ATOMIC STRUCTURE

- Protons are in the nucleus

Models of the Atom
Postulates
John Dalton (1808)
Atoms must be mostly empty space since most
- Proposed “Solid Sphere Model” to describe the
particles went through
structure of an atom
There must be a dense center since the
a) Atmos are tiny, indestructible spheres particles bounced back
with no internal structure
The center is a dense region of positive charge

Postulates Nucleus are positively charged due to the

protons that are in it
Elements are tiny, indivisible particles (atoms)

All atoms of a pure element are identical in Niels Bohr (1913)

mass and properties (wrong due to isotopes) - Proposed stable electron orbits; explained the
emission spectra of some elements
All atoms of different elements have different - “Bohr’s Orbital Model”
masses and properties (wrong due to isobars)

Compounds are made of atoms from different Postulates

elements, and the atoms are in a fixed, whole-
number ratio Electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed energy
levels (fixed distances away from nucleus)
In chemical reactions, atoms are not created
nor destroyed. They simple combine, separate, Electron energy was quantized; they cannot
or rearrange occupy values between fixed energy levels

Electrons can jump from one orbit to another

J.J. Thompson (1897-1904) by emitting (radiation) or absorbing energy
- Discovered electron by experimenting with a
cathode ray tube Electrons move around the nucleus but only in
- Cathode rays were negatively charged prescribed orbits
- “Plum Pudding Model”
Erwin Schrodinger (1926)
Postulates - Introduced sub-energy level
- Assumes electron is a wave and tries to describe
Atom resembles a sphere of positive charge the region in space, or orbitals
with electrons present inside

Electrons are “embedded” in a positive charged Postulates

“pudding” of matter which made up most of
the atom’s mass Electrons do not move in set paths around the
nucleus, but in waves
Atoms is equal in magnitude, therefore it is
electrically neutral; has no charge We cannot know the exact location of an
electron at any given time, but the electrons are
more likely in specific areas
- Failed to explain how positive charge holds
electrons and the atom’s stability We have ‘clouds of probability’ called orbitals
- No mention of nucleus which we are likely to find an electron
- Unable to explain scattering of Rutherford
- Consisted of a dense nucleus surrounded by a
Ernest Rutherford (1910-1911) cloud of electrons at various levels of orbitals
- Discovered the nucleus and protons - The atom consists of a small but massive
- Tested Thompson’s model nucleus
- “Gold Foil Experiment”
Atom and its Structure
a) Shot alpha particles (positive charge) at a
very thin sheet of gold foil
b) Thought the particles would pass straight
because atoms are mostly empty space
c) But, some were deflected at large angles
and some bounced back

- The nuclear model does not identify presence of

neutrons
 Atomic # Smaller number

Protons Mass # Bigger number

(for different physical
- Positively charged particles properties)
- In the nucleus
- Discovered by Rutherford (1919) Neutron Mass # - Atomic #

Neutron Protons Atomic #

- Neutrally charged particles Electrons Atomic # (with charge)
- In the nucleus (for same chemical
- Discovered by James Chadwick (1932) properties)

Electron Isotopes
- Negatively charged particles - Are atoms of the same element
- Orbit around nucleus - Have the same number of protons and electrons
- Discovered by J.J. Thomson (1897) - Different number of neutrons
- Have same atomic number (same element) but
different mass number
Protons Neutrons Electrons
- They have different physical properties (due to
relative charge relative charge relative charge different mass numbers)
of +1 of 0 of -1 - Have same chemical properties since they have
the same number of electrons
p n e
Radioisotopes
- Unstable isotopes emit high-energy radiation
- Stable isotopes do not emit radiation
- The emission is dangerous because it can
damage living cells and cause cancer

Electron Configuration

Proton / Atomic Number Bohr’s Planetary Model

- Number of protons in an atom - Electrons orbit the nucleus in a specific circular
- Also the atomic number path known as “orbit / shell”
- Smaller number - Electrons only move in prescribed orbits and fixed
energy levels
Nucleon / Mass Number (A) - Electron energy was quantized; it can’t occupy
- The total number of protons and neutrons in the values between levels
nucleus - Electrons can jump to orbits by radiation or
- Also the mass number absorbing energy
- Larger number
2
He 1 s

s
2 subshell

1 shell level

Shell / Energy Level

- Fixed paths around the nucleus
- Associated with a definite amount of energy
 - The greater the distance from the nucleus, the - Electrons occupy lowest energy level first
more energy - Orbitals with lower # of n are filled first
- Also called principal quantum numbers
2) Hund’s Rule
Subshell / Sublevel - Electrons do not pair until each orbital in
- Within a shell, the subshells can have different a subshell has at least 1 electron
energy levels - Electrons prefer to be unpaired because it
- Are divisions within a shell minimizes electron-electron repulsion,
leading to a more stable arrangement
subshell # of electrons
3) Pauli Exclusion Principle
s 2 - No two electrons within an atom can have
an identical set of quantum numbers
p 6 - For two electrons to occupy the same
orbital, their spins must be opposite
d 10
- Each orbital can hold only 2 electrons
f 14 since there is only two spin values

Quantum Numbers
Orbitals
- Used to describe the location and energy of the
- Each one can hold a maximum of 2 electrons,
electron in an atom
with opposite spins
- Tells where the electron is and how it moves
- “Clouds” where an atom is most likely found
inside the atom
- The denser the cloud, the higher probability
- These numbers are solutions to the Schrodinger
- 3-dimensional
equation (which predicts electron behavior)
- Have different shapes and sizes depending on the
- Each electron has a unique set
energy level and type
- Used to describe ionization energy and atomic
radius
- Used to determine electron configuration

Principal Quantum Number (n)

- Shows the electron’s main energy level
- Higher n = more energy and farther
- n > 1, n ≠ 0

Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

- Also known as “Orbital Angular Momentum”
- Defines the subshell
- Determines the orbital shape
- From 0 to (n - 1)
1s 2s 3p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s… - Value is equal to the total # of angular nodes in
the orbital and depends on the principal quantum
#
Shortcuts

Noble Gases Atomic # Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

- Tells the total # of orbitals
He 2 - Shows how orbitals are oriented in space
- From -l to +l
Ne 10

Ar 18 Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

- Tells the spin direction of electrons
Kr 36 - Independent of the values n, l, and ml

Xe 54
❑ −4
❑21 S c = 3 d5
Rn 86
n=3 l=2

Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom ml = 2 ms = +1/2

Orbital Diagram Rules

1) Aufbau Principle
- Subshells and orbitals are filled in order
of increasing energy