00:03

[Applause] [Music] hi everyone I'm super happy to announce that this is

00:33
in order to view a sample so first of all you want to affix your small
sample onto a microscope slide add water or a Dy depending on what you want to do
with it but the all important cover slip also needs to be added then you're going
to pop that slide onto the stage of the microscope turn the lamp on so that the
light shines through the slide and you're going to start with your lowest objective
lens in order to start bringing that slide into Focus do make sure that the slide
doesn't touch the lens of the microscope once that slides

01:03
in Focus you'll move to a higher objective lens and you keep moving that
course Focus dial to bring that slide into Focus now the two main microscopes are
the light microscope and the electron microscope so let's talk about the relative
advantages and disadvantages of each so the light microscope first of all it is
much cheaper to buy it does not require specialist training if you're at school you
might have actually used one yourself you'll realize that they're pretty easy to
use major advantage is

01:31
that your specimen can be live and it therefore enables you to see its
true color the major disadvantages with light microscopes are both their
magnification and resolving power so first of all let's consider what does the term
magnification means well it's the number of times larger the image size is compared
with the object size the resolution is the ability to distinguish between two
separate points on an image so the higher the resolution the clearer the image so
going back to our light microscope unfortunately it can only

02:03
magnify up to 2,000 times greater than the original object the resolving
power isn't the best it can only distinguish between 2 points 200 nanom apart
you'll often be asked to calculate magnification in the exam so remember the
equation magnification equals image size divided by object size it is important
that your units are line and they do like to try and catch you out in the exam it's
up to you which unit you use but if you go with millimeters everything needs to be
in millimeters if you go with micrometers everything needs

02:35
to be in micrometers and you may need to convert between the two in order
to ensure those units align to get from millimeters to micrometers you're going to
multiply by a th000 from micrometers to millimeters you're going to divide by a
th000 now moving on to the electron microscope here the disadvantage is that
they're hideously expensive you need very specialist training and the sample is
going to be dead the imy produces black and white unless you color it up afterwards
in post production but the
 03:05
major advantage here with the electron microscope is that you can magnify
up to 2 million times and the resolving power is 0.2 nanom that's amazing it means
you can distinguish between two points very close together this enables us to see
cell structures that previously we were unable to observe moving on to cell
structure so looking at the organal we find in eukariotic cells remember ukar are
cells containing membrane bound organal such as the nucleus and the mitochondria
what's the role of the nucleus well it

03:42
controls the activities of the cell it contains the cell's DNA the
genetic material it's also where you'll find the chromosomes so the chromosomes are
strands of DNA remember that a section of DNA which codes for a particular protein
is known as the gene moving on to the mitochondria this is is the site of aerobic
respiration ATP is made and energy is released the endoplasmic reticulum contains
ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis you've got the cytoplasm where
chemical reactions take

04:15
place and the cell membrane which allows the entry and exit of substances
into and out of the cell let's now consider DNA so first of all the structure of
DNA DNA is a double helix that means it consists of two strands the strands
backbones are made out of sugar and phosphates and they're joined by complimentary
bases remember that adenine always binds to thymine and cytosine always binds to
guanine these bases are joined by hydrogen bonds a nucleotide consists of three
subunits it's the phosphate the sugar and a base

04:52
remember that the sugar in DNA is deoxy ribos DNA is a comparatively long
molecule especially when you compare it to RNA which is much shorter DNA
replication occurs before mitosis remember that mitosis is a type of cell division
DNA replication simply means producing new DNA from old DNA now that new DNA will
consist of one of the old strands from the original DNA molecule and one New Strand
which is formed from the original template the DNA produced is genetically
identical to the original Parent DNA let's go into further detail

05:26
how DNA replication actually takes place so first of all the hydrogen
bond break and the DNA strands separate each strand acts as a template DNA
polymerases a type of enzyme and it's responsible for adding nucleotides to the
exposed bases complimentary base pairing of nucleotides occurs and two identical
DNA molecules are produced consisting of one New Strand and one old parent strand
now we'll move on to RNA right we've already said that RNA is a shorter molecule
compared with DNA the sugar in

05:58
RNA is ribos whereas in DNA it's deoxy ribos DNA remember was double
stranded RNA is in fact single stranded the Bas is vary slightly in RNA you still
have adenine you still have guanine and cytosine the difference here is that thyine
is replaced with uracil broadly speaking the role of RNA is to take information
from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome which fundamentally allows protein
synthesis to take place moving on to mutations now so mutation is a spontanous rare
and random change in the DNA of a person certain things certain

06:35
chemicals may increase the likelihood of a mutation taking place such as
carcinogens such as tar ionizing radiation UV light exposure to X-rays and gamma
rays can all increase the incidence of mutation occurring a mutation in DNA can
lead to a change in the base sequence this Alters the amino acid sequence meaning
that are different proteins made potentially with a new phen type the effect that
the mutation has totally depends on the type of mutation so if you're adding extra
bases as part of your DNA mutation that will

07:08
clearly change the amino acid sequence in its entirety sometimes when you
simply have a substitution of basis you actually end up with the same amino acids
being brought to the ribosome we'll talk a lot more about that very shortly when we
go into the detailed explanation as to how protein synthesis works so protein
synthesis is split into two stages transcript rtion and translation transcription
takes place first of all inside the nucleus here the hydrogen bonds holding
together those complimentary bases break the DNA

07:39
unwinds exposing its bases there are three RNA nucleotides present in the
nucleus which pair up with the exposed DNA bases this enables a single stranded
mRNA molecule to be formed that mRNA now leaves the nucleus and binds to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm it's important that you're aware that 3 bases on mRNA is
known as a codon the codons are complementary to anti-codons which are found on one
end of a TRNA molecule at the opposite end of the TRNA is an amino acid so
effectively the order of codons dictates the order in which the

08:16
amino acids are brought to the ribosome the amino acids join together to
form a polypeptide which folds into a complex 3D shape to form the end protein
remember that in terms of the possible number of codons the way in which you work
that out is by contemplating the fact that three bases is responsible for each
amino acid so if you do full cubed that tells you that there's a potential 64
codons now we're moving on to genetic engineering so what is genetic engineering
first of all when genes are

08:49
altered in a microorganism to code for a desired product one of the most
famous examples here is modifying genes in a bacterial cell so that it produces the
hormone insulin which can be used to treat diabetes type 1 you need to know the
names of two very specific enzymes number one is the Restriction enzyme used to cut
DNA number two is the ligase enzyme used to join the cut ends of DNA back together
another good word to know the meaning of is the term Vector a vector is used to
transfer biological

09:19
material from one organism to another a good example is that bacterial
plasmid I just described in insulin manufacturer another example is the m mosquito
which transfers the plasmodium to the human host a plasmid remember is a small
circle of DNA found in bacterial cells and now we're ready to describe in detail
how bacterial cells can be genetically engineered to produce human insulin so
remember human insulin is needed to lower our blood sugar levels after we've eaten
a meal it converts glucose to glycogen for people with type

09:53
1 diabetes they're unable to make insulin historically they used to use
Pig insulin but for all kinds of reasons such as as ethics the fact that the human
would reject that pig insulin it was deemed an unsuitable method genetic
engineering provided a way in which we could make huge amounts of insulin without
the need of injuring any pigs and it would be perfectly matched for the human
recipient so number one a restriction enzyme is used to cut the human insulin Gene
from a healthy person the same restriction enzyme is used to

10:25
cut open the bacterial plasmid a ligase enzyme is used to seal that
insulin gene into the bacterial plasmid and the sticky ends which are exposed ends
on the DNA are sealed together they are complimentary to each other because the
plasmid now contains human DNA it's known as a recombinant plasmid and as I've
previously mentioned the bacteria is acting as a vector here the bacteria is then
placed in a fermenter which is a large vessel with Optimum conditions to ensure
that that bacteria replicates as

10:54
quickly as possible to make huge quantities of human insulin that insulin
is then purified is ready for use as well as genetically modifying bacteria to
produce hormones like insulin it's also possible to genetically modify plants so
now let's run through a specific example so for example say we want to genetically
modify a plant so that it produces more betacarotene remember betacarotene is a
precursor of vitamin A and it helps our eyesight and enables us to see more clearly
in low light conditions hence the expression

11:26
carrots help you see in the dark carrots are full of Bea carotene so
therefore good for your vision so how do we genetically modify a plant so that it
can produce beta carotene well first of all we need to use a restriction enzyme to
open up that bacterial plasmid and the bacteria we use is known as an agrobacterium
restriction enzymes are also used to isolate the desired Gene in the Target DNA we
know that sticky ends will be produced because that will enable the ligase enzyme
to seal the desired gene into the bacterial plasmid

11:57
and again we have what's known as a Rec combinant plasmid the recombinant
plasmid is inserted into the agrobacterium bacteria and leaf discs from the plant
are treated with the recombinant agrobacterium the leaf discs are cultured in a
nutrient-rich medium in sterile conditions and any plants that grow will have that
desired Gene and in this way they're known as transgenic plants because they
contain a gene from another species so you might want to know why is agrobacterium
used here because agrobacterium is often

12:27
found freely in soil and it is known to introduce plasmids into plant
material making it the perfect bacteria for this process so we've already described
that using genetically modified plants can increase their nutritional value such as
this example here we said which meant that more beta carotene was made other
reasons we might genetically modify plants is to increase their shelf life to make
them more resistant to frost to make them resistant to herbicides weed killers so
that when the farmer adds

12:56
weed killers to his crops you're not going to kill the actual crop that
you're trying to grow it's even been known that tobacco plants have been modified
to produce Hepatitis B antigens this has potential use in creating a vaccine in
order to prevent hepatitis B infection so now we're going to outline the advantages
and disadvantages of genetically modifying plants so the main advantage is that you
might create higher yields because of reduced competition from Weeds as well as
reduced damage by pests it's possible

13:26
that crops can be grown in more extreme environments meaning that there's
less famine due to more crops being grown tied in with one of the points I've
already made genetically modified plants mean that less herbicides and less
fertilizers need applying which makes it cheaper and easier for any farmers and
obviously much better for the environment and as I've already previously mentioned
genetically modified plants increase the nutritional value to humans they have a
more complete combination of lipids proteins

13:54
vitamins minerals and I've mentioned beta carotene on several occasions
but what are the disadvantages of genetically modified plants well they could
cross-pollinate with weeds creating super weeds which are hard to kill using
herbicides they tend to be expensive and you find that poor Farmers can't afford
genetically modified seeds and it also reduces biodiversity by decreasing the
species of weeds and pests meaning there's less food available for consumers higher
up the food chain now we're moving on to mitosis and

14:26
stem cells so to begin with mitosis is a type of cell division used in
the growth replacement and repair of cells because of this the type of daughter
cells it produces are genetically identical to the parent cell you'll find that
mitosis is also used in asexual reproduction which remember is when there's one
parent unlike sexual reproduction where you need two parents the cell cycle is the
name given for a series of stages where body cells divide it's made up of three
distinct Parts interphase mitosis

14:57
and cell division interphase is when the cell cells grow bigger and the
DNA is replicated you can think about interphase as the preparation step so it's
when the cells are getting ready to divide so what do they need to do to produce
more cells well obviously you'll need more DNA so in interphase DNA is replicated
you need more organel so more organel are made and the Cell at cell grows bigger
the second stage of the cell cycle is mitosis and we'll talk about the four
distinct parts of mitosis very shortly and then lastly cyesis

15:28
occurs which is when cell division takes place and you find your two
genetically identical diploid daughter cells are made remember the term diploid
refers to the number of sets of chromosomes present in a Cell a diploid cell has
two sets of chromosomes a hloy cell contains just one set so the four stages of
mitosis can be split into the following stages we're going to use the letters pmat
to help us remember so the first stage is prophase and this is when our chromosomes
condense they shorten and

15:57
thicken and become more visible the second stage mat is metaphase this is
where the condensed chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell a anaphase this
is when chromatids start to move to opposite poles of the cell and then finally til
phase and that's when the nuclear membrane reforms moving on to differentiation so
differentiation is the term used to describe when cells become specialized so for
example when they become nerve cells a stem cell is a cell which has the ability to
divide many times whilst

16:30
remaining unspecialized undifferentiated there are two types of animal
stem cell you need to be aware of the first one is embryonic the second one is the
adult stem cell as the name suggests embryonic stem cells are found in embryos
particularly the early stage of development of embryos they have the ability to
differentiate or specialize into any cell types so immediately you can see the
added advantages of an embryonic stem cell it can become any type of cell you want
for example bone cell a hair cell a nerve cell a muscle

16:59
cell moving on to adult stem cells they're found in very specific places
namely the bone marrow the skin and the lining of the small intestine although they
have the ability like all stem cells to divide many times Unfortunately they can
only become one specific type of cell so for example stem cells found in the bone
marrow can only become blood cells stem cells have lots of uses in the treatment of
disease and this is known as stem cell therapy a good example of stem cell therapy
is in the treatment of leukemia which is a type of

17:28
blood cancer so so when the person is treated with both chemotherapy and
radiotherapy you find that both the cancerous cells and healthy cells are destroyed
so that's great you've remov the cancer but a person obviously really needs their
white blood cells so stem cell therapy involves introducing stem cells which are
able to replicate and differentiate in order to replace those lost cells
Parkinson's disease is another good example of a disease that can be treated using
stem cell therapy in Parkinson's disease nerve cells are

17:57
destroyed so it therefore makes sense sense that stem cells can be used
to replace those damaged nerve cells ideally speaking you'd use a person's own stem
cells in stem cell therapy the advantage here is that they're readily available you
have a complete tissue match which means no chance of rejection by your own cells
and from an ethical point of view it's great because there's no need to use
embryonic stem cells so if we consider the ethics now associated with embryonic
stem cells these have to

18:23
come from aborted or miscarried fetuses so obviously huge ethical
concerns there but the advantage of embryonic stem cells as I've already pointed
out is their ability to specialize into any cell type this puts them at a massive
Advantage compared with an adult stem cell where I've already said there's only
very specific places where you find adult stem cells so this is why when people
have horse riding accidents and they paralyze themselves from the neck down you
tend to find they remain paralyzed for life and that's because

18:51
you don't have stem cells in your spine however embryonic stem cell
therapy is a way of potentially making more nerve cell in order to repair those
damage nervs in your spine and I'm just going to drop a table from my revision
guide into this video so you can look at the various advantages and disadvantages
associated with the use of stem cells moving on to cells tissues and organs so
we're going to start by listing a whole lot of definitions remember you're going to
use the same scaffold for all these definitions so if

19:26
we start with a Cell It's a group of similar organ working together to
perform a particular function and it is that series of words we're going to use as
our scaffold but just changing a word each time as we move through the definitions
so if we take a tissue now well that is a group of similar cells working together
to perform a particular function an organ it's a group of similar tissues working
together to perform the same function an organ system well it's a group of similar
organs working together to perform the

19:56
same function so if we list some examples of or system could be the
digestive system which is made up of a group of similar organs so stomach esophagus
small intestine large intestine pancreas another type of organ system could be the
reproductive system that consists in a female of ovaries fallopian tube uterus
cervix vagina now we're going to discuss the structure of bone so bone is a tissue
consisting of cells known as osteocytes which secrete a hard substance containing
calcium salts it forms a

20:31
rigid material which resists being compressed and the osteocytes and the
presence of protein fibers stop that bone from being too brittle so easily snaap
there are three types of muscle you need to be aware of voluntary involuntary and
cardiac when we talk about voluntary muscle we're really referring to skeletal
muscle when we talk about involuntary muscle we're talking about smooth muscle and
then cardiac muscle is associated with the heart so going into further detail
starting with that voluntary striated

20:59
muscle you'll expect to see many nuclei per cell there won't be any
branching and it will be striped or striated in appearance its function is that it
rapidly contracts in order to move our bones and it's controlled by our brain
moving on to involuntary smooth muscle again you'll find that it's not branched but
this time there's a single nuclei per cell it's tapered at the ends of each cell
and it's non-striated it doesn't have striping in terms of the presence of this
smooth involuntary muscle you'll find it in the walls of

21:29
our gut so our small intestine and our blood vessels and as the name
suggests it is not under voluntary control by the brain and then finally cardiac
muscle this is associated with the heart cardiac muscle is striated it is striped
it has many nuclei per cell and it's branched which enables it to form a meshlike
structure cardiac muscle is only found in the heart and that cardiac muscle
contracts rhythmically and constantly throughout your lifetime without tiring
remember your heart muscle is pumping all day long 24 hours

21:59
a day for the entirety of your life really it's the hardest working
muscle in your body moving on to the structure of blood so blood consists of a
jelly-like substance known as plasma which is responsible for transporting hormones
carbon dioxide and Ura around our body you're going to have red blood cells inside
that blood which remember transport oxygen white blood cells consist of both fites
and lymphocytes and they form part of the body's defense system against pathogens
which are microorganisms which cause disease and

22:36
then platelets are small fragments of cell which clot the blood at the
sight of a wound two types of tissue you need a bit more information on are the
epithelial tissues there are two types the ciliated epithelium and the squamous
epithelium so the ciliated epithelium are found lining your trachea they consists
of cells which have small projections on them hair and these waft backwards and
forwards in order to remove mucus ladened with bacteria from your trachea so that
none of this dust and bacteria

23:06
enters your lungs where it could cause a great deal of harm the squamous
epithelium cells line your cheeks and as such they're flattened in shape moving on
to more specialized cells so the sperm cell the function of a sperm cell is
obviously to fertilize an egg so in order to do that first of all it's important
that you're aware that the nucleus of a sperm cell contains hloy number of
chromosomes that means it contains one set of chromosomes so that when it
fertilizes the egg which also contains a hloy

23:36
number of chromosomes you end up with that initial cell the zygote which
contains your full complement of chromosomes a diploid number in order for the
sperm to carry out its function properly it needs a whiplash tail to enable it to
swim it needs a midsection which is jamack full of mitochondria which released that
energy needed to enable that sperm to swim and at the tip of its head it has an
acrone which contains digestive enzymes that help break down the outer membrane of
the egg moving on to the egg I've already talked

24:07
about the hloy number of chromosomes the egg is much larger than the
sperm it contains a lot of cytoplasm which provides the energy and materials needed
to help the zygote divide to form the embryo it has an outer jelly coat which
hardens the moment a single sperm cell fertilizes it and that's in order to prevent
multiple sperm fertilizing the same egg moving on to biological molecules so what
elements are lipids made up of remember lipids are fats so lipids contain carbon
hydrogen and oxygen a

24:41
 lipid molecule is arranged in the following way it's made up of three
fatty acids and a glycerol to test for the presence of lipids you want to add
ethanol and water to your sample give it a good shake and if lipid is present
you'll see a milky white Emulsion moving on to proteins now you'll get the carbon
hydrogen oxygen elements but in addition you'll also find that there's nitrogen and
sometimes even sulfur proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids in order
to test for the presence of

25:11
protein you want to add Bay reagent if there's no protein you'll see a
blue color if protein is present you'll see a purple color some good examples of
proteins found within the human body include collagen and keratin found in the skin
all enzymes and hemoglobin found in red blood cells that hemoglobin remember binds
to oxygen moving on to carbohydrates carbohydrates contain only carbon hydrogen and
oxygen a good example of a carbohydrate is glucose remember to test for glucose you
add Benedicts reagent to your sample and you

25:43
need to heat it in a water bath you'll see a range of potential colors
blue indicates no glucose is present whereas brick red indicates that lots of
glucose is present but you could also get a range of colors so any color that
appears nearer the blue end indicates low glucose presence anything that appears
near the redder end so orange yellow indicates a higher glucose presence remember
that glucose is an example of a reducing sugar storage compounds of carbohydrates
include glycogen and starch remember these are

26:15
long chains made up of simple sugars like glucose in order to test for
insoluble starch this time we're going to add iodine if no starch is present you'll
see a brown color if starch is present you'll see a blue black color now we're
going to talk about the test for vitamin C this time we're adding DC pip dye here
you'll add your vitamin C drop by drop and you'll see a color change from dark blue
to colorless the fewer drops needed to turn that Dy colorless indicates that more
vitamin C is present now we're going to describe

26:45
an experiment to investigate the energy content of food so taking for
example a piece of popcorn the first thing you need to do is measure the mass of
the popcorn using a balance add 50 cm cubed of water to a boiling tube and measure
its initial temperature using a thermometer you want to set up your clamp stand to
allow you to hold that boiling tube then you're going to set the popcorn Al light
make sure that popcorn's been placed on a mounted needle as that will make it
easier to hold so the popcorn starts burning

27:15
immediately you want to hold it underneath the boiling tube because the
heat coming off that popcorn will raise the temperature of the water do make sure
that that popcorn Burns entirely you want complete combustion to take place that
means burning in a plentiful supply of oxygen and then at the end of the experiment
you want to take the final temperature of that water you'll then be able to
calculate a temperature difference and then to calculate the energy content
remember we use the equation Q cos MC delta T where m is the
 27:44
mass of water being heated C is the specific heat capacity of water which
is 4.2 and delta T is your change in temperature that you've just calculated now
we're moving on to enzymes so first of all defining the term metabolism this is the
rate at which chemical reactions take place in our body the role of enzymes within
metabolic reactions is that they act as catalysts they are biological catalysts
which speed up the rate of a reaction without being used up and they're chemically
unchanged what distinguishes

28:16
enzymes from other catalysts is this use of the word biological they're
biological because enzymes are made out of protein focusing in on some key
enzymatic terms so what is the substrate that is the substance upon which the
enzyme acts the active site is the special site on the enzyme where the substrate
binds when that substrate binds you have what's known as an enzyme substrate
complex and then once the enzyme's finished its work the substrate is released as a
product Optimum is a word used to describe when the enzyme is

28:48
working at its highest rate and then another key term is the word Den
nature remember if the temperature is too high or the pH Alters too significantly
the enzyme denatures which means that its active sight changes shape and the
substrate no longer binds remember the enzymes are highly specific so each enzyme
will only fit one type of substrate it's highly complimentary the substrate shape
is complimentary to that of the enzyme's active site if we now consider the effect
of temperature on enzyme activity as you increase the

29:20
temperature initially the enzymes and substrate molecules have more
kinetic energy this means that collisions between the two occur more frequently so
you end up with more enzyme substrate complexes being formed the enzyme is working
at its highest rate here and we call this the optimum temperature if the
temperature increases above that what happens is the enzyme's active sight is
altered the enzyme is denatured meaning that the substrate no longer fits
additionally enzymes have optimal phes such as the enzyme proteas found in

29:53
the stomach its optimum pH is going to be a very low PH because it needs
a highly acid iic environment around PH2 so if you increase that pH further the
enzyme denatures and its active site changes shape other factors which alter enzyme
controlled reactions include substrate concentration so if you think about it it
makes sense that as you increase the substrate concentration the rate of the enzyme
controlled reaction increases because there is more substrate molecules to bind to
the enzymes however you reach a point where

30:25
further increase in substrate numbers has no effect on that enzyme
activity why is that because you've only got a finite number of enzymes so
therefore increasing that substrate concentration further has no effect on the rate
of the enzyme controlled reaction and so we can say here that the enzyme
concentration has become the limiting factor moving on to Inhibitors so an
inhibitor is a substance which reduces enzyme activity there are two types of
inhibitor number one is a competitive inhibitor number
 30:53
two is a non-competitive inhibitor so we'll start by looking at
competitive inhibitors so by definition a competitive inhibitor binds to the
enzyme's active site instead of the substrate molecule it makes sense that that
inhibitor is both chemically and structurally similar to the substrate molecule as
this is what enables it to bind to the enzyme's active site once that competitive
inhibitor binds to the active site it obviously prevents the substrate molecues
binding sorry about the seagulls and one way in which we can

31:23
reduce the effect of a competitive inhibitor is by simply increasing the
concentration of substrate mole molecules moving on to non-competitive Inhibitors
this is a substance which binds to the enzyme in a place which is not the enzyme's
active site it is Elsewhere on the enzyme because of its binding what happens is it
causes a confirmational change in the enzyme's active site so it Alters the shape
of the enzyme's active site meaning that the substrate molecules can no longer bind
because the non-competitive

31:53
inhibitor binds Elsewhere on the enzyme it does mean that increasing the
concentration of substrate has no effect on increasing the rate of reaction quite
simply because substrates and the non-competitive inhibitor are not binding to the
same place I talk a lot more about the practicals in my revision guide which
remember is available in the online shop but do just remember if you're looking at
an enzyme controlled reaction something like following the progress of the enzyme
amalaye is a good thing to test experimentally why because

32:23
amalay breaks down starch into Mose or glucose and so you can easily see
by using iodine when the amalay has worked because it means that the amalay breaks
down the starch which turns iodine blue black into glucose which means that you get
a negative result with iodine so you'll see a brown color now let's talk about
lactose free milk now you often find that people are lactose intolerant it means
that if they drink milk containing the sugar lactose they're prone to have an upset
stomach so show

32:53
symptoms of diarrhea cramping and nausea the symptoms of lactose
intolerance such as diarrhea are caused by water leaving cells and moving into the
gut and the diarrhea means that you have poor uptake of vitamin D and calcium ions
both of which are essential for good health we can use immobilized enzymes in order
to produce lactose-free milk and it works in the following way so lactase enzymes
remember enzymes and in a are attached to alanate beads the lactose containing milk
is passed over these beads and the

33:23
lactose breaks down the disaccharide lactose into the monosaccharides
glucose and galactose so milk passes out free of lactose we also like to use
immobilized enzymes in order to convert the disaccharide sucrose into the
monosaccharide fructose and glucose the enzyme we need to mobilize in this case is
known as invertase which is made by yeast cells the intes is immobilized on beads
and then as the sucrose passes over those beads it gets broken down into glucose
and fructose did you know that immobilized enzymes are also used
 33:58
in the diagnosis of diabetes Now people suffering from diabetes have
abnormally high levels of glucose in their blood and urine so the test strips
produced are used to prove the presence of that high concentration of glucose and
they work in the following way the test strips use two immobilized enzyme the first
one is known as glucose oxidase which causes the oxidation of glucose to hydrogen
peroxide and gluconic acid the second enzyme is peroxidase which catalyzes the
oxidation of a colorless organic sub substance into its colored

34:29
form by hydrogen peroxide and the amount of colored substance is a direct
measurement of the quantity or concentration of glucose in the urine or the blood
so why do we use immobilized enzymes why do we like attaching enzymes to alanate
beads for example well number one it's because those enzymes are reusable they
don't get used up as we know as common with all enzymes and they can be reused
again and again the product produced is pure the enzymes are produced in a way
which enables them to withstand large changes in temperature

34:59
and pH they're not liable to denat another essential property when used
in industry and there's a large surface area created by the use of beads which
therefore increases the rate of reaction moving on to the movement of substances
into and out of the cell so there are three different types of transport we need to
consider number one diffusion two active transport and three osmosis so diffusion
is the simplest it is simply the net movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low

35:33
concentration this is a passive process and does not require the input of
energy or ATP you could be asked the factors which increase the rate of diffusion
or affect the rate of diffusion so the steepness of the concentration gradient the
steeper the concentration gradient the faster the rate of diffusion surface area
also plays A Part the larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion a
high temperature will increase diffusion because the molecules have greater kinetic
energy a shorter

36:01
diffusion distance means the molecules have less far to travel again so
you'll have a higher rate of diffusion unlike diffusion active transport requires
an input of energy so if we look at its definition it's the net movement of
molecules from an area of low concentration this time to an area of high
concentration against a concentration gradient therefore requiring ATP or energy
active transports vital in living organisms because it enables the movement of
molecules against the concentration gradient a good example of this is the

36:36
uptake of glucose in the small intestine this occurs by active transport
moving on to water now so the movement of water molecules is known as osmosis so
our definition of osmosis is as follows the net movement of water molecules from an
area of high water potential to an area of low water potential across a partially
permeable membrane so osmosis is similar to Fusion in that we're going down our
concentration gradient but crucially it involves the movement of water molecules
and requires a partially

37:06
permeable membrane a solution which has a high water potential just means
that it contains a large number of water molecules it is in essence dilute a low
water potential solution is one with few water molecules so could be quite high in
solutes and therefore is what we describe as a concentrated solution remember it's
important that we can move water around in living organ organisms because water is
a valuable solvent it supports many chemical reactions that take place in our cells
and it enables

37:34
dissolved substances to be moved around an organism osmosis involves the
use of a partially permeable membrane and the key word here is partially it only
allows certain molecules to pass through larger molecules are trapped and are not
allowed to move if we consider osmosis in practice what happens if we place an
animal cell in a high water potential solution for example pure water well what
happens is based enormously on the fact that animal cell has no cell wool so if you
place an animal cell in pure

38:01
water water enters bi osmosis according to our definition from an area of
high water potential in the surrounding solution to an area of low water potential
inside the animal cell across that partially permeable membrane the water enters
the animal cell and it keeps swelling and expanding until it can take no more and
it bursts and we call this if it occurs to red blood cells hemolysis if you were to
place your red blood cell in a highly concentrated solution so one with low water
potential this time water would

38:30
leave your animal cell by osmosis causing it to become shriveled and
flaccid in appearance it's now time to talk about the human skeleton so first of
all we're answering the question what is the purpose of the human skeleton well
it's to protect organs so for example your skull your cranium protects your brain
your eyes your ears your rib cage protects your lungs and your vertebral column
protects your spinal cord getting into more detail now to do with the axial
skeleton the axial skeleton consists of the rib cage the vertebrae

39:06
and the cranium the functions of the axial skeleton is to protect your
brain and spinal cord and to provide support moving on to the apendicular skeleton
what bones make up the apendicular skeleton the scapular so those are bones in the
back of your shoulder your clavicle your pelvis and your limbs the function of the
apendicular skeleton is to allow movement of the body we're going into more detail
now to deal with the structure of the long bones so first of all the long bones are
covered by hard compact bone this bone contains

39:38
lots of calcium salts which make the bone hard and resistant to
compression forces the middle of the bone contains spongy bone this has fewer
calcium salts and contains spaces and this means that that bone is less hard and
less dense the spaces found within that spongy bone contain bone marrow which is
responsible for producing blood cells and it also stores fat not that I suggest
anyone do this but why does bone become soft when soaked in hydrochloric acid it's
because the hydrochloric acid dissolves those

40:08
calcium salts without those calcium salts the bone is much softer and
less hard what is a joint a joint is a place where two bones meet there are three
classifications of joints the freely movable joints The partially movable joints
and the immovable joints so the freely movable joints allow lots of movement a good
example here is the ball and socket joint partially movable joints only allow small
amount of movement a good example here is the joints found in your veral column so
in your spine immovable fixed joints allow

40:39
no movement at all and the joints in your skull or your cranium are
immovable so the Ballon socket joint we've already said that it allows a lot of
movement it allows movement in all directions both your shoulder and your Hipp or
examples of a ball and socket joint they are both freely movable joints a hinge
joint allows movement in one plane only such as your elbow a gliding joint allows
bones to Glide past one another in any direction along the plane of a joint such as
the wrist and vertebrae the

41:08
general name given to a ball and socket hinge and sliding joint is a
sinovial joint a sinovial joint is a movable joint which contains sinovial fluid
the sinovial fluid is secreted by the coval membrane the purpose of the coval fluid
is to reduce friction between joints it's oily in order to enable it to do this it
therefore acts as a lubricant a capsule is a tough fibrous material which surrounds
a joint cartilage is strong material found at the end of a bone the purpose of
cartilage is to act

41:46
as a shock absorber what happens in someone with reduced cartilage or
damaged cartilage is they have less of a shock absorber it's going to become
painful for them due to increased friction and the rubbing of Bones moving on to
ligaments ligaments are made up of tough fibers the role of ligaments is to hold
bones together within a joint the various properties of ligaments include the fact
that they're strong which enables them to resist stretching they're also elastic
which enables the bones to move without dislocating you

42:14
might have heard of the term antagonistic muscles but you might not be
entirely sure what it means what it means is that as one muscle contracts the other
muscle relaxes the triceps and biceps are examples of antagonistic muscle which
help to move the arm the biceps contract and the triceps relax in order to raise
the forearm and the biceps relax and the triceps contract in order to lower the arm
when the bicep relaxes it becomes longer and thinner when the triceps contracts it
becomes shorter and thicker and this allows our

42:44
forearms to become straightened we now need to go into detail as to how
voluntary muscles and Bones bring about movement within a sinovial joint so we know
that the muscles are attached to Bone the muscles work antagonistic Ally as one
muscle contracts the other one relaxes and this pulls on the bone which brings
about movement what is a tendon now tendons attach muscle to Bone unlike ligaments
tendons are inelastic they don't stretch muscle contraction pulls on a tendon
causing the bone to move a

43:14
little more detail now about the vertebral column so remember here you'll
find partially movable joints which allow little movement the vertebra are joined
by discs of cartilage those cartilagenous discs provide shock absorbance and altoe
the purpose of the vertebrae is to provide stability and support as opposed to free
movement you do not want your vertebral column moving healthy development of muscle
and Bones requires several dietary components you need lots of protein in your diet
for the growth and repair of your muscles

43:43
vitamin D enables the uptake of calcium those calcium salts get absorbed
at the gut and are used in the production of the hard material that bones made up
of you'll often find that older women in particular suffer from a disease known as
osteoporosis here the bone loses calcium salts and becomes more porous and less
dense and more liable to being brittle and breaking you find that women are more
susceptible to osteoporosis due to the menopause when hormone levels decrease
naturally unfortunately there's

44:11
no cure for osteoporosis but a diet high in vitamin D and calcium can
help people with osteoporosis suffer from back pain and poor posture now I want to
talk to you about coordination and the nervous system so the function of neurons is
to transmit electrical impulses it's important you're aware of the three different
neurons the motor neuron the sensory neuron and the relay neuron be familiar with
the shape of these neurons notice that that motor neuron has that characteristic
starshaped cell body the

44:45
relay neuron sits between the sensory and motor neurons so it is
symmetrical at each end neurons have long axons in order to transmit the electrical
impulse be aware of which direction that impulse passes along the neuron the axon
transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body it has a very narrow region
of cytoplasm surrounded by cell membrane and the axon itself is a single elongated
nerve fiber the cell body is where you'll find the nucleus located remember that
controls the activity of

45:14
the cell the cell body contains lots of endoplasmic reticulum and
mitochondria needed to help produce neurotransmitters which remember transmitted
across the gap between neurons also present on the neurons things called dendrons
These are short extensions which come from the cell body the dendrons divide into
smaller branches known as dendrites and the dendrons are responsible for
transmitting the electrical impulse towards the cell body the axon has a fatty
layer surrounding it known as the myin sheath as with all fat the fat acts

45:44
as insulation in this case helps to speed up the rate of the electrical
impulse if we zoom in on the sensory neuron the sensory neuron transmits electrical
impulses to either a relay Neuron a motor neuron or the brain the sensory neuron
has a single axon which carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and one
dendron which transmits the electrical impulse to the cell body the relay neuron
sits between the sensory and motor neuron it has short dendrons the motor neuron
transmits electrical impulses to an

46:14
affector which is either a muscle or gland the muscle responds by
Contracting the gland responds by secreting a hormone mot neurons have a long axon
and short dendrites the human nervous system consists of both the central nervous
system the CNS this is made up of the brain and spinal cord as well as the
peripheral nervous system the pns which is made up of effectively everything else
the role of the nervous system is in the control and regulation of bodily functions
it can both be under involuntary and voluntary control by the

46:44
brain now we need to go into great depth with the structure and functions
of the brain so take a look at this diagram notice the two large cerebral
hemispheres you've got the cerebellum the Medela the pity gland which is tightly
linked with the hypothalamus You' probably come across this when we've discussed
various hormones such as ADH LH and FSH the cerebral hemispheres are responsible
for your conscious thought your memory your intelligence language and voluntary
action the cerebellum is responsible for muscle

47:15
tone and posture the midbrain is responsible for vision and hearing the
Medela controls your breathing rate and your heart rate the pituitary gland is an
endocrine gland which secretes hormones such as FSH LH and ADH the hypothalamus is
responsible for controlling blood water levels known as osmo regulation and your
body temperature which is known as Thermo regulation responses can be split up into
both reflex responses as well as a regular response in a reflex response or a
reflex arc there is no conscious input

47:52
from the brain these are things which happen extremely fast and the
purpose of a reflex action is to to protect us from harm such as the time if you
put your hand in a hot oven you'll know that your hand withdraws itself without
your need to register or it's hot oh I don't want to burn my hand oh I must
remember no no no by that point you'll have already removed your hand from the oven
so reflex actions are fast they protect us from harm and they don't involve
conscious input from the brain in order

48:18
for our bodies to respond we need something to respond to and this is
what's known as a stimulus a stimulus is a change in the environment so it could be
a change in terms of whether you feel pain whether there's heat whether you're
detecting something being hard or soft whether you hear something whether you see
something a receptor is a specialized type of cell which detects that change in
environment it detects the stimulus so that could be your receptors in your eyes
your rods and your cones found in your retina which is

48:47
sensitive to light light is the stimulus in this case there are lots of
different receptors in your body which are sensitive to various different stimuli
such as light pressure temperature taste and pain so if we think about what happens
in a regular response such as when our eyes detect light say the rods detect lowle
light those are the receptors then they're going to send an electrical impulse
along the sensory neuron to your central nervous system which is your brain in this
case then electrical impulse is sent along your

49:19
motor neuron to an affector in this case it will be a muscle in your eye
probably the cery muscle which will either contract or relax based on how far away
an object is from your eye in a reflex action the steps are slightly different so
let's talk about the reflex action involved when you step on a sharp pin so the
stimulus is the pain The receptors are present in your foot an electrical impulse
is sent along the sensory neuron to a relay neuron located in the central nervous
system that impulse passes to a

49:49
motor neuron and then finally an effector in this case that will be a
muscle which responds by Contracting in order to remove your foot from that painful
pin do remember that between two neurons is a gap this Gap is called a sinapse it's
important that you're aware that a sinapse there's no electrical impulse instead a
neurotransmitter is released from the preapical transmitter diffuses across that
syapse and binds to postoptic receptors an example of neurotransmitter is acle
choline remember that electrical

50:31
impulses can only pass in One Direction across the syapse and there's
several reasons for that firstly neurotransmitters are only released from the
preoptic membrane secondly because diffusion is involved the neurotransmitter only
moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration so the
high concentration will obviously be at the pre synaps membrane where that
neurotransmitter is being released and then thirdly the post synaptic membrane is
is the only place that contains receptors to receive that

51:02
neurotransmitter now we'll turn our attention to hormones so hormones are
produced by a gland they're secreted into the blood where they travel to a Target
organ they're responsible for altering the behavior of that Target organ and we're
going to talk a lot about various hormones right now so we're going to start with
the pity gland which is located in the brain the pety gland releases or secretes a
large number of hormones including including LH lutenizing hormone which causes
ovulation that's release of an egg from

51:32
an ovary FSH fcal stimulating hormone this matures the egg in the ovary
ADH anti-diuretic hormone antidiuretic means effectively anti peeing hormone so it
helps conserve water and the mode of action of that ADH is in the collecting duct
of the kidney high levels of ADH increase blood water concentration now adrenaline
is responsible for preparing your body for fight or flight so the classic examples
is if you were confronted with a bear in the woods would you stay to fight it or
would you run away I often think about my cat Lyra

52:08
when I think about the effects of adrenaline because it's very clear to
see it on her body when you have high levels of adrenaline your hairs stand up on
end this is to make you appear larger and more frightening your pupils dilate in
order to help you see more clearly because that will allow more light to enter the
eye your heart rate increases es to deliver blood around your body faster your
breathing rate increases in order to introduce more oxygen into your body remember
you'll need that oxygen

52:36
for respiration because the respiration releases the energy you'll need
to allow muscle contraction to help you fight or run away so you'll find that blood
is diverted away from your digestive system to your muscles in order to prepare
yourself for that fight or flight and that's why sometimes you feel what's known as
butterflies in your stomach when you're a bit frightened because of the high levels
of adrenaline Crossing around your body glycogen stores are converted to glucose
again because glucose is needed in respiration and I

53:06
think I've already mentioned it but you'll see increased levels of
respiration throughout another hormone to be aware of is is thyroxin secreted by
your thyroid gland in your neck this controls your metabolic rate now we need to
discuss the pancreas specifically the eyelets of langah hands which are responsible
for secreting the hormone insulin and glucagon these both control our blood glucose
levels so after a meal when your blood glucose levels increase your body will want
to reduce that so insulin is secreted by the eyelets of

53:39
langah hands the insulin causes blood glucose to be converted into
insoluble glycogen which is stored in the liver therefore reducing blood sugar
levels when you haven't had much to eat or when you've exercised what happens this
time is the eyelets of Langan hand secrete the hormone glucagon glucagon causes the
conversion of insoluble glycogen into soluble glucose therefore increasing blood
glucose levels the gonads the sex organs now so the ovary secrete the hormone
estrogen estrogen is responsible for secondary

54:16
sexual characteristics in women really this means the changes at puberty
that occur the onset of menstruation that is blood loss breast development hips
widening pubic hair growth estrogen is also responsible for repairing the uterus
lining now let's take the gonads in males so what about the testes while the testes
secrete the hormone testosterone responsible for male secondary sexual
characteristics changes that occur at puberty for men include the voice deepening
pubic hair growth sperm production when you compare the

54:49
hormonal system with the nervous system the hormonal system is far slower
the effects are far more widespread in terms of transmission you have chemical
Messengers carried in the blood versus the nervous system which is much faster a
highly specific response and we obviously talking about electrical impulses
carrying that information now let's discuss the eye so remember the eye is a
receptor organ it is sensitive to light and it's adapted in order to create a
clearest image as possible so if we go through the various

55:24
 parts of the eye you've got your conjunct IA which protects the eye
you've got the outer protective layer known as the Scara you have your cornea which
is at the very front of your eye this refracts light as it enters the eye that
light passes through the acreas humor and then through the pupil so the pupil's
role is to control how much light enters the eye and its muscles in the iris that
will control the size of the pupil the muscles in the iris are both the circular
and Radial muscles will talk a

55:57
lot about that shortly but like I've already said the iris controls the
size of the pupil moving backwards in the eye we reach the lens the lens carries
out the fine focusing of the light it refracts the light now the thickness of the
lens Alters how much that light is refracted and the cery muscle and suspensory
ligaments will alter the thickness of the lens then you have what's known as the
vitous humor this is a pressurized liquid that helps maintain the shape of your eye
the all important retina is located towards the back of

56:27
the eye it contains photo receptors called rods and cones which are
sensitive to light the rods are sensitive to lowle light the cones are sensitive to
color you have a blind spot which is where the optic nerve leaves the eye no photo
receptors are found here the Favia contains a high concentration of cones you'll
have the choid which is a black layer that stops light reflecting around the eye
make sure you're clear that it's the lens which is responsible for focusing on
objects which are different distances

56:55
away from the eye so you need to to learn the steps as to what occurs if
you're looking at an object close to and far away so starting with scenario one
looking at an object close to here the CER muscles contract meaning that the
suspensory ligaments slacken and your lens is fat this means that the light rays
are refracted more strongly to produce a clear image on the retina if you look at a
far away object now this time your cery muscles relax meaning that your suspensory
ligaments are pull tight this has the knock on

57:28
effect of making your lens thinner and light is refracted less strongly
now we'll look at what happens in your eye when you're in different light
intensities so what happens if you enter a very bright room well you'll want less
light ENT the eye because you don't want damage being caused to the retina so how
do you make less light into the eye well you need to constrict or narrow your pupil
the way in which that occurs is that the circular muscles contract the radial
muscles relax and your pupil

58:00
constricts if you enter a room with very dim light this time you want
your puple to be nice and dilated nice and wide to allow as much light as possible
to enter the eye so this time your radial muscles contract and your circular
muscles relax the major advantage of having two eyes is that it cancels out the
blind spot remember the blind spot is the place where the optic nerve leaves the
eye having two eyes gives you a wider field of vision and allows stereoscopic
Vision that's the ability to distinguish
 58:30
depth of field a person may suffer from eye afflictions examples of this
include long-sightedness which is an inability to focus on nearby objects
shortsightedness which is what I have which is an inability to focus on objects far
away cataracts may also occur which is a cloudiness of a lens as well as an
stigmatism which is when your eyeball is a slightly misshapen shape so talking a
little bit more about longside remember that's an inability to look at objects
close to the problem here is that your rays converge behind the

59:03
retina as opposed to producing a perfect image on the retina so the
reason for this is that your eyeball could be too short or the lens of your ey is
too flat so the way to fix this is by using convex lenses these are fat lenses as
they will allow that light to be bent more strongly what about if you're
shortsighted like me well in this case eyeball might be too long or my lens is too
thick meaning that the Rays converge in front of the retina in order to fix this I
need concave lenses as this means

59:36
that the light rays are refracted less strongly more detail now on a
stigmatism so you're going to get blood vision and that's due to your corer being
an uneven or irregular shape you can use corrective lenses in glasses or contact
lenses to correct this as I've already mentioned cataracts are caused by a cloudy
lens this is due to a buildup of protein it's possible to have surgery to replace
the Cloudy lens damage sometimes occurs to the cornea and it's possible to have a
cornea transplant the ear detects sound and is

01:00:08
an organ responsible for helping us maintain our balance there are three
parts to the a the outer ear the middle ear and the inner a the outer a consists of
the Pinner so it's this portion of your ear here then you have the middle ear which
consists of the ear bones the ear also the Malia stapes and incus and then the
inner Ray contains the cckar and the semicircular canals focusing on the outer R
then the Pinner the role of the Pinner is to collect sound waves and focus them
onto the eardrum the small

01:00:40
bones which make up the middle ear the incor stapes and malus their role
is to amplify the sound waves don't forget about the ustan tube the ustan tube
connects the middle ear with the throat it helps to equalize pressure either side
of the eardrum and it allows the ear drum to transmit vibrations so now we're going
to summarize how the ear actually hears things so we need to start by discussing
the fact that that Pinner collects the sound waves transfers the sound waves to the
middle a to the eard drum the e drum vibrates

01:01:11
and then the role of the middle ear the ticles is to amplify the sound
waves to amplify those vibrations the vibrations passed to the inner is
specifically the cckar which contains hair cells which are sensitive to those
vibrations the hair cells in the cockier send electrical impulses to the brain via
the auditory nerve so that's the summary as to how their ear haar sounds but how
does it maintain balance well the important thing with balance is the semicircular
canals crucially the semicircular canals
 01:01:42
contain a fluid as the head moves the fluid in the semicircular canals
move this transmits information to the brain specifically the cerebellum which has
an important role to play in maintaining our balance it's obviously important that
we take care of our ears if we're exposed to a very large sound like an explosion
it can cause damage to the ear bones the ear ticles incus malus and stapes it can
even cause the e drum to burst and this means that the sound waves can't be
Amplified properly prolonged exposure to aoud noise may

01:02:12
lead to tinitus which is a ringing of the ear it can even cause long-term
hearing loss and this is due to damage to those hair cells and the cocka meaning
that no longer can electrical impulses be sent along the auditory nerve to the
brain it's now time to turn our attention to the drug topic so starting with the
definition of a drug a drug is a chemical which has an effect on the body so don't
get confused drugs aren't necessarily always bad things I know the Press will tell
us that they are but a

01:02:43
drug is any chemical that has an effect on our body such as paracetamol
which is a very valuable painkiller it helps to reduce the temperature caused by
fever but you must be careful not to take too much because an overdose May may lead
to liver damage and even death what are the short-term effects of alcohol which
remember is a legal drug well alcohol is actually a depressant it's slows the
nervous system and reduces your reaction time it can cause slud speech blood vision
and inability to maintain your

01:03:12
balance so you'll notice that people who are drunk often stumble and if
you take too much in a short space of time it may lead to a coma and even death the
long-term effects of alcohol now it may cause huge damage to your liver which is
known as curosis it could cause G mutation which leads to cancer it may cause brain
damage and it will affect your inability to detoxify substances due to that damage
to the liver if you do a deep dive into the effects of alcohol on the liver and the
functioning

01:03:38
of the liver remember that the liver is an important organ for both
detoxifying substances but also in our digestion because the liver produces bile
any damage caused to the liver will affect its ability to produce bile that means
that fats can no longer be emulsified which affects the working of the enzyme
lipase it also means that the pH can't be increased within the small intestine and
that's important to make sure that the enzymes released into the small intestine
aren't denatured so damage to

01:04:08
the liver has very far-reaching effects what about cannabis now cannabis
is an illegal drug it's a psychoactive drug causes feelings of relaxation but with
prolonged and long-term use you can end up with hallucinations and feelings of
disorientation cannabis is often smoked with tobacco which may lead to damage to
the lungs moving on to very nasty hardcore drugs such as heroin a Class A drug this
is obviously an illegal drug it is a painkiller it's a narcotic which means it
gives feelings of intense
 01:04:39
pleasure it's a depressant like alcohol which means it slows the nervous
system problem with taking heroin is that you build up a tolerance to it which
means that you need to take more and more heroin in order to experience the same
feelings of pleasure it's highly addictive and there are some very nasty side
effects associated with withdrawal from this drug including diarrhea and vomiting
people often inject heroin which and the problem is people often use dirty or
infected needles so that causes the spread of HIV

01:05:07
and hepatitis cocaine another illegal drug another psychoactive drug
causes intense feelings of pleasure it also causes mental alertness paranoia and
irritability it increases your breathing and heart rate so it's very very bad for
your heart and it can raise your body temperature it's highly addictive mental
illness and disorders now so we're going to consider schizophrenia and depression
to begin with so starting with schizophrenia causes of schizophrenia can include
genes so hereditary overuse of drugs high levels

01:05:42
of dopamine and even stress symptoms of a person suffering from
schizophrenia include hallucinations and paranoia as well as anxiety and confusion
treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy CBT and antis psychotic drugs now
depression has no one single cause but a combination of factors may increase the
chance of depression occurring so it could be a traumatic event bad childhood
experiences overuse of drugs and poor physical health there are lots of symptoms
associated with depression but

01:06:15
it does include potentially Suicidal Thoughts lack of energy and low
self-esteem treatment options include anti-depressant drugs and cognitive
behavioral therapy again AL Al's disease now the cause of Alzheimer's is the
buildup of protein such as B amid in the copses in the brain lots of symptoms
associated with Alzheimer's including poor memory lots of repetitive Behavior
deterioration in social behavior loss of intellectual capacity loss of voluntary
muscle control it's actually very difficult to treat Alzheimer's you'll

01:06:50
often find that people with Alzheimer's get treated with enzyme
Inhibitors drugs which increase the release of neurotransmitters such as acetal
choline and in general activities which stimulate thinking skills let's understand
why the Builder of proteins and the copses in our brain affects us in this way well
remember at the synapses acetal choline is released it's a neurotransmitter which
helps the progression of nerve impulses along the secondary neuron when that balid
blocks the syapse it means that no new nerve

01:07:21
impulses can be generated which eventually leads to death of neurons why
do enzyme inhibit act as a treatment option for people with Alzheimer's while
enzymes are used to break down the acetal choline at the end of a syapse with an
enzyme inhibited means that you'll have higher levels of acetal choline meaning
more electrical impulse transmission vascular dimensional as the name suggest it
affects vessels blood vessels supplying the brain here the blood vessels become
diseased and damaged meaning less oxygen

01:07:48
reaches the brain the brain cells die people with vascular dementia
suffer from memory loss and difficulties with thinking and reasoning treatment
options include drugs which reduce blood pressure and blood cholesterol and general
thinking activities Parkinson's disease is caused by reduced dopamine levels it
occurs mostly in men and later in life because there's less dopamine it means fewer
nerve impulses are generated symptoms include Tremors a bent over posture stiffness
and difficulty moving

01:08:20
treatments include providing drugs which mimic dopamine enzyme Inhibitors
which prevent the breakdown dopamine deep brain stimulation DBS to reduce Tremors
and more generally physiotherapy linking back to an earlier part of the spec stem
cell therapy is a potential treatment option for people with Parkinson's stem cells
could be used to produce new brain cells that have been damaged in Parkinson's
disease so why is a balanced diet required for the healthy development of bone and
muscle well first of all you

01:08:52
need Vitamin D because that allows the uptake of the all important
calcium ions also consumed in the diet which will help strengthen your teeth and
bones you'll also need diets rich in protein as they're needed for muscle growth
and repair make sure you're aware of the differences in the type of diets people
require based on their activity their lifestyle Etc so people with more sedentary
jobs will obviously require less food so less carbohydrates less protein less fat
compared with people with very physical occupations you often

01:09:24
find that when girls reach PU that they suffer from anemia and that's due
to a lack of iron brought on through menstration which remember is the blood loss
associated with a period pregnant women will obviously need more of everything
because they need to support the growing fetus in terms of its muscle growth bone
development production of blood so obviously we'll need more iron more calcium more
protein Etc in order to support that growing fetus defining digestion now digestion
is the breakdown

01:09:51
of large insoluble food molecules into small soluble ones which can then
be absorbed through the wall of the small intestine there are two types of
digestion the first one is mechanical the second one is chemical so mechanical
really means just breaking down that food into smaller pieces there's no change in
the chemical structure of the food so if you think about it the first place that
mechanical digestion takes place is in your mouth your teeth chew breaking up that
food increasing its surface area a second place mechanical

01:10:20
digestion takes place is in your stomach where the stomach muscles
Contracting help to break down that food further and hydrochloric acid in the
stomach also assists with this chemical digestion really means the altering in the
structure of the food it means making that food more soluble and its enzymes which
are responsible for this so in the mouth we've already discussed the mechanical
digestion by the teeth but also the enzyme amalay this will be responsible for
chemical digestion the digesting of starch into molto food then

01:10:50
passes down the esophagus so the bolus the ball of food passes down the
esophagus with the aid of peralis which is the contraction of muscles food reaches
the stomach I've already mentioned what the stomach does remember that hydrochloric
acid also lowers the pH meaning that any bacteria ingested will also be destroyed
protease is an enzyme secreted by the stomach it helps break down proteins into
amino acids further parastasis occurs in the small intestine remember that fiber is
essential in your diet because it

01:11:22
provides bulk to your food it provides roughage it aids the process of
peristalsis therefore helping prevent constipation moving on to bile so remember
bile is produced by the liver stored in the G bladder and released into the small
intestine the role of B is twofold number one it emulsifies fats increasing the
surface area meaning that the enzyme lipase can work more effectively number two it
neutralizes the pH of food meaning the enzymes released into the small intestine
aren't denatured we've already mentioned the

01:11:54
enzymes amalay and Pro proteas remember the enzyme molas this breaks down
moltos into glucose you've got the enzyme lipase this breaks down lipids into fatty
acids and glycerol the pancreas secretes all three enzymes into the small intestine
now the small intestine role is to absorb those soluble food molecules it's adapted
in order to increase the rate at which absorption takes place the micro and Villi
increase the surface area meaning that absorption occurs more quickly you've got
the presence of a lacal that aids absorption

01:12:26
you've got a good blood supply lots of blood capillaries thin walls
provide a short diffusion distance the role of the large intestine is to reabsorb
Water by this point you'll have reabsorbed all your soluble food molecules leaving
you with just the indigestible food stuff this makes up the bulk of feces which are
stored in the rectum and released into the anus let's discuss some key definitions
now so ingestion effectively eating that's the intake of food you've got egestion
which you must confused

01:12:56
with excretion now ades is the removal of feces from the anus so in
effect pooping excretion is the removal of metabolic waste assimilation is the
buildup of large molecules from small molecules digestion I've already mentioned
absorption I've mention in passing it's the movement of soluble food molecules
across the lining of the small intestine into the blood now we'll turn our
attention to the teeth so lots of different types of teeth these ones at the front
are known as your in sizers then you have your kin

01:13:29
slightly further back you'll notice in dogs and cats that Kines are very
well developed they're what gives you the Fang look then you've got your Prem
molers and your molers your incizors cut and bite food your canines hold and cut
food your pre molers and your molers with that grinding surface are used to crush
and grind food if we think back to our childhood so children have fewer teeth
compared with adults their teeth are smaller and remember children lose their teeth
around the age of eight adult

01:14:01
teeth are permanent you need a lot of information here about the
structure of teeth so starting with the outer casing that's the enamel it's the
hardest surface found in the human body it covers the tooth and provides a tough
surface for biting and chewing the root anchors the tooth to the gum the dentine
sits beneath the enamel it's a bone-like substance which contains cytoplasm running
from the pulp cavity which supplies the tooth with nerve and blood vessels the pulp
is the hollow center part of the tooth also containing nerves

01:14:31
and blood vessels cement is the name of the substance which covers the
root of the tooth and then finally blood vessels Supply oxygen and general
nutrients now we're answering the question how does tooth decay occur you'll notice
if you have a diet high in sugar you're more likely to get tooth decay and that's
because your tooth gets covered in the sugar there are bacteria on your teeth which
feed on that sugar they use it as their food source the bacteria aerobically
respire they convert the sugar to lactic acid and the

01:15:01
lactic acid degrades the tooth why are molers more susceptible to tooth
decay simply because they're made up of ridges so food gets stuck they have a large
surface area more bacteria collect here plaque is when bacteria form a coating on
the teeth and if it's allowed to harden it forms what's known as TARTA in order to
prevent tooth decay obviously it's important to have diets low in sugar you want to
brush your teeth at least twice a day you want to visit the dentist regularly
employ good dental

01:15:27
hygiene and actually tap water contains fluoride which helps to harden
the tooth enamel the BMI is used to quantify whether someone is overweight or not
obviously it doesn't work for every single person and that's because people who
work out and have more muscle will register in potentially in the obese category
but in essence it's an equation BMI body mass index is calculated by doing the mass
in kilogram divided by height in me squar if you have a BMI less than 18.5 you're
classified as underweight from 18.5 to 24.9 you're

01:16:03
healthy weight 25 to 29.9 your overweight 30 and above you are obese if
you have a BMI of over 40 you're morbidly obese but remember as I said it doesn't
count for everyone because of differences in people's lifestyle people may become
obese due to eating too much not enough physical activity or just a general predis
position to gaining weight there are lots of health risks associated with being
obese including type 2 diabetes coronary heart disease and being a victim of
Strokes lots of factors

01:16:35
contribute to coronary heart disease including as we've said being
overweight being obese smoking a sedentary lifestyle hereditary so a genetic
predisposition drinking lots of alcohol stress now coronary arteries Supply your
heart with blood and if you have diets too high in fat what happens is a fatty POS
it builds up in the lining of the conary artery it's known as a plaque this Narrows
the artery meaning that less oxygenated blood reaches heart muscle cells with less
oxygen means less aerobic respiration more anerobic

01:17:08
respiration which produces lactate this lowers the pH which denatures
enzymes ultimately leading to the death of heart cells we've touched on Diabetes
but now to talk about it in Greater depth there's two types type one and type two
typee one early on set it has a genetic cause and it's due to the pancreas not
producing insulin meaning that glucose cannot be converted to insoluble glycogen
and be stored in the liver the way we treat this is through the use of ins insulin
injections type two tends to

01:17:40
be from being overweight having poor diets this time despite the fact
that your pancreas releases insulin your liver fails to respond to it so careful
control of diets and lots of exercise tends to be the treatment option here
symptoms of diabetes includ include poor wound healing loss of weight which occurs
rapidly glucose in your urine and frequent urination the Food hygiene topic now so
obviously food needs to be cooked stored and preserved appropriately so
preservation methods and I will talk

01:18:21
about this in Greater detail later on these are used to stop
microorganisms reproducing within the food cooking obviously kills any
microorganisms which have contaminated the food storing is essential in order to
make sure that microorganisms don't contaminate the food how should food be stored
in order to prevent contamination well it's important that raw and cooked food is
kept separately so that's why they say in the fridge that raw food should be
underneath cooked food you don't want raw food leaking all over cooked food

01:18:50
you need to make sure that if you freeze food and then thow it that you
eat it immediately you don't want to keep reheating the same food now we're
answering the question how is yogurt made so first of all we need to pasteurize the
milk that is used to make the yogurt that means heating the milk to around 90° C
the purpose of pastur is to kill any bacteria present in the milk we then need to
cool that milk down to around 35° and add the all important lactobacillus bicus
bacteria this is the bacteria which converts the lactose

01:19:20
sugar into lactic acid giving yogurt that characteristic sour taste we
need need to lower the temperature because high temperatures will kill that
bacteria and it's through the anerobic respiration of that bacteria that the lactic
acid is made now we're going to go into great depth about different food
preservation methods so I've already touched on pasteurization so that's heating
the food to around 90 odd degrees that will kill any bacteria present rapid cooling
will also prevent bacterial spores developing good

01:19:48
examples of of foods which are pasteurized include milk yogurt and Juice
beer and ice cream salting has historically been used and this involves covering
that meat or fish and salt any bacteria present lose water by osmosis due to that
lower water potential caused by the salt and that bacteria therefore die pickling
again another popular Historical Method this involves covering items of food in
vinegar the low PH D's enzymes found in the bacteria fish onions and some
vegetables may all be pickled I do know that onions are

01:20:20
vegetables by the way before anyone comments canning involves placing
food into account being heated to a high temperature the can is sealed the can is
heated to over 100° C this will kill the bacteria and spores fruits and vegetables
Meat and Fish can all be canned ultra high heat treatment this involves blowing
steam through the food at super high temperatures of 160° C killing all the
bacteria and their spores milk is a great example of a food which under go uht and
that's why you'll see on the side of some milk cartons uht

01:20:53
milk but it does taste slightly different to fresh milk freezing now so
that means lowering the temperature to around -5° C although this won't kill the
bacteria it will absolutely slow their rate of reproduction drying methods now hot
air is blown through the food drying removes water from the food meaning the
bacteria can't use it and absorb it cereals and some fruits are dried in some
countries irradiation is allowed which involves food being exposed to gamma
radiation but like I said only some countries allow this

01:21:21
gamma radiation is a type of ionizing radiation it will kill the bacteria
and its spores this can be used for vegetables fish and shellfish respiration now
so aerobic respiration involves the use of oxygen the word equation is Oxygen Plus
glucose goes to carbon dioxide plus water plus the release of energy remember the
energy is always released it's never produced make sure you can write the symbol
equation as well so Sixers are important here with the balancing you want 602 plus
C6 h126 6 which is the

01:21:55
formula of glucose goes to 6 CO2 + 6 H2O although energy is released ATP
is made this is adenosine triphosphate ATP is made from adenosine diphosphate ADP
plus an extra phosphate and it's this ATP which is used to transfer the energy
energy is released from ATP by its conversion back to ADP and the phosphate we say
that the ATP has been hydrolized what is this energy released by respiration used
to do well it's used to help us contract muscles move substances by active
transport carry out assimilation which is building up large

01:22:34
molecules from small molecules it's also used in cell division as well as
the manufacture of more organel found within our cells we've already said that we
need oxygen for aerobic respiration how does oxygen enter our body well it enters
through an inhalation that's a breathin the oxygen actually enters our blood in our
lungs remember that General atmospheric air contains around 20 % oxygen it's mostly
made up of nitrogen with some argon gas carbon dioxide and water vapor if we
compare air that we

01:23:02
breathe in so that's inhaled air compared with air that we breathe out
exhaled air it makes sense that we absorb oxygen into our bodies so therefore
exhaled air will contain less oxygen because carbon dioxide is produced by
respiration exhaled air will contain more carbon dioxide and more water vapor so
make sure that it makes sense to you if you look at the equation for aerobic
respiration exhale must therefore contain more CO2 more water and less oxygen
hydrogen carbonate indicator can be used to demonstrate how

01:23:32
much carbon dioxide is present so atmospheric air contains around 0.04%
carbon dioxide this turns hydrogen carbonate indicator orange so if you see that
that indicator is orange you can say that there's around 0.04% CO2 high levels of
CO2 turn the indicator yellow low levels of CO2 turn the indicator a red purple
purple color anerobic respiration can occur if there's insufficient or a lack of
oxygen here the glucose is incompletely broken down and it actually releases less
energy and produces less ATP compared

01:24:07
with aerobic respiration anerobic respiration is carried out by yeast
cells as well as our muscle cells if we experience intense periods of exercise when
yeast anerobic respires it takes that glucose and converts it into ethanol and
carbon dioxide this process is actually used in the bread making industry to help
bread dough rise the ethanol produced is used in the alcoholic drinks industry so
to make beer and wines when our muscles anerobic respire this time the glucose is
converted to lactate anerobic

01:24:37
respiration can cause muscle fatigue over time and that's due to what's
known as an oxygen debt it means that when you stop exercising your breathing rate
stays High and the reason for that is because you need to introduce more oxygen
into our body in order to break down the lactate produced by anerobic respiration
the respiratory system now will start with its Anatomy so your windpipe its
scientific name is your tra which runs down here then it branches quite similar to
the branches of a tree really into

01:25:10
two Brony smaller branches follow on called bronchial and then it ends in
air saxs known as alvioli you have a thick layer of muscle that sits towards the
bottom of your thorax that's called your diaphragm which is able to contract and
relax your rib cage provides a bony cage over the top of your lungs to help protect
them you've also got intercostal muscles which are muscles which sit between your
ribs and they'll play an important role when you take a breath in and when you take
a breath out so I've

01:25:38
already mentioned that the alvioli are air spaces this is effectively
where oxygen goes from your air in your lungs into your blood and carbon dioxide
leaves your blood there are small vessels known as capillaries which kind of cover
your alola they provide a very good blood supply in order to allow that gas
exchange to take place so what are the adaptations of the avioli for gas exchange
well I've already said there a large surface area and that's due to their gra light
structure they've got thin walls so that provides a short

01:26:08
 diffusion distance they're moist which allows gases to dissolve and they
have good ventilation which means which maintains a steep concentration gradient
and that means that diffusion of gases occurs much more quickly focusing in on the
trachea now the tra is supported by ring of cartilage they help to support the
trachea stop it from collapsing and they also enable your neck to bend the plural
membranes now these are thin moist membranes they act to separate the inside of the
thorax from the lungs

01:26:37
basically to stop your lungs sticking to the thorax wall the gap between
the two membranes is known as plural cavity which is filled with plural fluid and
this fluid acts as lubrication again stopping the lungs from sticking to the wall
of the thorax because remember those lungs need to inflate and deflate to allow gas
exchange to occur so so focusing in now on ventilation that's the movement of air
into and out of the lungs what about an inhalation a breath in the following
changes occur first of

01:27:03
all your diaphragm contracts it flattens your external intercostal
muscles contract and together these cause an increase in the volume of your thorax
because the volume's increased by definition the pressure must decrease and that's
really in comparison to atmospheric air and as a result air is drawn into the lungs
what about exhalation now a breath out the opposite occurs this time your diaphragm
relaxes it becomes Dome shaped your external intercostal muscles relax together
these reduce the volume within your thorax

01:27:36
meaning that the pressure this time increases compared with atmospheric
pressure therefore air is forced out of your lungs if you consider the difference
in composition between inhaled and exhaled air clearly inhaled air will contain
more oxygen compared with exhaled air because the Oxygen's been used by cells and
respiration exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide and more water vapor compared
with inhaled air and that's because these two substances are products of
respiration carried out by our cells so these

01:28:07
substances get transported to the lungs so that they can be breathed out
now we're getting into the nitty-gritty of some kind of intense lung terms such as
lung capacity this is the maximum volume of air that can be contained within our
lungs vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled
from our lungs in one breath residual volume this is the volume of air left in our
lungs after a forced exhalation and tidal volume this is the volume of air breathed
in in one normal breath a

01:28:40
spirometer is a piece of equipment or apparatus that can be used to
measure the volume of air breathed in and breathed out there's a mouthpiece that
you breathe in and out of which is attached to an air chamber which moves up and
down it's attached to a pen which draw a trace on a piece of paper why does our
breathing rate increase during exercise I'm sure you're aware if you've gone on a
run you'll start breathing far faster far more deeply the reason for that is
because your muscle cells in particular need to respire more they
 01:29:08
need to release more energy to allow your muscles to contract respiration
remember produces carbon dioxide this increase in carbon dioxide is detected by the
brain specifically the Medela oblongata as well as receptors in the arteries
electrical impulses sent to the respiratory Center in the medala which causes an
increase in breathing rate in order to remove that extra carbon dioxide from the
blood there are obviously lots of benefits associated with exercise on the
cardiovascular system it includes increased numbers of

01:29:38
red blood cells increase in the size and strength of the heart decrease
in resting heart rate increased muscle mass and bone density increased number of
alveoli and a decrease in resting blood pressure let's now discuss two ways in
which the heart rate may be increased I'm sure you're already wear during exercise
the reason for that as I've already said is because there's more carbon dioxide
being released into the blood that gets detected by receptors in the aorta and the
cored artery sends electrical impulses to the medala

01:30:07
oblongata in the brain and the accelerator nerve is then important for
increasing the heart rate the hormone adrenaline which is released when we exercise
is also responsible for increasing the heart rate one of the most straightforward
methods we can use to measure our heart rate is by taking our pulse rate remember
you can feel that pretty much in your wrist and in your neck although you might
want to attach yourself to a monitor in order to get a more accurate representation
of your pulse rate the simplest way to see

01:30:33
the effect of exercise on the heart rate is basically to take your pulse
rate at rest for 1 minute then do some exercise and then measure your pul rate
directly afterwards for a further minute remember the advantage of an increased
heart rate during exercises because the heart is responsible for pumping blood
around your body that blood contains the all important glucose and oxygen needed by
cell to carry out the respiration required to release energy and to enable our
muscles to contract you find that

01:31:00
the fitter the person the more they exercise the lower their pulse rate
their heart rate tends to be now we'll talk about the effect of smoking on the body
so smoking is obviously really bad for you there's lots of reasons for this first
of all cigarettes contain tar tar is a carcinogen this is a chemical which causes
cancer so people who smoke for a very long time may see increased likelihood of
getting lung cancer the other problem problem with smoking is that it paralyzes
those cyia which line

01:31:27
your trachea remember these are cells which waft backwards and forwards
removing bacteria Laden mucus from our tra so that it can be destroyed by the
hydrochloric acid in our stomach when our c is paralyzed that bacteria stays in
arria therefore you see an increase in infection and an increased instance of
diseases like bronchitis long-term Smoking may also cause the disease empyema now
empyema damages your alviola WS therefore effectively reducing their surface area
meaning that less gas exchange takes
 01:32:00
place so a person really struggles to breathe out when they have empyema
which is a chronic disease that can't really be treated you'll often see people
using oxygen tanks if they have empyema cigarettes contain nicotine it's an
addictive drug nicotine actually increases the viscosity of the blood it makes it
thicker meaning that you have an increased chance of high blood pressure and the
coronary heart disease associated with that cigarette smoke contains carbon
monoxide carbon monoxide remember combines irreversibly with the

01:32:30
hemoglobin and red blood cells this prevents the transport of oxygen so
it is highly toxic focusing in on the blood so what are the components of the blood
well you have both white blood cells and red blood cells remember white blood cells
consist of both lymphocytes and fyes red blood cells their official name is urethra
sites remember they're needed to transport oxygen you've also got a jelly-like
substance known as plasma and small fragments of cells called platelets and we'll
talk Lots about their various RS a bit later

01:33:03
on in this video the blood is responsible for transporting oxygen from
the lungs to respiring cells carbon dioxide from respiring cells to the lungs
various nutrients such as glucose and amino acids hormones Ura which is a breakdown
product of proteins from the liver to the kidneys where it's excreted kind of
repeating ourselves a little bit just talking about the role of the plasma now so
the plasma the jelly-like substance transports hormones from where they're made
glands to the organs that they act upon their target organs

01:33:35
nutrients such as glucose from the small intestine to cells Ura from the
liver to the kidneys carbon dioxide from respiring cells to the lungs so what I've
just mentioned there is is specifically the role of plasma whereas before I was
talking more generally about the role of blood as a whole something you might be
less familiar with is tissue fluid this is fluid found between capillaries and the
cells it effectively bathes the cells how is tissue fluid formed well the artery
end of the capillary has a higher pressure

01:34:03
compared with the Venus the vein end the capillary walls are leaky water
and small molecules are forced out of the blood duee to this pressure difference
large molecules such as proteins remain in the blood if we consider the difference
in the composition between tissue fluid and plasma you'll find that tissue fluid
contains no large proteins no red blood cells unlike plasma which may contain both
of these things how does water leave the tissue fluid well water moves bi osmosis
from an area of high water potential in the tissue fluid

01:34:33
to an area of low water potential in the capillaries across a partially
permeable membrane what is the lymphatic system well it's a system of vessels
containing the substance lymph lymph contains water fatty acids and lymphocytes
areas of the lymphatic system where you find nodes are known as lymph nodes these
contain a high concentration of lymphocytes remember that the Lacs found at the
small intestine play an important role in forming lymph they aid fat absorption
focusing in on red blood cells so so as
 01:35:03
I've already said red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen
around the body that oxygen binds to a pigment known as hemoglobin present on the
red blood cells the red blood cells have lots of adaptions to increase how much
oxygen they transport they have a characteristic by concave dish shape this
increases their surface area to volume ratio Maxim ing the amount of oxygen that
can be transported they have no nucleus this provides more space for hemoglobin
they're flexible which enables them to squeeze through blood

01:35:33
capillaries and they have a thin membrane which provides a short
diffusion distance have you ever wondered why athletes like to train at high
altitude it's because of the following at high altitude you find there's less
oxygen present to compensate more red blood cells are produced by our body more red
blood cells means that there's more hemoglobin meaning that more oxygen can be
transported by our blood more oxygen is great for athletes because it means that
more respiration can take place more

01:36:00
energy released and more muscle contraction now we're answering the
question how are blood groups determined this is due to the presence of various
antigens remember these are small proteins which stick out in this case from the
outside of the red blood cells there are two types of antigen A and B this allows
us to have four different blood groups a b a and o as you would expect someone with
blood group a has a antigens on their R blood cell surface B has B antigens AB has
both A and B antigens o has neither A or B antigens

01:36:34
there are no antigens sticking out of the red blood cells of group O now
remember that small proteins known as antibodies will attach onto these antigens so
let's consider those various blood groups in turn to work out what type of
antibodies will respond to those antigens so for blood group a they have antigen a
sticking out of their red blood cell therefore antibodies found in blood group a
people will be antib antibodies for blood group b people with B antigens poking out
of their red blood cells this time they'll have antia

01:37:06
antibodies present in their blood this means that they'll attack any red
blood cells with a antigen sticking out from them AB this time blood group AB will
have AB antigens poking out based on the fact they have both A and B antigens it
means that they have neither anti-a or antib antibod IES and then what about blood
group O well we know this time there are no antigens sticking out so this time this
person's antibodies will react to both A and B so they'll have anti-a and antib
antibodies so what does

01:37:36
that actually mean in terms of blood donation sometimes people need the
blood transfusion for a variety of reasons let's consider which blood group would
count as the universal donor so the universal donor means that this blood can be
given to anyone regardless of their blood group well that universal donor blood
group must be o the reason for that is because they have no antigens on their red
blood cells meaning that when their blood is given to other people there's nothing
for the antibodies in that other person's blood

01:38:04
to respond to hence why blood group O is known as universal donor now
let's consider which blood group is known as the universal recipient it means that
this person can receive blood from anyone well in this case it's going to be the
person with blood group a b the reason for that is because their red blood cells
already have both A and B antigens poking out from them meaning it doesn't matter
where the blood comes from they won't have antibodies which attack because they
don't attack their own cells so blood group AB is known as

01:38:32
the universal recipient if the wrong blood is given to a person a process
called utenation occurs which is when the antibodies attached to the antigens on
the red blood cells causing the red blood cells to Clump together this is very
dangerous due to the blockage of blood vessels that may occur unfortunately blood
can never be frozen because it causes the red blood cells to burst and therefore
for the blood is effectively useless the white blood cells form the body's defense
against pathogens remember pathogens and microorganisms

01:39:03
which cause disease they include things like bacteria fungi protus and
viruses so there are two white blood cells the first type is the fagy the second
type is the lymphocyte phagocytes have a characteristic lobe nucleus phagocytes
carry out phagocytosis what this means is that they engulf the pathogen they do
this through that lobe nucleus it means that they can engulf that pathogen into
their cytoplasm whereupon digestive enzymes are released to destroy the pathogen
the lymphocytes these have a large single lobe nucleus

01:39:38
this is because they don't engulf pathogens instead they recognize small
proteins on the pathogen surface known as antigens the lymphocytes secrete small
proteins known as antibodies which bind to the antigen now the lymphocytes when
they secrete these antibodies first of all the antibodies can help kill the
pathogen the bacteria how do they do that they can help cause the bacterial cells
to Clump together making them more likely to be spotted by fago sites so that they
can then be engulfed they also

01:40:06
produce antitoxins which counteract any toxins produced by the pathogen
and another method by which they may destroy the pathogen is by causing them to
burst open what about those small fragments of cells known as platelets so to
simplify their role we would say that platelets clot the blood at the sight of a
wound so as soon as you cut yourself you don't bleed indefinitely and the reason
for that is because your platelets create a scab at the sight of a wound but the
process is slightly more complicated

01:40:33
than that so what happens when you have a wound is that the platelets
accumulate at the sight of a wound the enzyme thrombokinase is released from the
platelets this enzyme causes the conversion of prothombin to thrombin which in turn
causes the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into the insoluble version fibrin
fibrin is the substrate for the enzyme Factor 13 the fibrine mesh work formed traps
for blood cells meaning that a scab is formed and the real importance of all of
this is to ensure that you don't have excess blood

01:41:04
loss and that pathogen entry is prevented if you're doing human biology
it is important that you're aware of the role of thrombokinase prothombin and
thrombin as well as fibrinogen and fibrin some people have a lack of thrombin and
this really affects their ability to carry out blood clotting in the following way
lack of thrombin means that fibrinogen is no longer converted to fibrine there's no
longer any substrate for that enzyme and the fibrine can no longer form a mesh work
to trap the red blood cells needed to

01:41:32
form a clot now we turn our attention to discuss various blood vessels
starting with the arteries you need to be able to describe their structure and
function so if we start with their structure we say the arteries have a narrow
Lumen this means that the hole that blood flows through is very narrow that's the
Lumen because of that blood flows at high pressure and to stop the blood vessels
bursting they need thick muscle and elastic fiber walls to withstand that pressure
arteries carry blood away from

01:42:03
the heart arteries tend to be oxygenated the exception here is the
pulmonary artery which takes blood from the heart back to the lungs that is
deoxygenated veins have a much wider Lumen because of this blood flow is much
slower at much lower pressure and therefore they have thinner walls made of muscle
and elastic fibers because that blood Flows at such low pressure sometimes it has a
tendency to back up and that's why it's a valve which ensure that blood flows in
the correct direction veins tend to be

01:42:32
deoxygenated they contain no oxygen the exception here is the pulmonary
vein which transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart specifically the
left atrium the capillaries now these are much much smaller than arteries and veins
they're only one cell thick they have thin walls to provide a short diffusion
distance their walls have small pores that allows the movement of substances
capillaries have a very large surface area to volume ratio pulmonary means relating
to the lungs renal means

01:43:03
relating to the kidneys hepatic means relating to the liver use these
words to help you label the various blood vessels around the body if the main
artery coming from the heart is known as the a it Feeds out of the left ventricle
any vessel coming off the aorta therefore must be an artery so the name of the
vessel supplying the liver is the hepatic artery that supplies oxygenated blood to
the liver The Vessel supplying oxygenated blood to the kidneys is the renal artery
now if we turn our attention to blood vessels flowing away

01:43:34
from organs because these vessels will join the venne Cara they must be
veins let's take the vessel leaving the liver it must be the hepatic Vein The
Vessel leaving the kidneys must be the renal vein don't forget that the hepatic
portal vein exists between the intestines and the liver this will contain the
highest concent ation glucose because it's coming from our gut do think about
various other components of blood coming into and out of organs it makes sense that
blood going to the lungs must have the highest

01:44:04
concentration of carbon dioxide the lowest concentration of oxygen blood
leaving the kidneys remember the kidneys are an organ of excretion therefore blood
in the renal vein must be lowest in Ura as that's been excreted in our urine the
heart is a muscular organ which helps to pump blood around the body it's very
important that it can do that because of what I've said previously the blood
transports a large number of very useful substances the most useful of which is
oxygen needed by cellular respiration so in terms of the

01:44:34
anatomy of the heart it has four chambers two Atrium and two ventricles
just be very careful when it comes to labeling the heart the left and right sides
are flipped compared with what you'd probably think and that's because if you
picked up the diagram and popped it into your chest that's how the heart would
actually appear so notice that you have the the left atrium the left ventricle the
right atrium and the right ventricle the separation between the left and right side
of the heart it's called the septum a septum simply means

01:45:03
a wall of muscle such as your septum in your nose here it keeps the left
and right hand sides of the heart totally separate and the reason for that is it
stops the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood the left side of the heart
contains oxygenated blood that means blood containing oxygen the right hand side
contains deoxygenated blood that means blood containing no oxygen so that's your
broad layout of the heart next up you have vessels which supply the heart any
vessel that comes into the

01:45:34
heart is known as a vein any vessel which leaves the heart is known as an
artery arteries carry blood away from the heart try and remember that those two A's
come together right let's get into the nitty-gritty of the heart then so we're
going to start with the left atrium I've already told you that the left side of the
heart is oxygenated so so where must that blood have come from well oxygenation gas
exchange occurs at the lungs so blood supplied to the left atrium comes from the
lungs and the name

01:46:03
of this vessel is the pulmonary vein the left hm contracts forcing blood
into the left ventricle the left ventricle contracts forcing blood into the main
artery known as the aort this artery goes off and splits into smaller arteries
supplying various organs and cells with oxygenated blood the cells use up that
oxygen in their respiration so we say that the blood becomes deoxygenated it
obviously needs to return to the lungs in order to become oxygenated but in order
to do that it needs to go to the heart first of all it

01:46:36
does this by traveling in the vena vein to the right atrium the right
atrium contracts forcing blood into the right ventricle the right ventricle
contracts forcing blood into the pulmonary artery this blood is then returned to
the lungs where it can pick up more oxygen there are various valves to prevent the
back flow of blood in the heart between the walls of the left atrium and the left
ventricle you'll find the bicuspid valves the left Atria ventricular valves they're
both names for the same thing

01:47:06
and then in the walls between the right atrium and the right ventricle
you'll find the tricuspid valve the right atrio ventricular valves these prevent
backflow of blood back into the atrium at the base of the pulmonary artery in the
aorta you have what's known as semi lunar valves these valves prent backflow of
blood into the ventricles remember it's important that the left and right hand side
of the hearts are separate in order to prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
from mixing as this would result in lower rates of

01:47:35
respiration we say that the human heart is a double circulatory system
the reason for this is that blood enters the heart twice for every one circulation
around the body if you look more closely at the anatomy of the heart you'll notice
that the wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle
why is this well that thickness means that there's more muscle and the reason why
the left ventricle needs more muscle is it needs to generate a higher pressure to
force blood much further

01:48:03
around the body whereas remember the right ventricle is simply pumping to
the lungs how is the pulse rate created remember I said the pulse rate is the same
as the heart rate well blood leaves the heart in short bursts causing the
stretching to the wall of the aorta when The ventricle relaxes stretches of the
aorta recoil which increases the pressure within the a water next up the coronary
arteries now the heart is the hardest working muscle in the body it contracts
myogenically or by itself throughout your lifetime now the heart

01:48:34
needs a huge amount of oxygen in order to carry out those contractions
and that's the role of the coronary arteries Which snake over the outside of the
heart the coronary arteries supply the heart with its own oxygen requirements now
what happens if you lead a fairly unhealthy lifestyle if you eat too much saturated
fat potentially smoking it can be caused by stress it can even be hereditary so
caused by genetic factors but what may occur is that fatty deposits May build up in
the lining of the cony arteries this Narrows

01:49:04
the Lumen of the artery meaning that less oxygenated blood reaches the
heart muscle cells as a result of this aerobic respiration can no longer occur more
anerobic respiration occurs leading to the buildup of lactic acid and fundamentally
the heart muscle cells die there are various treatment options for coronary heart
disease including a stent here you have a small metal mesh work which is placed in
the uded artery there's a balloon inside the mesh work which gets inflated forcing
that mesh work to open up that artery then the

01:49:40
balloon is removed and you've still got that mesh work in place holding
open the coronary artery this obviously requires intense surgery it's quite a
dangerous operation it is a long-term solution but there's always the risk of
pathogen entry as soon as you make make an incision in the body if complete heart
failure has occurred then someone will require a heart transplant the problem with
this is they obviously come from other humans you need a heart of exactly the right
size and there is always a

01:50:04
shortage of heart transplant in the meantime an artificial transplant can
be used this is made up of plastic fibers and metal alloys an artificial heart is
not a long-term solution ideally you would require a human transplant but remember
there's always issues with rejection when tissues don't match blood groups don't
match the person will require immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their life in
order to stop the heart from being rejected remember that rejection occurs because
there are antigens small proteins on the side of

01:50:32
the new person's heart these get recognized by the person whose body it's
going into lymphocytes and antibodies are produced in order to attack the antigens
on that new heart hence it's the lymphocytes which need suppressing another option
could be a heart bipass where effectively a new vessel is fashioned redirecting
blood away from the blockage in the coronary artery statins are a drug used to
treat coronary heart disease they work by lowering blood cholesterol which is also
a contributing factor to coronary heart

01:51:01
disease statins work by inhibiting an enzyme involved in the production
of cholesterol sometimes they ask you to compare the relative advantages and
disadvantages of statins versus heart transplant use your common sense here the
advantage of statins is obviously that they're cheaper they're more readily
available they're easier to take there's no major operation problems include the
fact that someone might actually fig get to take them and there could be possible
side effects another potential treatment option includes

01:51:28
plant steny Esters plant steny Esters have a very similar structure to
cholesterol they help to lower blood cholesterol in our bodies therefore reducing
the risk of coronary heart disease there are several different heart diseases
obviously we've mentioned chary heart disease what about angina well angina is pain
in the heart caused by chary heart disease beta blockers are a type of drug which
may be used to treat angina beta blockers work by binding ing to Adrenaline
receptors meaning that adrenaline can no longer

01:51:56
bind remember one effect of adrenaline is to increase the heart rate so
if the adrenaline binding sites have been bound to it means that adrenaline can no
longer take effect the heart rate can no longer be increased so beta blockers in
essence lower the heart rate moving on to blood pressure now two types of blood
pressure systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure systolic is the
highest blood pressure reached the systolic pressure is caused when the left
ventricle contracts and the normal

01:52:23
range for systolic heart pressure is between 100 and 140 mm of mercury
the diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure caused when the ventricles relax and
your usual range for diastolic blood pressure is between 60 and 90 mm of mercury
hypertension is the term used to describe chronic high blood pressure lots of
reasons for hypertension it could include stress obesity smoking again it could be
hereditary caused by genetic factors drinking alcohol high levels of salt in the
diet treatment options for hypertension include beta

01:52:58
blockers again which remember lower the heart rate ACE inhibitors
remember a stands for Angiotensin converting enzyme Inhibitors as well as consuming
a healthy diet and taking plenty of exercise so ACE inhibitors now Angiotensin
converting enzymes are responsible for producing Angiotensin Angiotensin Narrows
blood vessels therefore increasing blood pressure so therefore if you think about
it acce inhibitors ACE inhibitors prevent Angiotensin being made therefore meaning
that less blood vessel narrowing occurs

01:53:28
meaning that blood pressure is effectively reduced the dreaded monoclonal
antibodies please don't worry about this I'll take you through this topic step by
step we need to first of all understand what various definitions mean so first of
all what is a clone it's a genetically identical cell or individual so what are
monoclonal antibodies well antibodies remember a type of protein the antibod body
binds to the antigen the key thing about monoclonal antibodies is that they're
produced from a single clone of cells meaning that all

01:54:00
the antibodies made are genetically identical they're all clones of each
other so with monoclonal antibodies we're really trying to think of a way that we
can produce large numbers of antibodies that's the real purpose of monoclonal
antibodies and we know that antibodies are produced by lymphocytes but the problem
with lymphocytes is that they reproduce incredibly slowly so what scientists
thought about next was well how do we get them to produce large numbers of
antibodies what type of cell replicates really quickly and they

01:54:29
thought hang on a cancer cell a tumor cell so what happens if we combine
a tumor cell with a lymphocyte maybe we'll be able to generate large numbers of
genetically identical antibodies and that's exactly what they did they combined a
tumor cell with a lymphocytoid is a little bit of one thing and another such as the
Toyota Prius remember that's hybrid using both petrol and electricity in order to
power itself so to go into the nitty-gritty as to how monoclonal antibodies are
made we first of all need to get a mouse the

01:55:03
mouse is injected with a specific antigen and before long the lymphocytes
of the mouse start producing antibodies specific to the antigen which has been
injected it's actually the mouse spleen cells which are used to produce those
antibodies the spleen cells are fused with tumor cells to produce a Hoda and it's
the Hoda cells which are respons responsible for making large numbers of monoclonal
antibodies so what are the uses of monoclonal antibodies why have we gone to all
this effort to combine

01:55:30
 lymphocytes and tumor cells while they can be used in diagnosis such as
in pregnancy tests pregnancy tests contain monoclonal antibodies the monoclonal
antibod binds to the HCG hormone present in a pregnant woman's urine and by binding
to a Dy you see this as a positive test result in a pregnancy test window
monoclonal antibodies may also be used for testing in Laboratories to detect the
presence of a particular pathogen hormone levels or chemicals within the blood
monoclonal antibodies can even be used to treat cancer the

01:56:02
antibodies can be attached to radioactive substances which can be used to
kill cancer cells going a little more into detail as to how monoclonal antibodies
can be used to identify pathogens one end of the antibody is attached to a
fluorescent Dy or marker the other end attaches to the specific antigens on a
pathogen the moment that that binding occurs the fluorescent die shows up and you
can view the pathogen under a microscope homeostasis means the maintenance of a
steady internal environment such internal environments

01:56:33
include body temperature glucose concentration of the blood as well as
water levels of the blood it's important that our body temperature remains fairly
constant because if it rises too high enzymes may be denatured killing cells if
it's too low then enzyme controll reactions occur too slowly the skin is super
important in Thermo regulation that means the control of our body temperature but
the skin has several other roles first of all it acts as a barrier preventing
pathogen entry it contains melanin which absorbs harmful

01:57:03
UV rays from the Sun helping to prevent skin cancer it's also an organ of
excretion remember the skin excretes sweat but how does the skin help us control
our temperature how does it carry out Thermo regulation let's think about when
we're too cold when we're too cold our hairs on our skin stand up on end trapping a
layer of insulating air close to the skin meaning that we're kept warmer in this
way other mechanisms involved include shivering when our muscles contract releasing
heat Vaso constriction occurs in the arterials in

01:57:33
our skin remember Vaso constriction means the narrowing of these
arterials meaning that less blood flows close to the skin less heat is radiated
sorry about the seagulls what about when we're too hot this time you'll see Vaso
dilation occur this is when the arterials dilate more blood flows close to our skin
more heat is radiated our hairs on our skin lay flat less insulating air is trapped
sweating occurs as sweat evaporates it helps to cool the body the layer of the skin
are as follows you've got the epidermis

01:58:05
which is the top layer the dermis and then the subcutaneous fat which
sits underneath this layer therm regulation is a good example of negative feedback
this means that when a change occurs to the environment mechanisms are brought
about within our body to oppose that change so for example using when when we're
too hot as an example first of all we need to detect the change in temperature
Thermo receptors detect that we're too hot nerve impulses are sent to the
hypothalamus the hypothalamus sends
 01:58:32
nerve impulses to the skin increasing sweating causing our hairs to lay
flat causing Vasa dilation to the arterials supplying our skin as a result of all
these processes our body temperature decreases and our normal body temperature of
37° C is restored and then the opposite occurs if we're too cold but again the
hypothalamus is responsible for regulating all the processes that will help
increase our body temperature a second type of homeostatic mechanism you need to be
aware of is known as osmo regulation remember osmo

01:59:06
means anything relating to water so osmo regulation is all about
controlling our blood water levels the super important organ involved with osmo
regulation is the kidney but do remember that the kidney has two roles it controls
blood water levels but it also excretes the substance Ura remember excretion is the
removal of metabolic waste from our bodies substances which are excreted include
sweat from the skin carbon dioxide from the lungs and then focusing in on the
kidney urea from the kidney and that Ura is excreted in urine you

01:59:42
have two kidneys there are two fist sized organs found in the lower
portion of your back they have various vessels which feed into and out of them the
blood vessels supp applying oxygenated blood to the kidneys is known as the renal
artery the blood vessel removing deoxygenated blood from the kidneys is known as
the renal vein in terms of the layers of the kidney the outermost layer is known as
the cortex the middle portion is known as the medala and then you have what's known
as the pelvis now

02:00:10
the kidney contains millions of tiny structures known as the nephron and
it's important that you know the structure of the Nephron inside out the blood
vessel which enters the nephron is known as the gulus it's important that you're
aware that the structure the Glarus is such that the blood vessel coming into it is
wider than the blood vessel leaving and that has important implications when we
consider pressure the first part of the nefron is known as the Bowman's capsule and
then you enter the first coil tube

02:00:36
which unfortunately you need to be able to describe its full name of
proximal convoluted tubal we move into the loop of henel or Loop of Henley then we
move into the second coil tube known as the distal convoluted tubal before entering
the collecting duct that feeds into the Ura which supplies the bladder with urine
now at the gulus boman's capsule boundary a process known as ultra filtration
occurs so ultra filtration really means small molecules such as water ions Ura and
glucose are moved from the gulus into the Bowman's capsule

02:01:12
Under Pressure now that pressure comes from the fact that the blood
vessel entering the gulus is wider than the one leaving generating pressure to
force those small molecules out of the blood do not note that things like proteins
are too large to enter the Bowman's capsule and they remain in the blood and if
there's any protein present in your urine then that can indicate damage to either
the glomerulus or the Bowman's capsule because it means the pressure is so great
that those proteins have entered the nefron when ordinarily they
 02:01:39
would stay in the blood the next process you need to be aware of is known
as selective reabsorption so if you consider the contents of the nefron it contains
ions Ura glucose water obviously it's important for our body that we retain as much
much glucose as possible otherwise what was the point of us eating food containing
glucose the point of our digestive system trying to absorb that glucose through the
wall of the small intestine it's because we want that glucose in our blood but at
this point it's entered the proximal

02:02:06
convoluted tubal so selective reabsorption is really taking back that
glucose and some ions back into the blood it occurs at the proximal convoluted
tubule and crucially it occurs by active transport and that's because the glucose
moves from an area of low concentration to an area of High concentration therefore
there's the requirement of energy from ATP so what that means is that the Ura is
allowed to stay in the nephron where it joins the Ura is added to the urine and
that point can be excreted from the body so

02:02:35
selective reabsorption and ultra filtration are really important in the
excretion of Ura what about the osmo regulatory role of the kidney so we're going
to take two scenarios one when we've had too little to drink and one when we've had
a lot to drink so what happens when we have two to little or to drink well
obviously we want to retain as much water as possible in the blood and the
following steps occur in order to do this so first of all we have osmo receptors
present in the hypothalamus in

02:03:04
our brain these detect the low water levels of our blood they send a
signal to the petur gland to release more of the hormone ADH ADH stands for anti-
diuretic hormone the ADH travels in the blood to the nephron and specifically it
acts on the walls of the collecting duct making them more permeable to water this
means that more water is reabsorbed into the blood less water is available to make
urine so resulting urine is concentrated yellow in color low in volume but what
about when we've had lots to drink well we're

02:03:38
going to just learn those same steps but use slightly different wording
this time our osmo receptors in the hypothalamus detect high water levels in the
blood the pity gland therefore secretes less ADH the ADH travels to the collecting
duct in the nefron it makes the walls of the collecting duct less permeable to
water meaning that less water is reabsorbed meaning that resulting urine is high in
volume and dilute and Light In Color where does the substance Ura actually come
from while our bodies are

02:04:08
in aable to store excess protein that protein gets broken down into amino
acids the amine group is removed from the amino acids in a process known as
deamination and this actually takes place in the liver remember if there's glucose
Pres present in your urine that also indicates there's a malfunctioning of the
kidney because remember that glucose should all have been reabsorbed at the
proximal convoluted tub if there's glucose present then it means that something has
happened at the proximal convoluted tub now to discuss
 02:04:37
the control of blood glucose another example of homeostasis so after a
meal you're going to have lots of glucose in your body and your body can't just
store that glucose as it is because glucose is highly soluble meaning that it has a
strong osmotic effect it draws water effectively into and out of cells so in this
case what happens when youve had lots of glucose in your diet your pancreas will
secrete the hormone insulin insulin causes the conversion of soluble glucose into
insoluble glycogen and that glycogen is stored in the liver

02:05:10
therefore decreasing blood glucose levels what happens if you haven't
eaten in a while this time your pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon the hormone
glucagon causes insoluble glycogen to be converted to soluble glucose and that
glucose is released into the blood therefore increasing blood glucose levels this
is yet another example of negative feedback when a change occurs processes are
brought about which oppose that change that was made so in the case of when you've
eaten lots of sugar processes occur to

02:05:40
decrease our blood sugar levels and then the opposite occurs if you
haven't eaten any sugar I've already outlined all the ways in which the kidneys are
super important because of their roles in osmo regulation and the excretion of Ura
but what happens when kidney failure occurs what are the various treatment options
available so you need to know about two treatment options number one is dialysis
and number two is a kidney transplant the way you can think of dialysis is that
it's a machine used to clean the

02:06:10
blood and by cleaning the blood I mean it's used to remove the Ura which
remember if allowed to build up becomes toxic so how does it work well the patient
first of all needs to have their blood remove from from their body the blood passes
through the machine and there's a semi-permeable membrane with a dialysis fluid
running alongside the important thing you need to know is that the dysis fluid
contains the same concentration of glucose ions and water as what's present in the
blood but the dialysis fluid contains no Ura so the

02:06:42
person's blood flows past the membrane and due to the fact that there's
no Ura in that dialysis fluid Ura leaves the person's blood by diffusion moving
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration the blood is
returned to the person's body this time with no Ura it's been effectively cleaned
because the concentration of glucose ions and water remains constant in the dysis
fluid it's the same level as that found within the person's blood none of those
things leave the person's

02:07:11
blood so that means that it gets returned when the blood passes back into
the person's body it's important that the glucose and ions don't leave because
after all glucose especially is needed for respiration in order to release energy
in cells anti-blood clotting chemicals are added to the blood as it enters the
dialysis machine to prevent clots blocking the machine it needs to be added at the
start of the process rather than at the end because after all you need the usual
clotting properties in the blood as it goes back into the

02:07:40
person's body now the thing about dialysis is it has to be carried out
several times a week it takes hours and hours so it really does affect the person's
quality of life it does lose effectiveness over time so it's not a super long-term
solution and a very careful control of diet is required you can't be eating too
much protein if you're going through dialysis the reason for that is because
remember through the process of deamination proteins are broken down the amine
group is remove from the amino acid Ura is produced you

02:08:10
really want to limit the quantity of Ura made so that's why a carefully
controlled diet is required the other issue with dialysis is because it involves
multiple puncturing of the skin this is a potential source of infection pathogen
entry may occur here so again not ideal the second option for someone with kidney
failure is a kidney transplant so this is when a healthy kidney is transplanted
into the person's body who's suffering with kidney failure the advantage here is
there's no need for dialysis it's a much better quality

02:08:43
of life it remains effective throughout however it does require the use
of immunosuppressant drugs in order to prevent our immune systems rejecting the new
kidney and there's always risks involved with operations although there's less
puncturing of skin it's not something which occurs constantly as is the case in
dialysis it's just one operation now kidneys tend to be donated more often than
other organs in the body the reason for that is because people are born with two
kidneys and they can function perfectly well with just one

02:09:12
kidney so it makes it more likely that a kidney will be donated but as
with all organ transplants the list of donors is never as high as the number of
people requiring a kidney transplant now to really unpick the role of the liver so
I've already mentioned the role of the liver in the digestive system is to produce
the substance bile remember bile emulsifies fats that means it breaks down large
fat droplets into smaller fat droplets increasing the surface area meaning that the
enzyme lipase can work more efficiently the

02:09:43
second role of bile is to neutralize acid which has been added in the
stomach meaning the enzymes added in the swan intestine aren't denatured the liver
also carries out deamination this means removing the Amin group from the amino
acids remember amino acids are produced from the breakdown of proteins excess
protein cannot be stored by the body so through a number of processes that protein
is broken down into amino acids and then finally the substance UA is made which
remember I said is excreted

02:10:12
in urine at the kidney another important role of the liver is to detoxify
particularly substances like alcohol the liver also helps to regulate the quantity
of glucose in the body remember I said that if you've had lots of glucose to eat
excess glucose can't be stored it needs to be converted into glycogen through the
action of the hormone insulin that insoluble glycogen is stored in the liver so
that's another role of the liver to store glycogen now the liver has an unusually
high rate of blood flow the reason for that is

02:10:41
because it receives blood from both the hepatic artery and the hepatic
portal vein which remers coming from the small intestine the liver is also a very
hardworking organ needing a rich supply of blood due to its roles in detoxification
and deamination if people drink too much alcohol several things can happen their
liver will become damaged it will struggle to detoxify substances like alcohol can
lead to scarring if there's lots and lots of drinking and this is known as curosis
there's an increased chance of gene

02:11:13
mutation leading to cancer and less bile will be produced by the liver as
a result you won't be able to neutralize stomach acid so well and your fat droplets
won't be broken down into small fat drop pletes effectively meaning that the
surface area to volume ratio of the fat droplet remains small so therefore the
enzyme lipase can't work as efficiently so effectively you can't digest fats as
well if your liver is damaged Now we move on to reproduction so first of all we
need to start with a sperm and an egg cell the sperm cell is

02:11:48
what we call the May gamet it is the male sex cell the egg cell is the
female gamet the female sex cell remember that sperm are made in the testes under
the control of the hormone testosterone EGS are made in the ovaries several
hormones are important here follicle stimulating hormone lutenizing hormone
estrogen and progesterone all play a role the moment that egg is released from the
ovary it then travels along the fallopian tube where it waits to be fertilized the
sperm enter the female's body during

02:12:18
copulation the sperm are deposited in the vagina the sperm swims through
the cervic up through the uterus where it fuses with the egg in the foping tube
this is the process of fertilization now do remember that sperm and egg cells are
both hloy they contain one set of chromosomes each the reason for that is that when
they fuse at fertilization that the first cell form the zygote contains a diploid
set of chromosomes it contains two sets of chromosomes so ensuring that the sperm
and the Egg have

02:12:49
half the number means that the Diplo number is restored when that pyote
is first formed in order to form our embryo the zygote must then divide the type of
cell division responsible for that is called mitosis so we'll go from two cells to
four cells to 8 cells 16 cells and so on meiosis is a different type of cell
division meiosis is used to produce the sperm and the egg cell so meiosis takes
place in the ovary and the testes meiosis is essential to this process because it
introduces variation it

02:13:19
ensures that every sperm and every egg is genetically different and
that's important when we consider The Offspring produced survival of the fittest
states that there will be variation within a population and those organisms better
adapted are more likely to survive so meiosis is one way of introducing variation
the other way is through random fertilization you do not know which egg is going to
fuse with which sper and this is why sexual reproduction has an advantage over
asexual reproduction because of the variation

02:13:48
produced it helps in a changing environment with asexual reproduction
when there's only the need of one parent all Offspring produced are genetically
identical to each other and their parent their clones although this is a super fast
reproduction method if conditions do change it does mean that it's likely that all
the organisms will die because none are better adapted to a particular environment
let's focus in on great detail as to the structure of the male and female
reproductive system so starting with the male reproductive

02:14:20
system my I've already mentioned you have the testes these are
responsible for spam production and it's under the influence of the hormone
testosterone there are two testes and and they're held in a sack of skin known as
the scrotum the purpose of the scrotum is to in effect hold those testes outside of
the body this helps to lower the temperature and it's that lower temperature which
is vital for healthy sperm development when that sperm is released it passes along
the sperm duct and various fluids are added from the

02:14:51
the prostate gland as well as the Salin or vesicles these provide
nutrients to help the sperm to swim the sperm then passes down a tube called the
urethra this will help convey that sperm as well as urine out of the male body so
the urethra is a tube which passes along the entire length of the penis and it
helps to convey sperm and urine out of the male body the penis as I've already said
it allows urine to exit the body it also in effect placees sperm within the vagina
of the woman during culation and

02:15:23
then lastly the epididimo this is responsible for storing sperm Now we
move on to the female reproductive system so we'll start with the ovaries the
ovaries make the eggs remember ovulation occurs which is the release of an egg from
the ovary which is under the control of the hormone LH lutenizing hormone the eggs
enter the floian tube the other name for the floian tube is the overd duct there
are small CIA here these are small hairs which help to move the egg down the
fallopian tube where it sits and waits for any sperm if

02:15:52
copulation sexual intercourse occurs while the egg is sitting in the flan
tube the person may become pregnant the zygote and and then the embryo forms and
the embryo implants in the wall of the uterus so the uterus is where your fetus
your embryo will grow for the 9 months which is the gestation period for a human
female gestation period just means how long she's pregnant for the role of the
cervix is to act as a boundary between the uterus and the vagina it holds the
growing Fe fetus in place and

02:16:22
forms the first part of the birth canal the vagina is where sperms
deposited during sexual intercourse it's also known as the birth canal because the
baby will have to pass down the vagina in order to exit out of the body females
also have a urethra which is a tube used to convey urine out of the body now we'll
talk a lot about the menstrual cycle now so this is a cycle lasting approximately
28 days it helps prepare the woman's body for potential pregnancy so we're going to
be talking a lot here about hormones so the first

02:16:54
hormone you need to be aware of is FSH follicle stimulating hormone as
the name suggests it stimulates the follicles these are the immature eggs found
within the ovary so in effect FSH matures the egg the next hormone that's important
is known as LH lutenizing hormone this causes ovulation the release of an egg from
the ovary in the meantime you've got estrogen levels increasing remember estrogen
is produced by the ovary estrogen's responsible for thickening that uterus lining
ready for implantation progesterone is produced by

02:17:28
both the ovary and the placenta later on in pregnancy this helps maintain
the thickness of the uterus lining LH and FSH are made remember in the py gland so
their source is actually the brain as well as its impact on the uterus lining
estrogen also has a role of inhibiting FSH and stimulating the release of LH
gestone has the role of inhibiting the release of FSH and LH and that makes sense
if you've already got a an embryo developing in the uterus the last thing you want
is more eggs maturing and being

02:17:59
released from the ovary now what happens if no sperm enters the vagina
the uterus lining is no longer needed it doesn't need to be thick anymore so
effectively it breaks down it is shed and this is what we call menstration and it's
the blood loss which is associated with a period so menstruation just means blood
loss it is the shedding of the uterus lining now the placenta is a hugely important
organ it develops while the fetus is developing inside the uterus it's an organ
supplying the fetus with

02:18:29
everything it needs for growth so it will supply oxygen needed for
respiration glucose again needed for respiration it will supply amino acids needed
to develop muscles within that fetus vitamins again needed for bone development so
that will be vitamin D as well as the calcium mineral ion the placenta is also
important for removing waste products produced by the fetus such as carbon dioxide
and Ura and the placenta is adapted in order to ensure the transfer of these
materials happens as efficiently as possible it has vli

02:19:00
which increased the surface area meaning that diffusion of substances can
occur much more quickly it also has a good blood supply lots of blood capillaries
and thin walls provide a short diffusion distance the amniotic fluid is found
within the amniotic sac and it bathes the growing fetus effectively acting as a
shock absorber meaning that the fetus is less vulnerable to any physical impact
what are the stages of birth well the amniotic sac tears meaning that the amniotic
fluid is released and that's

02:19:30
what we call the waters breaking the cervix dilates and that enables the
fetus to start its movement down the vagina through the birth canal the baby is
born and then there's the delivery of the afterbirth which is actually the placenta
leaving the woman's body cuz afterward she doesn't need it anymore the hormone
oxytocin is incredibly important in child birth it helps the uterus walls to
contract helping to deliver that fetus obviously there's lots of different ways to
feed the baby various advantages with breastfeeding

02:19:56
first of all breastfeeding is the total optimal food it provides all the
nutrients the glucose the amino acids in the exact right amounts for that growing
baby it also provides passive immunity this means the antibodies are transferred
from the mother to the baby giving protection against pathogens it's a good way for
the mother and baby to bond and it reduces the risk of diabetes and allergies later
in life stages of growth in the human lifespan so directly after birth there's a
huge increase in growth rate this is known as

02:20:30
the infant growth spurt the growth rate decreases slowly up until the age
of four obviously that infant's still growing and that growth rate slowly decreases
again up to the age of 10 and then as puberty hits there's another huge growth spur
this is known as the Adolescent growth spurt a person's growing is done by the time
they reach their late teens organs also grow at different rates you'll have organs
like the kidneys and liver which keep up with the overall growth rates reproductive
organ growth ratees is very slow from the ages

02:21:04
of 0er to around 13 and then as puberty hits due to the release of those
sex hormones you'll see a huge increase in growth rate in the reproductive organs
organs like the brain grow very quickly early on in childhood I'm sure you'll
notice that when babies are born they have a very large head the growth rate of the
head decreases in proportion whilst the length of the limbs increases in proportion
it's useful to measure growth ratees as a proportion of the whole body in babies
and that's to account for

02:21:34
differences in height you can't just say for one person oh their legs
aren't growing properly you need to look at their growth of their legs as a whole
compared with the rest of the body as opposed to compared to the rest of the
population because people simply are taller and shorter based on variation
percentile charts are used to check that a baby's growing healthily their weight is
regularly compared to the percentile chart and it helps doctors to work out if the
baby's growing too much in mass

02:22:00
or too little in Mass various methods of birth control so ways in which
you can prevent yourself from becoming pregnant so the simplest method is a barrier
method something like a condom or a femidom in the case of a condom a plastic
sheath worn over the penis it stops sperm reaching the egg other options include
oral contraceptive that means taking a pill these pills often contain estrogen and
progesterone because remember these hormones both inhibit FSH production without
FSH eggs can't mature hormone

02:22:32
injections and implants in your arm work in a similar way they release
estrogen and progesterone inhibiting FSH and preventing egg maturation then you've
got intrauterine devices such as the coil this is like a metal which is placed
inside the uterus it stops eggs implanting meaning that no fetus can develop the
Rhythm method simply means not having sexual intercourse when you're fertile so
when that egg's been released that method is really unreliable because everyone's
menstrual cycles vary in length people ovulate for

02:23:03
different lengths of time so it's not particularly recommended for a more
long-term approach you can have a hysterctomy or a visectomy a visectomy is when
the sperm ducts are tied a hysterctomy is when the overd ducts are cut both of
these stop sperm and eggs reaching various places it's quite hard to reverse both
the vasectomy and the hysterctomy remember when considering which method to use
things like condoms and fidom these are good because they stop sexually transmitted
diseases spreading whereas all contraceptives

02:23:34
will have no effect on STDs and then of course there's always abstinence
which means not having sex at all remember that with the exception of the
hysterctomy and vasectomy which tend to be 100% reliable the other methods can't be
guaranteed to avoid pregnancy with things like oral contraceptive it obviously
requires the woman to constantly remember to take her pill there can be various
side effects such as gaining weight mood swings and even an increased risk of blood
clots but again these are very unlikely side

02:24:02
effects so please don't stress some couples struggle to get pregnant and
they might need some fertility treatment to help them the most popular type of
fertility treatment is IVF which stands for inv vitro fertilization so what happens
is the woman is given injections containing LH and F the FSH causes her eggs to
mature and the LH causes ovulation so you get huge numbers of eggs developing these
eggs are harvested and placed in a Petri dish where semen is added from the male
partner fertilization may occur meaning

02:24:37
that embryos are formed and then those embryos are placed into the uterus
of the woman often several embryos are used so obviously this is a great option for
people struggling to get pregnant it does have a relatively High access rate but it
is stressful it's not guaranteed and it does involve the women in particular to
receive lots of injections the risk of multiple births has increased due to the
implantation of several embryos but several embryos do need to be placed inside the
uterus to increase the chance of

02:25:07
success we now turn our attention to the hereditary topics so genetics we
need to start by going through a whole list of various definitions and it is
important that you know the meaning of all these terms so you can apply these
things to the questions when you're asked so starting with an alel an alel is a
form of a gene such as having blue eyes or brown eyes they're both alals for eye
color they're given by letters so blue eyes being a recessive trait will have a
lowercase b denoting it brown eyes being

02:25:38
 a dominant trait will have a large uppercase B denoting it a gene is a
section of DNA which codes for particular protein the genotype is the alos
belonging to an organism you'll have two alos so if you have brown eyes for example
you could be uppercase B uppercase B blue eyes would be lowercase b lowercase b but
that is your genotype whereas your phenotype is is the physical appearance of a
trait so that is whether you have brown eyes or blue eyes it is not the same as the
genotype make sure you're clear on that and we

02:26:09
will look at some past paper questions to help you here homozygous means
that you have two of the same alios such as two lowercase bees or two uppercase
bees heterozygous means that you have two different alos such as a capital b and a
lowercase b a recessive trait the alol are only expressed in the homozygous state
that means you need lowercase b lowercase b as soon as that uppercase B is present
then the dominant trait would be expressed dominant is when only one copy of an
alel is needed to express a

02:26:39
particular trait this is different to codominance where both Al are
present in the phenotype a good example here is the Snapdragon plant if you have a
red Snapdragon flower a white Snapdragon flower rather than one color being
dominant over the other what would happen is that both alol would contribute to the
phenotype and in this case you'd see a pink flower moving on to hloy and diploid
hloy means containing only one set of chromosomes in humans this is 23 chromosomes
diploid means containing two sets of chromosomes

02:27:11
in humans this is 46 monohybrid inheritance means that one gene is
responsible for a particular phenotype polygenic inheritance means that poly many
genes are responsible for a phenotype and in actuality that does tend to be the
case for most traits in most cases many genes contribute to a particular phenotype
so let's take a simple genetic cross a hetus brown eyed mother and homozygous
blueeyed father want a baby what is the probability that their baby will have blue
eyes so we're going to use the following

02:28:12
layout in order to make sure we answer this properly please don't rush
this you want to write Mother Father phenotype genotype gametes so this is the
preparation you do in order to make sure that you get your punet Square nice and
accurate so set yourself up like this you should have plenty of space in the exam
to do this now look at the clues given in the question we're going to use B to
represent eye color so we know that we have a heterozygous brown eyed mother the
fact that it's heterozygous means

02:28:48
that the genotype must contain one uppercase B and one lowercase b we
know that the father is homozygous and blueeyed blue remember is a recessive trait
homozygous means that those Ali are the same so there's the father's genotype we're
now ready to write down the answers in our table so the phenotype of the mother is
that she has brown eyes CU remember phenotype is the physical appearance the father
has blue eyes Now list the genotype we know the mother I've already worked out is
capital B lowercase b father is
 02:29:23
lowercase b lowercase b the gamt this means the mother's sex cells so
this is the egg cells her egg cells will either have a big b alal or a lowercase b
alal the father sperm all going to be that lowercase alio this means you're now
ready to set up your planet Square so so it should look something like this just
list those Al again it's up to you if you Circle them give yourself plenty of space
and the Panet Square will enable you to work out the possible likelihood of that
baby having blue eyes so just

02:30:11
list the various genotypes and you should give yourself space to list the
phenotypes underneath so this baby here will be brown eyed this one will be
blueeyed brown eyed blue eyes so in terms of answering the question our probability
is that there's a 0.5 chance of the baby having blue eyes although percentages
aren't technically probability you'd also get away in biology with writing 50%
chance or one in two chance but it's it's important that you do this because these
questions tend to be worth around four marks and that will

02:30:54
enable you to get the marks for linking the various phenotypes and
genotypes at the end so I do implore that you spend the time writing this out
properly let's take an example now involving cystic fibrosis so we have a carrier
mother and a carrier father of cystic fibrosis cystic fibrosis is a nasty disease
caused by the recessive alio I'm going to call that c so in order to have cystic
fibrosis you need two lowercase C's so the carrier mother automatically tells me
that her genotype must look like this the same for the

02:31:33
father it's because they contain that lowercase alol which is responsible
for causing cystic fibrosis but because it's a recessive disease they've got this
healthy alol which luckily for the carriers means they don't suffer with any of the
effects but if we actually have a look at the cross this time we're going to use
the exact same layout as before Mother Father venot type genotype gamt like I said
it works every time so you can write healthy or Carrier here it's up to you I've
already worked

02:32:10
out the genotypes so half of those egg cells will be healthy half will
contain that lowercase C same for the sperm and then if we look at the planet
Square that's a healthy child here is a carrier still healthy though it's that
final child here which will have cystic fibrosis we can say that these ones here
are carriers and that this one's entirely healthy so it's 25% chance or 0.25 chance
of having cystic fibrosis I've already said that a diploid number of chromosomes
means 23 pairs of chromosomes one pair is actually known

02:32:58
as the sex chromosomes and this determines whether someone is male or
female males have an XY sex chromosome combination females have an XX chromosome
combination and it's possible to do a genetic cross to show this let's now look at
sex inheritance so we know that the mother is going to be female the father is male
male I've already said that the sex chromosomes in females is XX males it's XY so
that means all of the females eggs will contain an X half of the male sperm will be
female the other half will be male
 02:33:34
because they'll contain a y and again you're ready to get going so this
baby here will be female this baby here will be female this baby here will be male
this baby here will be male hence why there is a 50/50 chance of having a girl
versus a boy pedigree analysis is used to show how a particular genetic condition
is passed on from generation to generation they are in effect family trees so you
will have the grandparent level the parent level the grandchild level and you'll be
able to see a male and a female and the

02:34:15
children they produce and then using the key you'll understand whether
they have a particular condition or not the great thing about pedigree analysis or
pedigree tree is it allows you to work out whether a particular condition is a
recessive or dominant condition so for example if two healthy parents and you'll be
able to use the key to work out if they're healthy or not have a child with the
condition it tells you that the condition is recessive and that both parents must
have been carriers that's the only thing that can be true

02:34:44
if they're both healthy but their child has the condition equally you'll
be able to work out based on the number of people suffering from a particular
disorder whether it's a dominant condition or not based on how many people have it
in that pedigree tree and we'll look at an example now to really take you through
step by step so you can work out the sort of thinking you'll need to unpick these
questions familial hypocholesterolemia FH is an inherited condition caused by a
dominant alal people with the condition have high

02:35:15
levels of cholesterol in their blood and this increases the risk of dying
from blocked arteries the diagram shows the pattern of inheritance in several
generations of her family with FH so as I said here's the all important key down
here that will tell you that all the squares are males all the circles are females
if it's shaded in then they must have the disease if it's blank then they are
healthy so the first thing you want to do is work out what genotypes would be
required to cause FH we know it's a

02:35:45
dominant condition which means that either this combination or this
combination will cause the disease FH the only way you can be healthy is to have
the recessive genotype which looks like this it's very important that you get to
grips of what the information is telling you so if we look at part a person a is
heterozygous for FH use this information to complete the table so we've been told
that this person has two different Ali we can immediately label all of the
unaffected healthy people's genotypes because I've

02:36:18
already said they must be lowercase H lowercase H so we're being asked
how many people are homozygous recessive homozygous means they have two of the same
Al recessive tells me that they're both lowercase so then it's simply a matter of
just counting up all of the homozygous recessive people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
what about homozygous dominant homozygous two of the same alel dominant tells me
that they're both Capital H so now we need to work this out this daughter here has
the disease we know that she'll have only
 02:36:59
got a low case h from her mom what about this son over here same setup he
has the disease so he must be uppercase but he's got that lowercase H from his mom
and you just keep working it down look it's the same combination here so I can
immediately write that Alo combination that genotype then working down to person n
they'll have inherited the lowercase H from their mom the uppercase H from their
dad in order to have the disease the same is true for all three Offspring so
actually if you sit back and look how many people

02:37:34
have this genotype while the answer here is zero person G and person H
have three children who all have FH what is the probability of G and H having three
children who all have FH so G and H are here let's do a super quick Panet Square to
work out the answer to this so This these two people here will be diseased so 0.5
chance of having the disease because they have this genotype so in order to work
out the chance of them all having FH because it's probability in Mass remember if
it's person one and person 2 and person

02:38:24
3 you need to multiply that probability three times to get 0.125 as your
answer some disorders are Sex Link which means that the Alo for the particular
trait is located on the sex chromosome so that would be the XX chromosomes in
females the XY chromosomes in males and you often find that with Sex Link
characteristics they're more common in one sex compared with another for example
Red Green color blindness is way more common in men compared with women most
sexlink diseases are actually located on the X chromosome the reason

02:38:56
for that is because the Y chromosome is much shorter and therefore has
comparatively fewer genes located on it just think about the length of an X and A Y
in the alphabet and you'll see that the x is longer X link dominant traits are more
common in females and there's quite an obvious reason for this is because they have
two X chromosomes which means they have two alol so either alel may be dominant and
cause disease so it doesn't matter if it's homozygous or heterozygous if it's
dominant it will

02:39:23
cause the disease in the female whereas XL recessive traits are much more
common in males the reason for that is they have only one X chromosome and
therefore there's no potential for masking by another Ali because quite simply it
doesn't exist on the Y chromosome if they have that copy even if it's that
lowercase Ali or the recessive trait the fact that they don't have a dominant aliel
on another X chromosome to mask that means that they'll suffer from the disease so
we can make the following conclusion that for sexlink diseases

02:39:51
it's only possible for females to be carriers males always inherit their
EXL Alo from their mother and females cannot inherit their exlink Alo from an
unaffected father red green color blindness is a recessive sexlink disorder the
alop for color blindness is located on the X chromosome a heterozygous female has a
child with a normal cited male what are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of
The Offspring so we're going to go female male this setup works for all questions
phenotype genotype gametes so we've been told that red

02:40:38
green color blindness is recessive so in order to have the disease for
the female they need to have this alol combination this genotype so we know based
on the fact that they have this ocas that they must have normal vision we've been
told that the male is normal sighted so I can write that here the genotype they've
already given to us what are the gametes so we'll just separate those nice and
carefully now we can draw Planet Square so now we're ready to list our possible
outcomes for these Offspring okay so in terms of we're

02:41:43
going to have a female here with normal vision here here's a male with
normal vision because they have that uppercase C here's a female normal vision
technically this one's a carrier but then this one down here is a male with color
blindness because they have that lowercase C responsible for the red green color
blindness so in terms of outcomes it's 0.25 chance of being a male that's color
blind we're now going to move on to discuss hemophilia now hemophilia is a blood
clotting disorder is caused by a recessive Alo

02:42:50
that recessive alol is located on the X chromosome only so it is a
sexlink disease because it's located on the X chromosome so if we consider various
genotypes there's a female that will be healthy here's a female that again will be
healthier but a carrier due to the presence of that alol there which remember is
the recessive Al or responsible for hemophilia here's a male that will be healthy
and here's a male that will have the disease and that's due to this lowercase H
here and remember we said that the alol

02:43:41
for hemophilia is only located on the X chromosome so that's how I can
infer all these things now let's look at a planet Square cross hemophilia is a
blood clotting disorder caused by a recessive alol found only on the X chromosome a
man needs to inherit only one alol to have the disease what is the probability of a
male hemophiliac and a female carrier having a hemophilic child so ready to go
again so male has the disease female is healthy we can infer that from the wording
of the question the genotype so

02:44:24
here is the sex chromosomes for the man we know that he's a hemophiliac
which means he must have that lowercase H in order to have the disease remember
that alio will only be located on the X chromosome the female we've been told is a
carrier there's her female sex chromosomes for her to be a carrier she'll need that
genotype so we've done all the hard work let's do the planet Square now so this is
a female healthy carrier this is a male who's healthy this is a female with the
disease and this is a male with the

02:45:27
disease Huntington's career is a dominant genetic condition that results
in the nervous system not working correctly it is not a Sex Link condition diagram
one shows a family pedigree some members of the family have the condition remember
to use that key so we can see straight away here we have a healthy male a diseased
female healthy male female healthy male diseased female healthy male diseased male
evaluate the evidence in the pedigree that supports the statement that this is not
a sexlink condition it's because if you consider

02:46:03
the individuals which are affected three of them are female two of them
are male so we can make the point first of all it's not a Sex Link condition
because it appears in both males and females in similar numbers evaluate the
evidence in the pedigree to support the statement that this is a dominant condition
so dominant means that you would expect to see lots of sufferers and indeed you see
people suffering in an every generation you could even work out some of the
genotypes so we'll use H to represent

02:46:40
that woman there must be large H lowercase H the reason I know that is
because her partner here is definitely lowercase lowercase because he doesn't have
the disease and if you look at their children we can see that this male here
doesn't have the disease this female does this male doesn't this male does So based
on that we know therefore that she must have passed on her Capital H so we can see
that the disease is present in heterozygotes because she is a heterozygote and that
only one alel is needed for a person to be affected by

02:47:14
this awful disease so we write here that the condition is present in the
heterozygote so only one alel is needed and some children from affected and
unaffected parents as in the case of that first generation are affected whilst some
are not a man has the same genotype as person one in the pedigree in diagram one
let's have a look at person one so that person down here we know they're unaffected
which means there must be lowercase H lowercase H just making notes to myself a
woman has the same genotype as person

02:48:30
3 let's look at person three because person 3 is healthy they must also
be lowercase AG lowercase AG these two people are expecting a child calculate the
probability that the child would be a boy not showing the Huntington's condition
giving reasons for your an so we just need to draw out everything I was doing
before so we have a mother and a father phenotype this will become all our Reasons
by laying it out like this so we know they're healthy we know their genotypes are
this which means their gamt must be

02:49:13
this we don't even really need to do a punet square because we can see
that there'll be 100% this which is healthy Heth which in probability terms means a
1.0 and then this thing about having a boy remember there's a 0.5 chance of having
a boy 0.5 chance of having a girl so because it's probability and you need both to
be true that they're healthy and a boy you multiply the two together based on
Math's probability and the answer here is 0.5 a man has the same genotype as person
to right so we are looking at

02:49:46
this person down here we need to work backwards we know that this man up
here must be lowercase H lowercase H this guard down here must be lowercase H
lowercase H which means this woman here must be Capital H lowercase H in order to
pass on the healthy Al to this girl but the unhealthy alio to this boy so I can
immediately discern that that is number two's genotype so we'll steal that and then
what about the woman that has the same genotype as person three I've already worked
that out it's lowercase H lowercase

02:50:26
H explain the possible phenotypes and genotypes with respect to the
Huntington's condition of any Offspring they produce so again we can use our layout
so we're going to have man woman phenotype genotype git so we know that this person
here here is has the disease this person is healthy sort out your gamet draw your
pet Square so there's Offspring one so we can see that there's a 50% chance of
being healthy make sure you list that genot type 50% chance of having the disease
the disease topic a pathogen is

02:51:31
the microorganism which causes disease two types of disease include
communicable diseases and non-communicable diseases now communicable diseases may
be transmitted from one person to another and they are caused by pathogens
pathogens include microorganisms like bacter Bia viruses and fungi non-communicable
diseases cannot be transmitted from one person to another and they are not caused
by pathogens there are various stages involved in the course of a disease first
step is infection this is when the

02:52:03
pathogen enters the host the second stage is incubation when the pathogen
reproduces inside the host organism and then the third stage is symptoms which is
when the pathogen damages cells and produces toxins which is responsible for making
the individual feel unwell why don't you tend to feel the symptoms of a pathogen as
soon as they enter your body well first up only few pathogens enter in the first
place it takes time for them to reproduce known as the incubation time and it's
only when you have large numbers of pathogens that you

02:52:32
can really feel the symptoms of the disease they cause I've already said
that a virus is an example of a pathogen remember viruses are non-living they don't
obey Mrs hren they don't respire they don't carry out homeostasis they're not
sensitive Etc but if you think about the structure of a virus it can consists of a
protein coat which surrounds either RNA or DNA the protein coat sometimes has
protein spikes on the outside of it and enzymes are present such as reverse
transcriptase which is present in the

02:53:00
HIV virus that causes DNA to be made from RNA another category virus is
the RNA virus this consists of RNA it contains no DNA whatsoever remember that
viruses are known as parasites this is because they infect a host and always cause
harm to them it's much more difficult to study viruses compared with bacteria
simply because viruses are much smaller and have far less complex Machinery
compared with a bacterial cell the fact that a virus always has to reproduce inside
a host Al also makes it difficult to study them so we've said

02:53:31
that viruses don't obey Mrs H Grand remember to watch the start of my
all-in-one video if you're not sure what I mean by that so how do viruses replicate
well first of all viruses must infect the host organism the virus particles attach
to a host cell and inject either their RNA or DNA into the host cell that will
depend on on the type of virus they are the virus RNA or DNA is incorporated into
the host's own DNA and as the host replicates its own DNA it replicates the viral
RNA or DNA protein synthesis occurs that is

02:54:01
required in order to make more protein coats for the viruses lots of new
viruses are produced there's Lis of the host cell which means that it bursts open
and viral particles are released into the rest of the body lots of diseases are
caused by viruses examples include polio measles mums and rebella HIV which which
stands for human immuno deficiency virus this causes the disease AIDS as well as
the common cold Eola is also caused by a virus if we turn our attention to Eola now
let's talk about the various ways in which it may be

02:54:33
transmitted it's through bodily fluids so that could be saliva blood
semen and feces if you come into contact with any of these bodily fluids that
contain Ebola you may get the disease various symptoms occur when you're infected
with ebola including diarrhea muscle pain internal and external bleeding and that's
one of the horrific symptoms of Ebola is bleeding from your orifices so that could
be your eyes your ears your anus it's very difficult to prevent the spread of Ebola
One Way includes using

02:55:02
disinfectant to clean surfaces to avoid contact with an infected person
if the person dies is to ensure safe burial isolated burial so people can't come in
contact and to wear protective goggles and clothing unfortunately there's no
effective vaccine against Ebola oral rehydration therapy May assist with the
symptoms the reason for this is because a person suffering from Ebola does get
diarrhea and vomiting so oral rehydration therapy can help replace any lost fluids
and salts the reservoir of a

02:55:32
pathogen is an organism which carries the pathogen without suffering any
symptoms a good example is bats which are reservoir of the Ebola virus so they
carry the Ebola virus without suffering any ill effects more detail now on HIV
which I've told you stands for human imuno deficiency virus later on this can cause
the disease AIDS which stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome so what
happens with HIV is the HIV virus infects lymphocytes the virus itself contains
reverse transcripts so although the virus

02:56:05
contains RNA as opposed to DNA the reverse transcriptase enzymes causes
the host cell to make viral DNA from its RNA the type of cell infected is known as
a lympocytes pathogens and the specific type of lymphocytic is known as tper cells
when the reverse transcriptase causes viral DNA to be made from RNA that DNA is
incorporated into the tper cell's DNA the HIV virus then instructs the T helper
cell to make HIV proteins and then as a result the HIV proteins and RNA are
assembled into more virus

02:56:41
particles that when the cell undergo Lis it bursts open and release them
into the bloodstream so how may HIV be transmitted while through bodily fluids so
unprotected sex the transfer of seamen using dirty unclean needles as the blood
Harbors HIV virus and if you're really unlucky infected blood transfusions
initially the symptoms are very mild they're flu like it takes quite a large number
of years for the disease aids to develop the real issue with AIDS is because the
virus infects tea helper cells which are lymphocytes

02:57:13
remember I said that forms part of the body's response against pathogens
so it means that if you get infected with the common cold your body is less able to
fight it and that's what actually causes the death of AIDS patients is the buildup
of all these other diseases which can't be fought against effectively to avoid the
transmission of HIV condom should be worn clean needles should be used and blood
transfusions must be screened to make sure they don't contain any pathogens
antiviral drugs can be used to prevent transmission of

02:57:44
HIV and to slow the development of AIDS there is no current vaccine
available moving on to a different type of pathogen now the bacterial cell remember
these are procaryotic because they do not contain a distinct nucleus instead they
contain a nucleoid which contains the cell's DNA they also have small Circles of
DNA known as plasmids bacterial cells are much larger than viruses they have
cytoplasm which contains water and dissolved substances they have a cell membrane
that allows the entry and exit of substances they

02:58:14
have a cell wool made of Pepto glycon they have a slime capsule which
helps protect the cell ribosomes enable protein synthesis and a flagellum is a
small tail used to help the bacterial cell move now bacterial cells use binary
fishion to reproduce they can't use mitosis the reason for that is because they
have no nucleus so how does binary fishing work well the bacterial plasmids and
nucleoids replicate the cell membrane grows between the DNA copies the cytoplasm
divides and new cell walls form and two daughter cells are formed

02:58:49
each with nucleoid a piece as as well as many new plasmids now in terms
of how bacteria reproduce and how they grow they'll follow a specific bacterial
growth curve which starts with the lag phase this is when there are small numbers
of bacterial cells present due to the bacteria adjusting to their new environment
so you'll see a slow rate of growth the growth phase known as the exponential phase
you'll see rapid increase in bacterial numbers as they are now used to their new
environment and they have a plentiful supply of

02:59:18
oxygen nutrients then the stationary phase occurs when amount of
replication equals the death rate of the bacteria and then finally the death phase
where bacterial numbers rapidly drop off due to a buildup of toxins and the fact
that they're running out of oxygen and nutrients you see Mass death of the bacteria
in the death phase you may be aware that antibiotics are only effective against
bacteria they don't work against viruses and that's because of the way in which the
antibiotics work now antibiotics work on the bacteria

02:59:46
cell wall they cause it to burst open by osmosis because the viruses have
a protein coat antibiotics are ineffective against them it's possible to discern
how effective antibiotics are by using a petri dish so in this case you have an
aseptic technique which means it will be sterilized there'll be no bacteria present
you then use a swab or an inoculating Loop to swab the AAR jelly with your
bacterial sample you place your antibiotic discs on the petri dish and then you
seal your dish with tape the anti stics which are most effective

03:00:20
against the bacteria will see the largest clearance Zone around them and
you can actually measure that with a ruler find out the diameter of the clearance
Zone and use P pi r squ to work out the zone of inhibition the larger the zone of
inhibition the more effective the antibiotic because it's killed all the bacteria
present the AAR jelly provides nutrients you need sterile conditions to prevent the
growth of pathogenic bacteria so bacteria that you don't want present in your
experiment you're going to incubate your

03:00:47
Petri a suitable temperature such as 25° C which enables your bacterial
swab to replicate nice and quickly a very nasty disease now chera caused by the
bacterium vrio Chlor how chor spread is through infected feces so someone suffering
from the disease poops and their feces go into water and then if you drink any
water with those species in it you are likely to get chalera the problem with Chola
is that it causes super intense diarrhea to the point where you produce stalls
called rice water stalls they're very

03:01:24
characteristic white and cloudy and color the person becomes massively
dehydrated and that's actually what causes their death to avoid getting color you
obviously need to be drinking clean water water which doesn't contain the bacterium
good sanitation methods need to be used where that sewage is appropriately treated
and you need to wash your hands after using the bathroom treatment options include
antibiotics used to kill the bacteria and or rehydration therapy used to replace
lost salts and water from the chronic

03:01:53
diarrhea gonorrhea is an STI a sexually transmitted infection it's caused
by a bacteria and it spread through unprotected sex so a good way to avoid getting
gonia is by using condoms which provide a barrier symptoms include discharge from
the penis whilst urinating and if it gets so bad you can actually lead to
infertility anyone suffering from gonera is often given antibiotics seeing as that
it's a bacterial disease athletes foot is caused by a fungus this is transmitted on
wet changing rooms so you'll find

03:02:23
that people who swim a lot might suffer from athletes foot more than most
you end up with sore red patches usually found on your feet that's due to your feet
coming into contact with those wet changing room floors to avoid athletes foot
changing rooms should be dry you should avoid walking with your bare feet on them
keep your toenail short and use antifungal powders and creams in order to treat the
disease because athletes foot is caused by a fungi antibiotics are not an effective
treatment option

03:02:53
 here we're now moving on to malaria malaria is caused by a protoc called
plasmodium it involves a vector the word Vector is used to describe anything used
to transfer biological material such as the bacterial plasmid used in genetic
engineering to manufacture insulin such as in the disease malaria the mosquito is
the vector because it transmits the protus the plasmodium to The Host the human
malaria is a dreadful disease it causes millions of deaths even if it doesn't kill
you it causes such long-term illness that people are unable

03:03:26
to work which really affects the economy most of the avoidance of malaria
comes from making sure the mosquito doesn't bite you doesn't infect you with the
plasmodium so how can you avoid that through use of mosquito repellent sprays by
wearing clothing to avoid the bites sleeping under mosquito Nets and night again to
avoid bites you want to drain any stagnant water because this is a place where
mosquitoes will reproduce insectoid may be used to kill the mosquito and
antimalarial tablets may be

03:03:55
used to kill the protest itself there's no current vaccine for malaria
although antimalarial drugs may be used to prevent the pathogen reproducing within
the body another option is using sterile mosquitoes these are mosquitoes which are
unable to reproduce therefore preventing the spread of malaria in this way because
there are fewer mosquitoes to bite people and pass on the plasmodium typhoid
another water born disease it's caused by bacterial cell again it's spread in the
feces of infected people which enters the water

03:04:24
supply to avoid the spread clean water should be drunk hands should be
washed after using the bathroom and there's actually an effective vaccine which
stops you getting infected with the typhoid bacterium for people suffering from
typhoid oral rehydration therapy may be used as well as antibiotics due to it being
caused by bacterium house flies have got a bad name for themselves in the spread of
typhoid because they land on the feces of an infected person they pick up that
typhoid bacterium on their feet and then they land on food

03:04:52
being left out on the side transmitting the bacterium in this way
therefore food should be covered so the bacterial cell the virus the protocast has
entered our bodies how does our body act to fight against them well first of all
the lymphocytes detect the antigens on the pathogen they produce antibodies to help
kill the pathogen some of the lymphocytes turn into memory cells this means that
upon re-entry of that pathogen memory cells can produce lymphocytes in a huge
quantity meaning the antibodies can be produced faster

03:05:24
sooner and in greater quantity in order to destroy the pathogen before it
takes hold antibodies are highly specific that's because they have a variable
region on them which binds directly to the antigen on the pathogen the variable
region is complimentary in shape to the antigen through binding of the antibodies
it causes the pathogen to stick together making it more easily recognizable by Ayes
which then secrete digestive enzymes and engulf the pathogen the antibodies also
produce antitoxins against the toxins produced
 03:05:56
by the pathogen and they can even cause the pathogen to burst open if you
want a more active approach to avoid getting ill in the first place you might
choose to have a vaccine a vaccine is an injection containing a dead or weakened or
attenuated form of the pathogen what happens when that pathogen enters the body it
doesn't make you sick because it's dead or weakened but your antibodies respond to
the anti on the pathogen the lymphocytes produce memory cells so that upon re-entry
of that pathogen antibodies can be made again

03:06:25
much sooner much faster and in much greater quantity so vaccines are an
excellent way of protecting yourself against a particular disease herd immunity is
all about giving a large number of the population a particular vaccine this reduces
the number of potential hosts that can be infected by a pathogen reducing the
chance of this pathogen being transmitted there's far less chance of a
nonvaccinated person coming in contact with the particular pathogen when her
immunity has been used effectively talking specifically about

03:06:58
vaccines SOI said some vaccines contain a Dead version of the pathogen
such as in the case of hooping cough some contain a weakened form of the pathogens
such as the case of TB and measles whilst other vaccines simply contain the
antigens of the pathogen such as the case of the influenza vaccine now to to
discuss the difference between active immunity and passive immunity active immunity
is when our body makes the antibodies itself and that comes about due to infection
by a pathogen or due to a vaccine but either

03:07:31
way your lymphocytes will respond to the antigens present on the pathogen
they'll produce memory cells which upon re-entry of that pathogen make a huge
number of antibodies super quickly this is called active immunity because it's our
bodies producing the antibodies a second type of immunity is passive immunity this
is different this is when antibodies are transferred into our body it could be
through breast milk when a baby breastfeeds antibodies passed from the mother to
the baby it could even be

03:08:04
while the mother is pregnant remember the placenta transfers antibodies
from the mother's blood to the baby's blood giving them protection from pathogens
but the key thing with passive immunity is that no antibodies are made by the
person and as a result passive immunity gives you only short-term immunity as
opposed to active immunity which gives you long-term immunity we now need to
distinguish between artificial and natural immunity so artificial as the name
suggests is really vaccines it's when you inject

03:08:37
that weakened dead form of the pathogen into your body which causes the
response which I've mentioned many times now natural immunity occurs when a person
has become naturally infected with a particular pathogen when they've been exposed
for example to the TB bacterium but as with both the pathogen will be recognized by
the lymphocytes memory cells will be made large numbers of antibodies will be
produced upon re-entry of the particular pathogen let's consider how someone
suffering from Ebola may be treated
 03:09:13
let's take a person who has successfully recovered from Ebola this means
that their blood will naturally contain memory cells that recognize the Abola virus
what happens then if you give a person who's suffering from Eola blood from the
person that's recovered it means that the blood they receive contains memory cells
which will respond to Eola those memory cells will produce lymphocytes which make
loads and loads of antibodies which will attack the Ebola virus in the person
suffering therefore killing that Ebola virus this

03:09:44
is a much quicker way of fighting the Ebola virus it doesn't require the
person's body to have to take the time to produce the appropriate antibodies and
this is currently a more effective treatment option than taking medicine so as I've
already said antibiotics are highly effective against bacteria because they cause
damage to the bacteria cell wall which causes the cell to burst open through the
movement of water by osmosis but where do we get our antibiotics from well two
places really fungi and other bacteria un

03:10:17
fortunately we're finding increasingly that the antibiotics we use to
treat bacterial diseases are no longer effective they are no longer killing the
diseases of old but why is that it's because the bacteria are mutating this is an
example of natural selection of course meaning that some bacteria survive they're
no longer killed by the antibiotic and because they survive they reproduce and
before long the whole bacterial population is now resistant to particular
antibiotic the reasons why antibiotic resistance is on the

03:10:49
increases for the following reasons people aren't completing their course
the antibiotics are being overprescribed particularly in agriculture you find that
antibiotics are given to animals even when they're not sick and antibiotics are
being given in cases when they're not even supposed to be used remember I said the
antibiotics are ineffective against viruses one such antibiotic resistance case
which has been in the news a lot is MRSA now MRSA stands for methylin resistance
staff cus orius stafler cus orius is the name of a

03:11:21
bacteria which usually doesn't cause that much harm that much concern and
that's because the antibiotic methylin has historically always been very good at
killing this particular bacteria however due to all the reasons I've just outlined
we're finding that that stafler caurus is no longer being killed by the methylin
and this bacteria which previously was fairly harmless is now actually causing
deaths of people in hospital and the reason for that is because people in hospital
often have operations they have open wounds and

03:11:52
this is a place where that bacteria can enter the body and cause much
more damage the MRSA is very difficult to treat now many antibiotics are
ineffective against it so it's becoming a real problem in hospitals so how can we
prevent antibiotic resistance well it's the sort of things I've just been
discussing only giving antibiotics when absolutely essential making sure that
patients complete the course of antibiotics they shouldn't cease to take the
antibiotics as soon as they start feeling better because there might be
 03:12:21
some bacteria still surviving and these ones are more likely to mutate
and become resistant so patients must finish their course of antibiotics we should
be avoiding using antibiotics in agriculture particularly when it comes to giving
them to healthy animals and it's obvious but we need to have high hygiene levels in
hospitals as I've said repeatedly antibiotics do not work against viruses obviously
we need to develop antiv but this is nowhere near a straightforward because the
viruses infect our own cells

03:12:52
so it's hard to try and kill the virus without causing harm to the host
cell decomposers are microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi which feed on dead
materials and decomposers have a huge role to play in treatment of sewage remember
seage is human waste the first step in sewage treatment is filtration this is used
to remove large particles sedimentation then occurs this allows tiny particles to
settle out aerobic BAC Bia and fungi oxidize any organic material anerobic bacteria
digest waste sludge methane gas is produced methane

03:13:26
is an example of a biog gas remaining leftovers can be used as fertilizer
and then chlorination is an essential process this means adding chlorine to our
water to make sure it's safe to drink as it kills any pathogens present so I've
just described the treatment steps involved in a modern sewage treatment plant but
what about a pit latrine as the name suggests a pit latrine is a simple hole in the
ground which was used for hundreds if not thousands of years previously so a hole
is dug in the ground over a sunken pit

03:13:55
urine and feces drop into the hole and are broken down by microorganisms
fly screens stop pesky flies reaching the feces and urine and that therefore is
important to reduce the transmission of disease because remember I said if flies
land on feces containing the choler typhoid bacteria then they go and land on human
food this is a very easy way that typhoid and Chola May transmitted if surage
doesn't go after seage treatment works and isn't properly handled and say it washes
into surrounding water sources like rivers

03:14:25
and streams what happens then is there's a huge increase in organic
material in the rivers because the seage contains a lot of nitrates actually causes
Alo Bloom so the algae in the water grow hugely they block the light for the
aquatic plants meaning that the plants die due to a lack of oxygen this provides
food for bacteria so the bacterial numbers increase increase and because they
aerobically respire they use a P that oxygen in the water meaning that it becomes
anoxic lacking an oxygen so fish and other aquatic organisms

03:14:54
can't survive and remember as well that seage contains an awful lot of
bacteria in its own right and this can actually increase the bacterial load so much
in the rivers that that kills the fish directly right that brings us to the end of
this all-in-one video I hope you found it super helpful it was a huge undertaking
for me so please comment below if you find it helpful do give it a like remember if
you've enjoyed the wording you like how concise and exam driven my answers are you
can find all this and

03:15:24
More in my online revision guide available to purchase on the website swh
learning. co.uk [Music]