV goes and it will be a black line on a white surface but the

other way (white line on a black surface) is also possible.

The following image shows the working of a typical IR Sensor (IR LED –

Photodiode pair) in front of a light coloured surface and a black surface. As the

reflectance of the light coloured surface is high, the infrared light emitted by IR

LED will be maximum reflected and will be detected by the Photodiode.

In case of black surface, which has a low reflectance, the light gets completely

absorbed by the black surface and doesn’t reach the photodiode.

Using the same principle, we will setup the IR Sensors on the Line Follower AGV

such that the two IR Sensors are on the either side of the black line on the floor.

The setup is shown below.

When the AGV moves forward, both the sensors wait for the line to be detected.

For example, if the IR Sensor 1 in the above image detects the black line, it means

that there is a right curve (or turn) ahead. Arduino UNO detects this change and

sends signal to motor driver accordingly. In order to turn right, the motor on the

right side of the AGV is slowed down , while the motor on the left side is run at

normal speed.
Similarly, when the IR Sensor 2 detects the black line first, it means that there is a

left curve ahead and the AGV has to turn left. For the AGV to turn left, the motor

on the left side of the AGV is slowed down (or can be stopped completely or can

be rotated in opposite direction) and the motor on the right side is run at normal

speed.
3.3 Software Design

Algorithm

The success of the AGV system is highly dependent on the quality of the Arduino

code design. In other word, in order to operate an AGV system efficiently, AGVs

require an extensive Arduino system.

The responsibilities of the AGV controller include the following decisions:

1. How to overcome the obstacle in its path and deviate the line? This is referred to

as obstacle problem.

2. How the route is to be followed to the unloading and from the loading to the next

destination? This is referred to the routing problem.

3. How to vary the speed according the placed load capacity? This is referred as

speed determination problem.

3.4 Battery Management

Battery management of the AGV is an issue that is not being strongly focus on but as an

electrical vehicle is considered, battery State Of Charge (SOC) estimation becomes an

increasingly important issue in terms of both extending the lifetime of the battery and

displaying the usable charge to the user before recharging. However, the SOC cannot be

measured directly, but rather must be estimated based on measurable battery parameters

such as voltage and current.

 Chapter 6

CONCLUSION

An Automated guided vehicle (AGV) is defined as a set of cooperative driverless vehicle,

which is used on manufacturing floor and coordinated by a centralized or distributed

computer-based control system. The main usage of them as mentioned is to facilitate

automation process of doing manufacturing subjects. In this practical research, according

to the instructions of earlier study, an AGV have been made. Moreover, a guide line has

been provided with the mentioned specifications.

The primary goal of the AGV was to reduce the time usage to transport finished product

from the machine to the storage compartment. Therefore, the designed AGV has been

examined numerously between loading and unloading stations. Observations proved in

every part of the testing procedure the AGV was able to get the commands, follow the

line and travel time was reduced when compared to manual transportation methods.

Secondary goal of this thesis was to eliminate useful labor and thereby reducing the cost

incurred per product

Thus from the reults obtained from the Chapter 5, the AGV was able achieve the aim and

objective of this project

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